Organization Development E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: The Jossey-Bass Business and Management Reader
- Sprache: Englisch
This is the third book in the Jossey-Bass Reader series, Organization Development: A Jossey-Bass Reader. This collection will introduce the key thinkers and contributors in organization development including Ed Lawler, Peter Senge, Chris Argyris, Richard Hackman, Jay Galbraith, Cooperrider, Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Bolman & Deal, Kouzes & Posner, and Ed Schein, among others. "Without reservations I recommend this volume to those students of organizational behavior who want an encyclopedia of OD to gain a perspective on the past, present, and future...." Jonathan D. Springer of the American Psychological Association.
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Seitenzahl: 1912
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Foreword: Observations on the State of Organization Development
SOME HISTORICAL NOTES
SOME CURRENT OBSERVATIONS
Introduction
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
About the Editor
PART ONE: The OD Field: Setting the Context, Understanding the Legacy
CHAPTER ONE: What Is Organization Development?
SOME OPERATIONAL GOALS IN AN ORGANIZATION-DEVELOPMENT EFFORT
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATION-DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS
KINDS OF ORGANIZATION CONDITIONS THAT CALL FOR OD EFFORTS
CHAPTER TWO: Where Did OD Come From?
SENSITIVITY TRAINING
SOCIOTECHNICAL SYSTEMS
SURVEY FEEDBACK
THEORETICAL ROOTS
INDIVIDUAL PERSPECTIVE
GROUP PERSPECTIVE
TOTAL SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE
SUMMARY
CHAPTER THREE: Revolutions in OD: The New and the New, New Things
BACK TO THE FUTURE: OD AT BEN & JERRY’S
OLD-FASHIONED AND NEWFANGLED OD
EVOLUTION VERSUS REVOLUTION IN OD
NEW THEORY: FROM CHANGE TO TRANSFORMATION
NEW PROCESSES: FROM PROBLEMS TO POSSIBILITIES
NEW ROLES: FROM CLIENTS TO COCREATORS
NEW APPLICATIONS: FROM SELF TO SYSTEM
NEW, NEW THEORY: COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS
NEW, NEW PROCESS: OD AS ART
NEW, NEW PROCESS: OD AS SPIRIT
NEW, NEW PURPOSE: A BETTER WORLD
SOURCING THE NEW IN OD
CHAPTER FOUR: Theories and Practices of Organizational Development
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT TODAY, NOT YESTERDAY
THE CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
THE CONNECTION BETWEEN IMPLEMENTATION THEORIES AND CHANGE PROCESS THEORIES
THE DIVIDE BETWEEN IMPLEMENTATION THEORIES AND CHANGE PROCESS THEORIES
STRATEGIES FOR OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER
CONCLUSION
PART TWO: The OD Core: Understanding and Managing Planned Change
CHAPTER FIVE: Kurt Lewin and the Planned Approach to Change: A Reappraisal
LEWIN’S BACKGROUND
LEWIN’S WORK
LEWIN AND CHANGE: A SUMMARY
NEWER PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE
LEWIN’S WORK: CRITICISMS AND RESPONSES
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER SIX: Effective Intervention Activity
CONDITIONS FACED BY AN INTERVENTIONIST
MARGINALITY
PERPETUAL CLIENT MISTRUST
MINIMAL FEEDBACK ABOUT EFFECTIVENESS
OPEN AND CLOSED CLIENT SYSTEMS
OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEMS ARE NOT DICHOTOMOUS
INTERVENTIONS TO TEST FOR THE DEGREE OF OPENNESS TO LEARNING
UNILATERAL OR COLLABORATIVE DIAGNOSIS
CONFIDENCE IN OWN INTERVENTION PHILOSOPHY
ACCURATE PERCEPTION OF STRESSFUL REALITY
ACCEPTANCE OF THE CLIENT’S ATTACKS AND MISTRUST
TRUST IN OWN EXPERIENCE OF REALITY
INVESTING STRESSFUL ENVIRONMENTS WITH GROWTH EXPERIENCE
CHAPTER SEVEN: Action Research: Rethinking Lewin
DEVELOPMENT AND DEFINITIONS OF ACTION RESEARCH
THE PROCESS OF ACTION RESEARCH
LEWIN’S MODEL IN ACTION, PART I: THE CASE OF TWO ACTION RESEARCH PROJECTS
LEWIN’S MODEL IN ACTION, PART II: THE CASE OF THE MANUFACTURING MANAGER
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER EIGHT: Action Learning and Action Science: Are They Different?
ARE THEY DIFFERENT?
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER NINE: Toward a Theory of Positive Organizational Change
THE FIELD OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE
A THEORY OF POSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
THE STAGES OF POSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
FROM THE LOCAL TO THE WHOLE
CHAPTER TEN: Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail
ERROR #1: NOT ESTABLISHING A GREAT ENOUGH SENSE OF URGENCY
ERROR #2: NOT CREATING A POWERFUL ENOUGH GUIDING COALITION
ERROR #3: LACKING A VISION
ERROR #4: UNDERCOMMUNICATING THE VISION BY A FACTOR OF TEN
ERROR #5: NOT REMOVING OBSTACLES TO THE NEW VISION
ERROR #6: NOT SYSTEMATICALLY PLANNING FOR AND CREATING SHORT-TERM WINS
ERROR #7: DECLARING VICTORY TOO SOON
ERROR #8: NOT ANCHORING CHANGES IN THE CORPORATION’S CULTURE
CHAPTER ELEVEN: The Congruence Model of Change
SOME BASIC ORGANIZATIONAL COMPONENTS
THE OPERATING ORGANIZATION
THE CONCEPT OF FIT
PRINCIPLES IMPLIED BY THE MODEL
PART THREE: The OD Process: Diagnosis, Intervention, and Levels of Engagement
CHAPTER TWELVE: Teaching Smart People How to Learn
HOW PROFESSIONALS AVOID LEARNING
DEFENSIVE REASONING AND THE DOOM LOOP
LEARNING HOW TO REASON PRODUCTIVELY
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: Facilitative Process Interventions: Task Processes in Groups
TASK CONTENT—AGENDA MANAGEMENT (CELL 2)
TASK PROCESS—GETTING THE WORK DONE EFFECTIVELY (CELL 5)
GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING
CYCLE 1: DECIDING WHAT TO DO
GROUP DECISION-MAKING METHODS
CYCLE 2. ACTING, EVALUATING, AND REFORMULATING
SUMMARY OF PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING
CHOOSING AN INTERVENTION FOCUS
WHAT ABOUT “TASK STRUCTURE?” (CELL 8)
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: Large Group Interventions and Dynamics
THE TAVISTOCK TRADITION
SYSTEMS THEORY
THE 1980S
METHODS FOR GETTING THE WHOLE SYSTEM INTO THE ROOM
LARGE GROUP DYNAMICS
THE DILEMMA OF VOICE
THE DILEMMA OF STRUCTURE IN LARGE GROUPS
THE EGOCENTRIC DILEMMA
THE CONTAGION OF AFFECT
CHAPTER FIFTEEN: Understanding the Power of Position: A Diagnostic Model
ON AUTOMATIC PILOT: SEEING SYSTEMS AS THEY USUALLY ARE
THE VISION: ROBUST HUMAN SYSTEMS
MOVING FROM REFLEXIVITY TO ROBUSTNESS
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: Reframing Complexity: A Four-Dimensional Approach to Organizational Diagnosis, Development, and Change
SORTING COMPLEXITY: LEVERAGING THE PLURALISM IN ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY
A FOUR-DIMENSIONAL DIAGNOSTIC MODEL: ISSUES, CHOICE POINTS, AND AREAS OF FOCUS
REFRAMING: USING AND TEACHING REFLECTION AND COGNITIVE ELASTICITY
OD AND THE FOUR FRAMES: MEANING AND METHOD
APPROACHING PLANNED CHANGE: THE PARADOX OF THE SPECIALIST AND THE GENERALIST
IN CLOSING: A MULTIFRAME FUTURE FOR OD
PART FOUR: OD Consulting: Leading Change from the Outside
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: Masterful Consulting
SAVIOR AND PROBLEM SOLVER
EMPOWERING PARTNER
THE THREE STRATEGIES ARE AN INTEGRATED WHOLE
THE LIFELONG JOURNEY TOWARD MASTERY
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: Flawless Consulting
BEING AUTHENTIC
COMLETING THE REQUIREMENTS OF EACH PHASE
RESULTS
CHAPTER NINETEEN: The Organization Development Contract
WHAT EACH EXPECTS
STRUCTURING THE RELATIONSHIP: TIME AND MONEY
GROUND RULES
FIRST MEETING
STRUCTURING THE RELATIONSHIP
CHAPTER TWENTY: The Facilitator and Other Facilitative Roles
CHOOSING A FACILITATIVE ROLE
THE CORE VALUES OF THE SKILLED FACILITATOR APPROACH
THE ROLE OF THE FACILITATOR
BASIC AND DEVELOPMENTAL FACILITATION
THE GROUP IS THE CLIENT
LEAVING THE ROLE OF FACILITATOR
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE: The Right Coach
WHAT IS COACHING?
ENSURING FIT
PART FIVE: OD Leadership: Fostering Change from the Inside
CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO: Reframing Change: Training, Realigning, Negotiating, Grieving, and Moving On
A COMMON CHANGE SCENARIO
CHANGE AND TRAINING
CHANGE AND REALIGNMENT
CHANGE AND CONFLICT
CHANGE AND LOSS
CHANGE STRATEGY
TEAM ZEBRA
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE: What Constitutes an Effective Internal Consultant?
THE KEY PLAYERS
THE BASIC DYNAMICS
THE NATURE OF THE WORK
TAKING THE ROLE OF A PEER
PROACTIVE VERSUS REACTIVE ADVICE
CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR: Reversing the Lens: Dealing with Different Styles When You Are the Boss
DEFERENCE AND CONFLICT AT FORD
WORKING WITH MANAGERS OF VARIOUS STYLES
THE BOSS’S ROLE IN DEVELOPING FLEXIBILITY IN SUBORDINATE STYLE
CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE: Relations with Superiors: The Challenge of “Managing” a Boss
CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX: Enlist Others
LISTEN DEEPLY TO OTHERS
DISCOVER AND APPEAL TO A COMMON PURPOSE
GIVE LIFE TO A VISION
ENLIST OTHERS IN A COMMON VISION BY APPEALING TO SHARED ASPIRATIONS
PART SIX: OD Focus: Organizational Intervention Targets
CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN: Business Strategy: Creating the Winning Formula
THE OLD WAY: FORMAL STRATEGIC PLANNING
THE MISSION STATEMENT: WHAT ARE OUR GOALS?
VALUES AND STRATEGY: HOW DO WE DO WHAT WE DO?
THE BOTTOM LINE: PUTTING MISSION AND VALUES STATEMENTS TO WORK
CORE COMPETENCIES AND STRATEGY
ORGANIZATIONAL CAPABILITIES AND STRATEGY
CREATING A SUCCESSFUL STRATEGY: THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP
KEYS TO DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE STRATEGY
CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT: Matching Strategy and Structure
THE DIMENSIONS OF STRUCTURE
CHOOSING STRUCTURES
CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE: Designing Work: Structure and Process for Learning and Self-Control
IMPLEMENTING NEW WORK DESIGNS
CHAPTER THIRTY: Making It Happen: Turning Workplace Vision into Reality
ASPECTS OF WORK-SETTING DESIGN
PROCESSES FOR MAKING AND MANAGING WORKPLACES
DEALING WITH ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
LEADERSHIP ROLES AND CONTINUOUS LEARNING
CREATING NEW PLACES VERSUS RENOVATING EXISTING FACILITIES
CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE: So How Can You Assess Your Corporate Culture?
SHOULD YOU USE A SURVEY?
WHY CULTURE SURVEYS DO NOT AND CANNOT MEASURE CULTURE
HOW TO GET AT YOUR OWN CULTURE
DECIPHERING YOUR COMPANY’S CULTURE: A FOUR-HOUR EXERCISE
DO YOU NEED AN OUTSIDE CONSULTANT TO DO THE ASSESSMENT?
THE BOTTOM LINE
CHAPTER THIRTY-TWO: What Makes People Effective?
THE CAUSES OF PERFORMANCE
PEOPLE AND MOTIVATION
WHAT MAKES A REWARD ATTRACTIVE?
WHY NOT JUST ASK?
WHAT DETERMINES SATISFACTION
HOW TO MAKE REWARDS MOTIVATE PERFORMANCE
BECOMING AN OBSERVER OF BEHAVIOR
THE IMPACT OF GOALS ON MOTIVATION
JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE
THE IMPORTANCE OF SATISFACTION
A RECAP OF REWARDS
ABILITY: THE OTHER HALF OF PERFORMANCE EFFECTIVENESS
THE RIGHT PEOPLE
CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE: What Makes a Team Effective or Ineffective?
THE INEFFECTIVE TEAM
SIGNS OF TROUBLE
BUILDING YOUR TEAM
CHAPTER THIRTY-FOUR: Developing the Individual Leader
A TYPICAL DESIGN
BEST PRACTICES FOR EFFECTIVE PROGRAMS IN INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT
PART SEVEN: OD Purpose and Possibilities: Seeing the Forest for the Trees
CHAPTER THIRTY-FIVE: Creating a Community of Leaders
BRINGING LIFE TO MISSION
BUILDING A LEADERSHIP COMMUNITY
BUILDING COMMUNITY THROUGH LEARNING JOURNEYS
BRINGING MISSION TO LIFE
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER THIRTY-SIX: Designing High-Performance Work Systems: Organizing People, Work, Technology, and Information
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
DEFINITION
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
PERFORMANCE
DESIGN PROCESS
OTHER ORGANIZATIONAL IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES
CHAPTER THIRTY-SEVEN: Diversity as Strategy
CONSTRUCTIVE DISRUPTION
PILLARS OF CHANGE
CHAPTER THIRTY-EIGHT: The Leader’s New Work: Building Learning Organizations
ADAPTIVE LEARNING AND GENERATIVE LEARNING
THE LEADER’S NEW WORK
CREATIVE TENSION: THE INTEGRATING PRINCIPLE
NEW ROLES
NEW SKILLS
NEW TOOLS
DEVELOPING LEADERS AND LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS
CHAPTER THIRTY-NINE: Compassion in Organizational Life
PAIN AND COMPASSION AT WORK
ELEMENTS OF COMPASSION
COMPASSION AND RELATED PROCESSES
ORGANIZATIONAL COMPASSION
DYNAMICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMPASSION
LOOKING FORWARD: POSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL SCHOLARSHIP RESEARCH IN THE FUTURE
CHAPTER FORTY: Generating Simultaneous Personal, Team, and Organization Development
PERSONAL, INTERPERSONAL, AND ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
CASE STUDY: AN ALCHEMIST CONSULTANT IN AN EARLY ACTION-LOGIC SOFTWARE COMPANY
FIFTEEN YEARS LATER: ANOTHER ILLUSTRATIVE CASE
DISCUSSION
PART EIGHT: OD and the Future: Embracing Change and New Directions
CHAPTER FORTY-ONE: Emerging Directions: Is There a New OD?
CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
THE NEW ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
IMPLICATIONS
A CONCLUDING COMMENT
CHAPTER FORTY-TWO: The Future of OD?
HOW OD NEEDS TO CHANGE
WHAT OD COULD BECOME
WILL THE PROMISE BE ACHIEVED?
CHAPTER FORTY-THREE: From Cells to Communities: Deconstructing and Reconstructing the Organization
THE WALLS OF THE PAST: DIVISIONAL DOTCOMBAT
THE DANGER OF NEW WALLS: NEWSTREAMS VERSUS MAINSTREAMS
CLIMBING OVER THE WALLS
FROM “KNOWING TOGETHER” TO WORKING TOGETHER
THE ROUTE TO E-BUSINESS LEADERSHIP: CONNECTING “ONE IBM”
CONSTRUCTING COMMUNITY
CHAPTER FORTY-FOUR: Actions for Global Learners, Launchers, and Leaders
FROM GLOBAL LEARNER TO GLOBAL LAUNCHER
GLOBAL LAUNCHERS TO GLOBAL LEADERS
THE GLOBAL VILLAGE OF TOMORROW
CHAPTER FORTY-FIVE: Knowledge-Worker Productivity: The Biggest Challenge
THE PRODUCTIVITY OF THE MANUAL WORKER
THE PRINCIPLES OF MANUAL-WORK PRODUCTIVITY
THE FUTURE OF MANUAL-WORKER PRODUCTIVITY
WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT KNOWLEDGE-WORKER PRODUCTIVITY
THE KNOWLEDGE WORKER AS CAPITAL ASSET
THE TECHNOLOGISTS
KNOWLEDGE WORK AS A SYSTEM
HOW TO BEGIN?
THE GOVERNANCE OF THE CORPORATION
CHAPTER FORTY-SIX: Beyond Greening: Strategies for a Sustainable World
WORLDS IN COLLISION
STRATEGIES FOR A SUSTAINABLE WORLD
SUSTAINABILITY VISION
CHAPTER FORTY-SEVEN: The Healthy Organization
PROFILE OF A HEALTHY ORGANIZATION
References
Name Index
Subject Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
CHAPTER TWO: Where Did OD Come From?
Table 2.1. Summary of Primary OD Theorists According to Their Perspectives, Emphases, and Applications.
CHAPTER THREE: Revolutions in OD: The New and the New, New Things
Table 3.1. Evolutionary Versus Revolutionary Models of Development.
Table 3.2. Two Views of the History of Organizational Development.
CHAPTER FOUR: Theories and Practices of Organizational Development
Table 4.1. Summary Listing of Large-Group Interventions.
Table 4.2. Possible Relationships Between Change Process Models and Implementation Models as Expressed in Contemporary Intervention Approaches.
Table 4.3. Change and Organizational Development Theory in the 1990s.
CHAPTER SEVEN: Action Research: Rethinking Lewin
Table 7.1. The Action Research Project at Southwest Technologies.
CHAPTER EIGHT: Action Learning and Action Science: Are They Different?
Table 8.1. Action Technology Criteria and Distinctions Between Action Learning and Action Science.
CHAPTER ELEVEN: The Congruence Model of Change
Table 11.1. Meaning of Fit for Each Component.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: Reframing Complexity: A Four-Dimensional Approach to Organizational Diagnosis, Development, and Change
Table 16.1. A Four-Frame Approach to Understanding Organizations.
Table 16.2. Frame-Related Issues and Areas of Focus.
Table 16.3. Frame-Related Central Tensions.
Table 16.4. Multiframed Organization Development.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: Masterful Consulting
Table 17.1. The Typical Game of Consulting.
Table 17.2. The Master Consultant’s Model.
CHAPTER TWENTY: The Facilitator and Other Facilitative Roles
Table 20.1. Facilitative Roles.
Table 20.2. Core Values.
Table 20.3. Basic and Developmental Facilitation.
CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE: What Makes a Team Effective or Ineffective?
Table 33.1. Active Listening.
Table 33.2. Leadership Responsibilities.
CHAPTER THIRTY-SIX: Designing High-Performance Work Systems: Organizing People, Work, Technology, and Information
Table 36.1. Comparison of Traditional and High-Performance Work Systems Design Principles.
CHAPTER FORTY: Generating Simultaneous Personal, Team, and Organization Development
Table 40.1. Parallels Between Personal and Organizational Stages of Development.
CHAPTER FORTY-ONE: Emerging Directions: Is There a New OD?
Table 41.1. Classical OD and the New OD.
CHAPTER FORTY-FOUR: Actions for Global Learners, Launchers, and Leaders
Table 44.1. Alcatel Bell’s Globalization.
CHAPTER FORTY-SIX: Beyond Greening: Strategies for a Sustainable World
Table 46.1. Major Challenges to Sustainability.
Table 46.2. The Sustainable Portfolio.
List of Figures
CHAPTER SEVEN: Action Research: Rethinking Lewin
Figure 7.1. Lewin’s Action Research Model.
CHAPTER NINE: Toward a Theory of Positive Organizational Change
Figure 9.1. A Model of Positive Organizational Change.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: Facilitative Process Interventions: Task Processes in Groups
Figure 13.1. Possible Areas of Observation and Intervention.
Figure 13.2. Necessary Steps in Initially Formulating the Problem.
CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN: Business Strategy: Creating the Winning Formula
Figure 27.1. The Diamond Model.
CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT: Matching Strategy and Structure
Figure 28.1. Trends in Organization Shape.
Figure 28.2. Functional Organization Structure.
Figure 28.3. Apple: Before and After Reorganization.
Figure 28.4. Product Structure.
Figure 28.5. Hybrid Product and Function Structure.
Figure 28.6. Process Organization Structure.
CHAPTER THIRTY-SIX: Designing High-Performance Work Systems: Organizing People, Work, Technology, and Information
Figure 36.1. The High-Performance Work Systems Design Process.
CHAPTER THIRTY-EIGHT: The Leader’s New Work: Building Learning Organizations
Figure 38.1. The Principle of Creative Tension.
Figure 38.2. “Shifting the Burden” Archetype Template.
CHAPTER FORTY-SIX: Beyond Greening: Strategies for a Sustainable World
Figure 46.1. Building Sustainable Business Strategies.
Landmarks
Cover
Table of Contents
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e1
Joan V. Gallos, Editor
Foreword by
Edgar H. Schein
Organization Development
A Jossey-Bass Reader
Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by Jossey-BassA Wiley Imprint989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741 www.josseybass.com
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Credits are on page 1055
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Organization development: a Jossey-Bass reader / Joan V. Gallos, editor; foreword by Edgar H. Schein.
p. cm.—(The Jossey-Bass business & management series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7879-8426-7 (pbk.)
ISBN-10: 0-7879-8426-4 (pbk.)
1. Organizational change. I. Gallos, Joan V. II. Series.
HD58.8.O72825 2006
658.4’06—dc22
2006010541
FIRST EDITION
The Jossey-Bass
Business & Management Series
To Lee—Amor tussisque non celantur
Foreword: Observations on the State of Organization Development
SOME HISTORICAL NOTES
Organization development as a practice evolved in the 1950s out of the work of the National Training Labs (NTL) on group dynamics and leadership. At the same time, a number of social psychology departments and business schools were discovering that traditional industrial psychology no longer met the varied needs of organizations. The concepts and tools available in the early days of the field were mostly diagnostic and individual oriented, and therefore did not fully respond to the problems that many organizations were facing. Of particular importance to OD’s beginning was the discovery in the T-groups (T for training) of the power of “experiential” learning in groups and in the organizational arena. This combining of new forms of intervention and new concepts of group dynamics and leadership in effect created the field of OD.
OD had come a long way by the mid-1960s. This led Dick Beckhard, Warren Bennis, and me to start to design the Addison-Wesley series on organization development. We knew that we wanted a book series rather than a single book on OD because the field was, even at that time, too diverse to lend itself to a single volume. Some practitioners saw the future in terms of new ways of looking at interpersonal dynamics. Some saw it as a new set of values for how organizations should be managed. Some focused on group and intergroup problems. Still others tried to conceptualize how a total change program for an organization would look. Many different approaches were proposed on how best to deal with organizational issues and the management of change. No one model dominated the scene, and various “experimental interventions” within organizations were the order of the day.
The most radical of these experiments was to introduce the T-group into organizational units, even work groups, to leverage the impact of here-and-now experiential learning and feedback for individual and organizational growth. But as we now know, such experiments also revealed the limitations of face-to-face feedback across hierarchical lines. Telling the boss exactly what you think of him or her has not really worked out, though the current efforts to employ 360-degree feedback is clearly a contemporary version of those original experiments.
My own involvement in the field centered on efforts to understand the deeper dynamics of personal and organizational change. I had encountered deep change processes in my earlier studies on “brainwashing” of prisoners of war and civilians captured by the Chinese communists in the early 1950s—what I came to call coercive persuasion (Schein, Schneier, & Barker, 1961). When I took on my first job in the Sloan School in 1956, I observed similar coercive persuasion processes in the indoctrination of new hires by large corporations. But exposure to experiential learning through work with NTL led me to the conclusion that coercive persuasion works only when the target person is a captive. If people can walk away from unpleasant learning situations, they will do so. Learning, therefore, has to be based on a collaboration between consultant (coach) and client (learner), the understanding of which led me to define and describe “process consultation” as the group and organizational equivalent of Rogerian therapy for the individual (Schein, 1969, 1999). In that regard, I have always considered process consultation as an essential philosophy underlying organization development, not just a tool to be taken off the shelf when needed.
Probably the biggest impact on the evolution of OD as a field—I know this is true in my case—was the result of the actual experience that individuals had as consultants to managers in real organizations. Though research was always an important dimension of OD practice, there is no doubt in my mind that the essential learning about change and how to manage it came from our own experiential learning. For example, in my historical analysis of the rise and fall of the Digital Equipment Corporation, where I was a consultant for thirty years, I pointed out how Ken Olsen, the founder and my primary client, influenced my insights on how to conduct organizational surveys (Schein, 2003). He wanted me to do an engineering department survey, and when I asked him when he wanted to see the results, he said, “I don’t want to see the results. If problems are uncovered, I want them fixed.” His surprising response led me to the concept of upward cascading of survey results—that is, having each group analyze and categorize its own data before anything was shared with the next higher level. This approach empowered groups to fix their own problems and to feed upward only the things that higher levels of management alone could handle.
Working with clients also made highly visible the impact of deep cultural assumptions on how organizations design themselves, determine their strategy, and develop the basic processes that they use to get the work done. It became increasingly clear to me that culture is not just about the soft stuff of communication, rewards, and morale. It is deeply connected to the fundamental issues of organizational goals and means. The deep explanation of why Digital Equipment Corporation was successful—and why, in the end, it failed as a business—is all about the cultural DNA in that organization that made innovation an imperative and more central than concerns about business efficiency. Similarly, in my work with Ciba-Geigy in the late 1970s, I could see clearly how the company’s acquisition strategy was far more dominated by self-image and cultural identity than by any pure economic or market criteria (Schein, 2004).
SOME CURRENT OBSERVATIONS
What has happened to the field of organization development in the last forty years? The answer is evident in this volume. OD has evolved, yet it has maintained a conceptual core and its diversity. If one scans the table of contents, it is evident that the core has a number of elements: a concern with process, a focus on change, and an implicit as well as explicit concern for organizational effectiveness. At the same time, there is a healthy diversity of views on what processes to focus on, how to manage change, and which values should inform the concept of “organizational health.”
There is as yet no consensus on what the basic goals of organization development should be. Some practitioners would argue that OD’s role is to “reform” organizations: to introduce humanistic values and ensure that organizations become “better” places to work for their employees. Others would argue that OD should help client systems be more effective at whatever it is the clients are trying to do within their cultural contexts. Client values should not be challenged unless they cross some broad ethical boundary. Still others would argue that the two positions converge, in that only organizations that operate by certain humanistic values can be effective in the long run anyway.
And finally, some would argue, as I would, that organizations are complex systems and that “health” therefore has to be defined in systemic terms: does the organization have a clear identity, the requisite variety, the capacity to learn, and sufficient internal alignment among its subsystems to function. Obviously, if the system has evil goals, OD practitioners would not work with it, but systems operate in all kinds of cultural contexts and have many different kinds of value sets. In this view of the field, the role of OD is more to help the system work its internal processes of alignment and integration than to challenge or to try to change those values.
The question has been raised about whether OD is a viable and growing concern or if the field has lost its momentum. To answer that question, one must first recognize how many elements of OD have evolved into organizational routines that are nowadays taken for granted: better communications, team building, management of intergroup competition, and change management, to name just a few. At the same time, as this volume suggests, the field is continuing to grow in defining concepts and tools to tackle the even tougher problems of change and organizational dynamics in an increasingly global and diverse world. Two current issues for the field to address strike me as paramount:
The difficulty of creating a viable organization (system) that is geographically dispersed and consists of subsystems that are genuinely different national and occupational cultures. The positive aspects of diversity are highly touted, but the problems of alignment and integration of diverse cultural elements remain a major challenge.
The ongoing difficulty of getting upward informational flow in hierarchies, as illustrated by all the recent disasters in NASA and in the slow response to the New Orleans flooding from Hurricane Katrina. Even the best of managers find themselves isolated and therefore ignorant of what is really going on below them. I see little evidence that OD practice has found a cure for that fundamental organizational pathology.
Organization development will continue to flourish as a field, however, because its practitioners are unique in their concern with human processes. OD practitioners have learned as a core part of their training that process is as important as content—and sometimes more important—and often is a strong reflection of content. Process at the individual, group, or intergroup levels is what OD practitioners understand and can improve. Communications, meetings designs, feedback, physical arrangements and the design of workspaces, and the work itself are all processes of which OD has strong knowledge. As long as OD continues to explore and enhance these human processes, it will fulfill an essential role in the broad scheme of human affairs. Readers of this book will find a broad array of intellectual resources and tools to further their understanding of and involvement in this growing field of OD.
May 2006
EDGAR H. SCHEIN Sloan Fellows Professor of Management Emeritus, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sloan School of Management Cambridge, Massachusetts
Introduction
This is a book about the power and possibilities of organization development (OD) and planned change. It celebrates OD’s proud legacy of embracing the social and behavioral sciences in service to individual and organizational growth. It acknowledges OD’s contributions to theory and practice: understanding how organizations work and developing methods for their improvement. It charts the evolution and impact of a field that set out more than half a century ago to release human potential at work and foster the role of learning and renewal in organizations. The death of OD has been vastly exaggerated, and the chapters in this volume suggest a vital role for OD in today’s competitive, bottom-line-focused world of constant change. OD is poised for a renaissance. This project was developed to support that.
The book is intended as a resource for both newcomers and experienced practitioners. Those new to the field can read it cover to cover and explore OD’s foundation, scope, purpose, methods, and possibilities. Experienced practitioners will find chapters that capture best thinking on a range of topics—resources for fine-tuning skills, learning about intervention options, envisioning OD’s future, or reflecting on the larger issues in growth and change. The field of organization development has a powerful and influential heritage, a solid core, evolving applications and approaches, and important contributions to make.
This book is intentionally inclusive in content; it seeks to stretch the field’s traditional boundaries. It applauds an approach to planned change that has expanded in scope and possibility along with the changing nature of organizations, the environment, and theoretical advances in the organizational and social sciences. OD is at its best when it enacts its own values for learning, growth, and change. The chapters in this volume promote an understanding of OD as a diverse set of approaches to organizational health and effectiveness in an increasingly competitive and complex world. Taken together, they remind readers that organization development is more than tools and techniques. OD’s core values—participation, openness to learning, equity and fairness, valid information, informed choice, shared commitment—can foster processes that engage people in useful and significant ways to address a wide range of operational, technical, and strategic concerns. OD artfully weds process with content in a search for lasting solutions to tough challenges.
Organization development began as a field of promise and possibility. Long before others, OD’s founders understood the inefficiencies, pain, and downsides of organizational life, and they set out to do something about them. They brought open minds, entrepreneurial spirits, and irrepressible optimism to the challenge, convinced that new ways of organizing and managing were possible. They were carriers of America’s historic faith in progress and initiative. They believed in democracy, openness, and the worth of every individual. Above all, they believed in learning and experimentation. They knew they did not have all the answers—or even all the questions. But they were confident that both were waiting to be found. Their faith and hard work spawned a revolutionary intellectual movement—a paradigm shift—and changed forever how the world understood people, work, and organizations. Their efforts gave rise to the organizational and applied behavioral sciences, and OD developed a powerful array of ideas and practices for understanding and improving organizations, many of which are discussed in this volume.
But much has changed since OD’s humble beginnings in the human relations movement of the 1950s. Technology, globalization, competitive pressures, industry shifts, worldwide markets, increasing workplace diversity, and a host of social and economic forces have altered the world of work, the ways we organize for collective action, and the meaning of organizational complexity. To its credit, OD has evolved since its early days in response. This volume charts those shifts. For OD to stay relevant and influential, however, this growth and development must continue. Equally important, OD needs to keep faith in its own significance, wisdom, and resilience—and a sharp eye on the ways that OD’s original charter can guide or limit its contributions.
The scholarly and professional literatures ring with practitioners and academics arguing about which projects, concerns, and methods of change can claim the OD label, or squabbling over semantical distinctions between developing organizations and changing them. Some insist on a singular allegiance to the field’s human development roots and draw a tight boundary around the parameters of the field. They resist the ways that OD’s task, intervention options, and points of system entry have expanded commensurate with the increasing complexity of the world and our understanding of it—and that OD’s methodologies and values are relevant and needed for working with the gamut of organizational issues: efficiency, continuous improvement, accountability, technology, strategic planning, and politics as well as individual and interpersonal concerns. At the other extreme, some define the field so loosely as to include almost anything and everything connected to human problem solving and change at work. Practitioners trained in a variety of disciplines in and outside the management arena—from psychology to engineering—add to the confusion by bringing their own spin to planned change, often with little knowledge of OD’s core purpose and values or interest in building on and advancing its practices. Internal and external critics label OD as foundering, lost, stuck at the organizational margins, failing to honor and practice its values. Some suggest a mercy killing. Others trade eulogies in memory of its passing. This book sounds a more optimistic note.
OD has clearly been shaped by its parentage. Its roots in traditions that emphasize people and potential are a source of OD’s strength, as well as its limitations. The power of OD’s legacy and contributions is in the field’s enduring respect for the human side of enterprise and its role in productivity and innovation. Supporting, developing, and fully utilizing human creativity, initiative, and expertise are keys to any organization’s success. A vibrant OD field needs to live its core values while adapting its methods and approaches to address the major strategic issues and operational challenges that organizations face. OD’s heritage is empowering when it is viewed as a rich source of possibilities. But OD risks marginality or irrelevance if that heritage is defined in terms of traditional tools and techniques, an ideology that has to be zealously defended, or the pursuit of openness and humanism as ends in themselves.
OD has been criticized on the one hand for being too narrow, and on the other for not knowing what it really is or where it is going. There is some merit in both indictments, but a fuller view recognizes OD as a field whose basic aspirations and scope of work are increasingly complex and intrinsically paradoxical. Its mystery, majesty, and challenges are in its openness to a collaborative search for the best forms and approaches to organizing that meet a client system’s unique circumstances. The field initially evolved more than half a century ago because organizational change was difficult, frustrating, and prone to failure. Things are no simpler today.
The increasing diversity of people, environments, goals, knowledge, and organizational practices and processes reinforces OD’s core assumption that there is no one-size-fits-all definition or path to organizational health and effectiveness. Human contribution, creativity, and commitment are essential. But so are the organizational efficiencies and smart strategic choices that ensure organizational survival in an increasingly competitive work world. As OD’s founders reminded us more than fifty years ago, individuals and organizations share a common goal, and when both meet their needs, both benefit. OD knows something important about the route to that shared destination. And OD practitioners rise best to the challenge when they expand their horizons and welcome new insights and possibilities, regardless of source, that help all do their work better.
OD, for example, has an increasingly important role to play in a world where individuals have morphed into human capital, where “lean and mean” too often replaces an emphasis on quality of work life, where an unrelenting focus on bottom-line profits trumps loyalty and learning, and where ethical decision making across sectors seems akin to standing on shifting sands. No other field is better prepared or set to address these kinds of challenges or to understand their long-term impact on organizational innovation, productivity, and survival. To do that well, OD needs to keep its values straight, its resolve strong, and its eye on the prize: improved organizational health and effectiveness.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK
This book was developed with that prize in mind. In deciding what to include, I have kept one question in mind: What are the tools and insights that will help consultants, change agents, and leaders improve organizational health and effectiveness? All the classic OD ideas, tools, and approaches that meet that test are represented and updated in this volume. But readers will also find boundary-stretching materials rarely included in traditional OD works, new pieces that expand understandings in key areas, and suggestions for strengthening OD’s future impact and relevance. There is little sense in producing a new book that tells the same old story.
This volume is divided into eight parts. Each section is introduced by an Editor’s Interlude that frames the issues to be examined, describes the rationale for material included, and introduces each of the chapters. The book flows from past to future: context (how come), process (how), content (what), purpose (why), and possibilities (what else). More specifically, Part One, “The OD Field: Setting the Context, Understanding the Legacy,” explores the field’s historical roots, evolution over time, and distinctive theory and practice focus. The state of OD today and tomorrow is clearly linked to where and how it all began. Part Two, “The OD Core: Understanding and Managing Planned Change,” examines consistencies in OD’s change model over time, the concept of planned change, intervention theory, a range of action technologies, and two change models that fall outside conventional boundaries but add rich wisdom to the field. The chapters in Part Three, “The OD Process: Diagnosis, Intervention, and Levels of Engagement,” examine OD activities on multiple levels (individual, small group, large group, intergroup, and organization) and offer opportunities for OD practitioners to explore their own interpretive frameworks.
External consultants have played a central role from the field’s inception, and Part Four, “OD Consulting: Leading Change from the Outside,” addresses a range of issues related to consulting effectiveness: values, process, tasks, contracting, facilitation, and coaching. At the same time, there are also key leadership roles for insiders: top leadership, internal consultants, motivated organizational citizens. Part Five, “OD Leadership: Fostering Change from the Inside,” explores skills and understandings relevant to launching and nourishing organization development from different positions within the organization.
The chapters in Part Six, “OD Focus: Organizational Intervention Targets,” offer change agents a map of the more significant areas where OD can apply its methods for meaningfully involving people in critical choices: strategy, organizational design, the structure of work, workspace ecology, and culture, as well as workforce, team, and leadership development. OD professionals who understand where, why, and how to intervene in a broad array of circumstances are more likely to have the tools that fit the needs of different client systems.
The final two parts of the book suggest an expanded future for OD. A powerful vision is the antidote for a splintered field that has lost its way. Part Seven, “OD Purpose and Possibilities: Seeing the Forest for the Trees,” reminds readers that OD’s core purpose is to improve organizational health and effectiveness. The chapters here suggest a range of possibilities for what that might look like: a passionate community of leaders, deep collaboration across boundaries, a well-integrated system, well-leveraged diversity, compassionate organizations, organizations that learn and teach. OD’s possibilities are constrained only by the limits of its creativity. Finally, Part Eight, “OD and the Future: Embracing Change and New Directions,” identifies four areas of major change in the external environment and the nature of work where OD’s traditions and methods can be brought to bear—technology, globalization, the growing knowledge economy, and the environment—and offers perspectives on the field’s future from those engaged in theory and practice.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There are multiple people to thank, and it is hard to know where to begin. Many have contributed in different ways to this project. Let me start by thanking Ed Schein. His Foreword to this volume is a rich and personal perspective on OD: a special gift from someone who helped shape the field. But for me, Ed deserves appreciation for more than that. He has influenced my thinking about change, learning, and organizations in significant ways. Thank you again, dear Professor Schein, from a former student of more years ago than either of us needs to admit.
Exploring OD’s history for this project provided opportunities to reflect on my own. And I know my life and work would be different had I not met Chris Argyris at orientation on the first day of graduate school. He introduced me to a field I never knew existed, and his casual suggestion—“Why don’t you take my course?”—set a new career in motion. Chris’s work is well represented in this volume for reasons I don’t have to explain. But it gave me great pleasure to reflect again on the full extent of his impact, reconnect with him over this volume, and hear about his perceptions of a field he helped launch and grow.
Terry Deal deserves special thanks for his inimitable magic and charm and his regular “How the hell are you?” phone greetings. Terry also provided valuable feedback on my chapter in this volume. And deep appreciation goes to respected colleagues Phil Mirvis, Bill Torbert, Michael Sales, and Bob Marshak, who found time in their busy lives to write original chapters for this volume—with short turnaround time—when I realized that their particular perspectives needed to be represented here.
The size of the volume should be some indication of all the work required to get it to press. Kathe Sweeney, senior editor in the business and management division at Jossey-Bass, launched the project with her vision and sustained it with her usual support, trust, and good cheer. Jessie Mandle, my touchpoint at Jossey-Bass, handled preproduction details with professionalism and warmth. And the Jossey-Bass production team members were first class, as always. I appreciated their attention to detail—and their efforts to get my all-time favorite colors into the cover design. Production editor Susan Geraghty deserves special mention and thanks.
On the local front, there are many people to thank. Homer Erekson, dean of the Henry W. Bloch School of Business and Public Administration at the University of Missouri-Kansas City, is a good colleague, supportive dean, and friend. My faculty colleagues in the Bloch School’s Department of Public Affairs—Robyne Turner, David Renz, Bob Herman, Arif Ahmed, Nick Peroff, Greg Arling, and Abby York—are impressive in their efforts to promote organization and community development. They graciously tolerated the ways in which this project consumed my time and focus. And a special thank you to Henry Bloch for welcoming me at a critical time in my own career development to the school that he so generously supports. The energizing and entrepreneurial spirit of the Bloch School keeps me hopping—and I love it.
My graduate assistants, Alice Peed and Ben Nemenoff, deserve thanks. Alice got plenty of exercise carrying books back and forth from the library, followed by exciting opportunities to rest up in front of the copying machine. Thanks, Alice. Ben’s many contributions were invaluable. His attention to detail, technology skills, and strong work ethic helped with references, endnotes, and getting all the right pages, versions, chapters, folders, and files in order. We’re all in good shape if Ben is any example of the leaders of tomorrow. Sheri Gilbert tackled the complex job of securing permissions and worked with impressive speed and professionalism. Thank you, Sheri.
Every woman needs girlfriends, and I have some great ones. Three deserve particular note here. Sandy Renz is my rock and all-around buddy. I am blessed by her warmth and caring. Marge Smelstor provides unending support on multiple fronts—and is the source of the fabulous wisewoman sculpture with whom I now share an office. Beth Smith, leader extraordinaire in the Kansas City nonprofit community, is a source of wisdom and affection—and enthusiastically reads everything I write.
My family is the greatest, and the three boys on the home front deserve thanks beyond what can be written here. My sons, Brad and Chris Bolman, are talented young men who enrich my life. In addition, Brad lent his technology and file-organizing skills to the project—and his music, juggling, and magic tricks sustained the editor. Chris Bolman, chilled-out entertainer, poet, and soon-to-be investment banker, contributed to the teaching materials that accompany this volume. And Lee Bolman, my husband, best friend, and closest colleague, has earned all the credit and appreciation offered here. He is cheerfully available 24/7 to his high-maintenance spouse. During this project, he read drafts, replaced hard drives, chauffeured crippled Dalmatians to swim class, cooked fabulous meals, and more. Thank you, dear. As the years go by, I appreciate and love you more.
May 2006
JOAN V. GALLOS Kansas City, Missouri
About the Editor
Joan V. Gallos is Professor of Leadership in the Henry W. Bloch School of Business and Public Administration at the University of Missouri-Kansas City, where she has also served as Professor and Dean of Education, Coordinator of University Accreditation, Special Assistant to the Chancellor for Strategic Planning, and Director of the Higher Education Graduate Programs. Gallos holds a bachelor’s degree cum laude in English from Princeton University, and master’s and doctoral degrees from the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She has served as a Salzburg Seminar Fellow; as President of the Organizational Behavior Teaching Society; as editor of the Journal of Management Education; on numerous editorial boards, including as a founding member of Academy of Management Learning and Education; on regional and national advisory boards including the Organizational Behavior Teaching Society, The Forum for Early Childhood Organization and Leadership Development, the Missouri Council on Economic Education, the Kauffman and Danforth Foundations’ Missouri Superintendents Leadership Forum, and the Mayor’s Kansas City Collaborative for Academic Excellence; on the national steering committee for the New Models of Management Education project (a joint effort of the Graduate Management Admissions Council and the AACSB (the International Association for Management Education); on the W. K. Kellogg Foundation College Age Youth Leadership Review Team; on the University of Missouri President’s Advisory Council on Academic Leadership; and on civic, foundation, and nonprofit boards in greater Kansas City. Dr. Gallos has taught at the Radcliffe Seminars, the Harvard Graduate School of Education, the University of Massachusetts-Boston, and Babson College, as well as in executive programs at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government, the Harvard Graduate School of Education, the University of Missouri, Babson College, and the University of British Columbia. She has published on professional effectiveness, gender, and leadership education; is coauthor of the book Teaching Diversity: Listening to the Soul, Speaking from the Heart (Jossey-Bass, 1997); received the Fritz Roethlisberger Memorial Award for the best article on management education in 1990; and was finalist for the same prize in 1994. In 1993, Gallos accepted the Radcliffe College Excellence in Teaching award. In 2002–2003, she served as Founding Director of the Truman Center for the Healing Arts, based in Kansas City’s public hospital, which received the 2004
