Osteopathy and the Treatment of Horses E-Book

Anthony Pusey

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 550

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Written by pioneering and internationally-renowned specialists in the field, this text provides clinically-orientated information on osteopathy as a treatment for horses. It explains the scientific rationale of how osteopathy works in animals, as well as providing a detailed working guide to the technical skills and procedures you need to know to perform safe and effective osteopathic procedures. * Drawing on well established practices for humans this book provides details on the full variety of diagnostic and therapeutic osteopathic procedures that can be used on horses. * Full of practical information, it demonstrates how professionals treating equine locomotor problems can adapt different procedures in different clinical settings. * Over 350 colour images and detailed step-by-step instructions demonstrate the procedures and practice of osteopathy. * Covers treatment both with and without sedation and general anaesthetic. This comprehensive text is written for students and practitioners of osteopathy with an interest in treating horses. It will also be useful to other allied therapists, and to veterinary practitioners who want to know more about the treatment of musculoskeletal problems.

Leseprobe

Contents

Foreword

Preface

Dedication

Acknowledgements

About the Authors

Disclaimer

1 Introducing Osteopathy for Horses

HISTORY OF OSTEOPATHY

LEGISLATION

HISTORY OF OSTEOPATHIC TREATMENT OF ANIMALS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

2 Horse Anatomy for Osteopaths

OVERVIEW

ANATOMICAL DESCRIPTORS

THE HEAD

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

THE LIMBS

3 Neurophysiological Basis of Osteopathic Medicine

INTRODUCTION

EVOLUTION OF THE OSTEOPATHIC APPROACH

NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO INJURY

NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO INJURY IN A CLINICAL SETTING

MECHANISMS FOR REVERSING NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES

SUMMARY

REFERENCES

4 Making a Start in Animal Practice

WHERE TO PRACTICE

INSURANCE

SAFETY

EQUIPMENT

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

INFORMATION SHEETS

FORMS OF CONSENT

THE THERAPEUTIC TEAM

5 Case History

PRELIMINARIES

PERSONAL DETAILS

DEMOGRAPHICS

WORK

NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

SPECIFIC QUESTIONS

PAST EVENTS

GENERAL CARE

CLINICAL OBSERVATIONS

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCE

6 Static Observation

STATIC EXAMINATION

DEMEANOUR

STRUCTURE

FORM AND FUNCTION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

7 Observation of Active Movements

EXAMINATION CONDITIONS

OBSERVATION AT WALK

TRANSITION TO TROT

OBSERVATION AT TROT

SHORT TURN

REIN BACK

FURTHER EXAMINATIONS

REFERENCES

8 Palpatory Examination of the Unsedated Horse

STAGE 1: THE INITIAL APPRAISAL

STAGE 2: THE ACTIVE IN-DEPTH EXAMINATION

9 Palpatory Examination of the Sedated Horse

PALPATORY EXAMINATION

REFERENCE

10 Osteopathic Treatment – Overarching Principles

INTRODUCTION

TECHNIQUES

APPLYING THE TECHNIQUES

REFERENCES

11 Osteopathic Treatment Without Sedation

INTRODUCTION

CERVICAL REGION

SHOULDER REGION

CERVICAL REGION TECHNIQUES

CERVICAL EXERCISES AND STRETCHES

CRANIUM

PECTORAL GIRDLE

SHOULDER GIRDLE STRETCHES

CERVICOTHORACIC JUNCTION

FORELIMB

THORACIC SPINE

DORSAL RIB TECHNIQUE

LATERAL RIB TECHNIQUE

STERNUM XIPHOID

SPINAL REFLEXES

LUMBAR SPINE

HINDQUARTERS AND FEMORAL REGION

SACRUM

LUMBOSACRAL JUNCTION

COCCYGEAL JOINTS

HAMSTRING, ADDUCTORS AND CAUDAL MUSCULATURE

THE HINDLIMB

PELVIS

PELVIC AND SACROILIAC JOINT TECHNIQUES

COMPLETION OF TREATMENT

REFERENCES

12 Osteopathic Treatment of the Sedated Horse

STANDING SEDATION

TREATMENT

CRANIUM

TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT

UPPER CERVICAL SPINE

MID- TO LOWER CERVICAL SPINE

THORACIC SPINE

PERISCAPULAR REGION

LUMBAR SPINE, SACRUM AND PELVIS

POST-TREATMENT CARE

13 Examination and Treatment under General Anaesthetic

INTRODUCTION

RATIONALE FOR TREATMENT UNDER GENERAL

PREPARATION

PRECAUTIONS

GENERAL ANAESTHETIC

OSTEOPATHIC EXAMINATION AND TREATMENT UNDER GENERAL ANAESTHETIC

14 Post-treatment Care and Management

OVERVIEW

EXPECTATIONS OF THE OWNER/RIDER

SHOEING

RECOMMENDED READING

TACK

RECOMMENDED READING

BRIDLES AND BITS

RECOMMENDED READING

DENTISTRY

RECOMMENDED READING

FEEDING AND STABLE MANAGEMENT

RECOMMENDED READING

TURNOUT

THE SCALES OF TRAINING

LUNGEING AND LONG-REINING

RECOMMENDED READING

RIDDEN WORK

RECOMMENDED READING

GROOMING, MASSAGE, STRAPPING AND STRETCHING

RECOMMENDED READING

RIDER’S FITNESS AND ABILITY

RECOMMENDED READING

ALLIED PROFESSIONS

RECOMMENDED READING

REFERENCES

15 Differential Diagnosis

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS

BACK PAIN/DYSFUNCTION

BONE AND JOINT CONDITIONS

SOFT TISSUE CONDITIONS

Glossary

Appendix A: Safety Aspects for Treating Horses, Unsedated and Sedated

PRACTITIONER

ENVIRONMENT

THE HANDLER

THE HORSE

Appendix B: Referral for Osteopathic Treatment

Appendix C: Owner Consent Form for Osteopathic and Sedation Procedures

Appendix D: Information Sheet, Osteopathy in Practice

Appendix E: Case Sheet

Appendix F: Case History Questions

Appendix G: Static and Active Examination

OBSERVATION FROM ALL ANGLES

GAIT AND POSTURE

Appendix H: Drugs Used in Treatment with Sedation and Treatment under Anaethetic

SEDATION

GENERAL ANAESTHETIC

Anaesthetic Risks

Index

This edition first published 2010© 2010 Anthony Pusey, Julia Brooks and Annabel Jenks

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pusey, Anthony, 1951-2007.Osteopathy and the treatment of horses/Anthony Pusey, Julia Brooks, Annabel Jenks.p. ; cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4051-6952-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Horses-Diseases-Treatment. 2. Horses-Wounds and injuries-Treatment. 3. Osteopathic medicine. I. Brooks, Julia, 1960- II. Jenks, Annabel. III. Title.[DNLM: 1. Horse Diseases-therapy. 2. Manipulation, Osteopathic-veterinary. 3. Massage-veterinary. 4. Musculoskeletal Diseases-veterinary. 5. Osteopathic Medicine-methods. SF 951 P987o 2010]SF951.P97 2010616.1′0895533-dc222009048324

Foreword

Having inherited the ‘horse addiction’ gene, I’ve always consumed horse books with alacrity. In the early days it was Black Beauty, moving on to the Pony Club Manual of Horsemanship, and eventually to the classical veterinary texts. University era textbooks still inhabit my bookshelves but over the years they’ve been joined by new books describing the latest technologies and techniques. Osteopathy and the Treatment of Horses will certainly find a place among my favourites.

The contents of my bookshelves are a testament to how much the world has changed within this one lifetime – a time of incredible scientific and technological advancements that have affected all aspects of our lives and our horses’ lives. Horses are no longer utilitarian servants; they enrich the lives of their owners and trainers as valued companions and highly trained athletes. Breeders responded to the demand for high quality equine athletes, different breeds became highly specialized for specific sports and, consequently, competition performances improved dramatically. At the same time, equine sports medicine developed as a specialty area that caters to the special needs and problems of athletic horses. Veterinary practices acquired sophisticated diagnostic equipment and practitioners learned to use new therapeutic techniques including the application of complementary and alternative treatments. Many techniques that are now applied routinely in animals were learned from colleagues trained in the human medical specialties and it became obvious that collaboration between veterinary surgeons and human health care professionals could yield great benefits.

Having experienced the benefits of osteopathy at first hand, it was easy to appreciate the potential value of osteopathic treatments in horses. In fact, I’ve been eagerly awaiting the publication of Osteopathy and the Treatment of Horses for several years and am pleased to see that the final product exceeds even the highest expectations of a comprehensive text on equine osteopathy. The contents represent the collective knowledge and experience of three highly trained osteopaths, all of whom have a special interest in horses, and a renowned veterinary specialist in equine orthopedic surgery. The reader is taken on a journey that encompasses a historical background of osteopathy, a tour of the basic sciences of equine anatomy and physiology, some helpful advice for setting up an animal-oriented osteopathic practice and regulations governing diagnosis and treatment of animals. The later chapters describe the essence of osteopathy with detailed descriptions and copious illustrations of the osteopathic evaluation and therapeutic techniques.

We learn in these pages that Andrew Taylor Still is known as the father of osteopathy – surely the title of father of animal osteopathy belongs to the first author of this book. I regret that I never met Anthony Pusey. I certainly knew of his reputation and had hoped that one day our paths would cross, but it was not to be. It is a great shame that Anthony could not have seen this book in print but it is gratifying to know that his substantial contribution to animal osteopathy has been recognized in the publication of Osteopathy and the Treatment of Horses.

Hilary M. Clayton, BVMS, PhD, DACVSMR, MRCVSMary Anne McPhail Dressage Chair in EquineSports Medicine

Preface

It is many centuries since Hippocrates advocated the use of physical treatment and over 100 years since Dr Still formalised a system of manual medicine known as osteopathy. Since then, osteopathy has developed into a wide-ranging discipline touching the lives of many, from childhood to old age, through sports and in the workplace. The treatment of animals is a natural extension to this field. In essence, it is hoped that this book will highlight the role of osteopathy in the care of animals, and stimulate interest and discussion both between disciplines and within the profession.

Despite having a dedicated and enthusiastic following, very little has been written on osteopathy for animals. This book is the distillation of the experience of a number of practitioners over an extended period. It covers aspects of the history, theory, ethics, diagnosis and treatment of horses under conditions ranging from work in the field to the clinicbased environment.

It seeks to stimulate those already working in the field to analyse the way they practise and to contribute to the body of knowledge. Equally, it aims to provide a framework for practitioners just dipping a tentative toe into the waters of animal osteopathy. In addition, for allied professions such as veterinary surgeons, physiotherapists, chiropractors, saddlers, farriers and equine dentists, to name but a few, it is an opportunity to look at osteopathy with a view to working with osteopaths to provide the best treatment for the horses in their care.

Anthony Pusey was an osteopath of international renown who was instrumental in linking the many different strands of academia, medicine and veterinary science with his great passion, osteopathy.

He was born on 22nd January 1951 and entered the British School of Osteopathy in London in 1969. After qualification with the Clinical Prize, he maintained his links with the school through undergraduate teaching. He infected generations of students with his enthusiasm for his subject, through lectures and demonstrations. His commitment to education was to continue throughout his career and his crowning achievement in this area was the development of a Master of Science degree for osteopaths in the application of osteopathy in the treatment animals.

In the 1970s he moved his practice from Harley Street to Haywards Heath in Sussex, where he was able to develop his osteopathic skill in treating families. This family connection was further extended when he was asked by a patient to look at his large German Shepherd Dog. He combined forces with the veterinary surgeon to treat the dog. They went on to set up an osteopathic clinic for small animals, presenting the results of this collaboration to the British Small Animal Veterinary Association’s congress in 1986.

Whilst developing his human practice, one of the largest in Britain, his work with small animals inevitably led to larger species ranging from prize pigs to racing camels. This interest focused on horses in the 1980s when he met Dr Chris Colles, a vet with a research background at the Animal Health Trust, who was by then a partner in a large equine veterinary referral centre. Chris had noted that a proportion of cases referred to the hospital, with complaints such as stiffness and poor performance, had no demonstrable disease despite extensive tests. This exactly mirrored the cases Anthony was seeing in the human practice. The two of them decided to work together to investigate this phenomenon at Avonvale Veterinary Centre. This clinic had patients from the top echelons of the horse world including Olympic competitors from a number of different nations.

Dr Colles was interested in using infra-red thermography as an objective tool to identify problems and evaluate the effect of treatment. Anthony realised the value of researching the effect of treatment on animals in countering the placebo argument that had been levelled at human osteopathy. This resulted in a number of papers presented to international audiences.

In 1998 a lecture at the Army Remount Centre at Melton Mowbray led to an invitation to treat the horses of the Household Cavalry at Knightsbridge Barracks. Anthony loved working with these magnificent horses, and enjoyed the hospitality of the officer’s mess. It also led him into contact with the Crown Equerry, and his clinics came to include the horses at Buckingham Palace Mews and Windsor Castle. He often continued ‘case conferences’ over dinner at the Cavalry and Guards Club, which he considered affectionately as his London home. In 1999 he became a liveryman in theWorshipful Company of Farriers and a freeman of the City of London.

His infectious enthusiasm and his ability to listen and respect the ideas of the key players in many different walks of life meant that he was able quietly and inexorably to advance his ideas on the role of osteopathy in the medical and veterinary fields.

He died on 30th March 2007 of adenocarcinoma of the oesophagus. His memorial service was held in the Guards Chapel.

Adapted from obituaries inThe Daily Telegraph 6th April 2007

Acknowledgments

This book is the distillation of years of osteopathic treatment applied to animals. None of this would have been possible without the significant input from the many veterinary surgeons, both at home and abroad, who were open to the idea of a different approach to musculoskeletal problems. These include Graham De Baedemaecker with whom the initial foray into working with dogs was made, and Dr Chris Colles whose knowledge, insight and enthusiasm for the subject have resulted in the continued evolution of osteopathic treatment in horses.

Alongside the vets, the efficiency and professionalism of the staff at Avonvale Veterinary Group and in particular Trish Thornton have eased the strain of busy clinics.

Working as part of a co-ordinated team brings innumerable benefits. Multidisciplinary clinics with professionals such as physiotherapist Amanda Sutton and vet acupuncturist Sue Devereaux as well as the many farriers, saddlers and equine dentists encountered along the way have led to the exploration of new ideas together in a clinical setting.

The variety and colour of the osteopathic experience have been greatly enhanced by working with the officers, men and horses of the Household Cavalry and the Royal Mews, especially Major Jo Holmes and Colonel Mark Morrison.

The input of fellow osteopaths such as Tony Nevin, Dr Tony Wahba, Steven Choy, Hilary Hubbers, Chris Fielding and Jonathan Cohen has proved invaluable. Unstinting support from nearer home in discussing the content and endlessly proofreading chapters was provided by Dr Bernard Brooks, Georgina Brooks, James Brooks, Rupert Pusey, Antonia Pusey and Commodore Richard Bridges. My thanks also go to the staff at Awbrook Lodge, particularly Brenda Keerie, Gillian Oldfield, Jill Guard, Susan Elliot, Betty Dann, Janet Saunders and Phil Ashman.

Annabel would also like to acknowledge and thank the following people for their assistance in the making of this book: osteopaths Sarah Howells DO, David Powers DO, Tony Nevin DO and Alison Tyler DO; international dressage rider and trainer Jill Day; Jessica and Stuart Jeffrey for their IT expertise; her sister Caroline for proofreading; her partner Tom Craig and the staff at the stables for all their patience and support; her horse Merlin who modelled for the photographs; and all the patients, horses, vets, riders and owners over the years who have helped her develop her osteopathic skills.

Finally, thanks go to the staff of Wiley-Blackwell and especially Katy Loftus for great patience and encouragement in bringing this book to its conclusion.

About the Authors

Anthony Pusey, an osteopath of international renown, has been instrumental in establishing the role of osteopathy in the treatment of animals. Qualifying from the British School of Osteopathy in London in 1971, he developed a large human osteopathic practice whilst also forging links with veterinary practices where he treated horses from the top echelons of the horse world, including Olympic competitors of many different nations. He also treated the horses of the Household Cavalry, The Royal Mews and Windsor Castle. He lectured nationally and internationally, as well as developing a Master of Science degree in the application of osteopathy in the treatment of animals. This book is a distillation of over 35 years of his work in this field.

Julia Brooks MSc DO qualified from the British School of Osteopathy in 1983 before joining Anthony Pusey in a practice that encompassed both human and animal osteopathy. She has lectured nationally and internationally at postgraduate level and has presented research papers on this subject as well as contributing to a number of veterinary and osteopathic textbooks. She has been involved in Masters programmes and postgraduate diplomas in both the development stages and as an external examiner for the University of Wales.

Annabel Jenks DO ND is an osteopath with over 25 years’ experience. She has a private practice in Essex, UK, treating a full spectrum of patients both human and equine, from Pony Club to Olympian. She graduated in 1984 from The British College of Osteopathic Medicine in London, where she has been a governor since 1997. She is a faculty member on the Masters Degree in Animal Osteopathy at the University of Wales. She has previously ridden in all disciplines but now concentrates on dressage, training and competing with her own horses from novice through to advanced level.

With contribution of Chapter 15 from Christopher Colles BVetMed, PhD, Hon FWCF, MRCVS, RCVS specialist in equine surgery (orthopaedics). Dr Colles qualified from the Royal Veterinary College, London in 1971. After spending 4 years in general practice, he joined the Animal Health Trust, Equine Clinical Unit (formerly the Equine Research Station) in 1975. He carried out research into orthopaedic conditions of the horse, and was awarded his PhD in 1982. In 1988, when head of the equine clinical department, he returned to equine practice since when he has been carrying out referral work at the Avonvale Veterinary Practice, a specialist equine practice in the Midlands. He was recognised by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons as a specialist equine surgeon (orthopaedics) in 1996, and was awarded an honorary fellowship of the Worshipful Company of Farriers in recognition of his research and teaching in farriery in 2000. Dr Colles has published widely in the scientific veterinary literature, and lectured on equine orthopaedic topics world wide. He is co-author of seven veterinary textbooks.

Disclaimer

The information in this book is distributed on an ‘as is’ basis, without warranty. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, neither the authors nor the publisher shall have any liability to any person or entity with respect to any liability, loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the information contained in this book.

1

Introducing Osteopathy for Horses

Anthony Pusey and Julia Brooks

On a blustery Friday evening in the depths of a particularly long winter, I had just finished an afternoon’s list of patients when the telephone rang. I lifted the receiver.

‘It’s Jack’, said someone urgently. ‘He’s lying on the kitchen floor, howling with pain. Can you come out to him?’

I recognised the voice of a patient whose family I had seen intermittently over years and, following the directions given, I arrived at the threshold of a terraced cottage. There was indeed an awful racket coming from inside and my concern for poor Jack deepened. As I was ushered hastily into the kitchen, I was confronted with a very large, shaggy German Shepherd dog obviously in considerable pain!

In response to my questioning gaze, Jack’s owner looked apologetic and confessed that he had not been entirely frank on the telephone as he doubted that, if he had, I would have consented to the visit. He added in flattering tones that as I had treated the rest of the family so successfully, he was sure that I would be able to help his dog.

It transpired that Jack had suffered recurrent bouts of back pain over a number of years, which had reached a crisis point that afternoon after he had leapt down from the back of the car. The pattern of presentation was one that I recognised from human practice.

I called for help. By chance, the family vet was also a patient of mine and, after talking about Jack’s problem in particular and musculoskeletal problems in general, he readily admitted that all he would offer in such cases was symptomatic relief in the form of painkillers and antiinflammatory drugs. We decided on a combined approach to Jack’s treatment. In the following years there were many other animals that benefited from our shared experience on a kitchen floor all those years ago.

After Jack, my experience of using osteopathy with animals broadened, to include a variety of species including a prize-winning pig and a film-star camel.

The animal work has brought innumerable benefits to my human practice. It has sharpened my observational skills of the body both at rest and in motion. It has taught me to rely on the findings of my fingers. It has refined my diagnostic reasoning. I have benefited from contact with other professions whose skills and ideas provide an added dimension to my work as an osteopath. It has also brought the friendship of other osteopaths working in the field, whose dedication and enthusiasm have been palpable.

Formany osteopaths,much of their animal work involves horses, apparently heedless of the warning issued by a well known farrier that horses are ‘dangerous at both ends and uncomfortable in the middle’.We decided to write this book to introduce the subject and encourage contributions from current practitioners and future generations as knowledge and expertise in this field develop.

It is therefore the intention to provide a theoretical and practical framework for students and practitioners with an interest in the osteopathic treatment of the horse. It will also be helpful to allied professions such as veterinary surgeons, other musculoskeletal specialists, farriers, equine dentists and saddlers to introduce some of the concepts underlying osteopathic treatment and enable them to identify the cases where osteopathy may benefit animals in their care.

A history of the development of animal treatment has been included, as well as the legal and ethical aspects to be considered when working in this field. Anatomical, biomechanical and neurophysiological principles on which osteopathic treatment of horses is based have been discussed and a diagnostic and therapeutic approach has been proposed.

Figure 1.1 Andrew Taylor Still (1828–1917), father of osteopathy (right) with author Mark Twain.

This approach is by no means prescriptive. Each practitioner will develop their own diagnostic routines and therapeutic techniques, according to training, experience and preference. In this diverse and challenging field there is a place for everyone.

HISTORY OF OSTEOPATHY

To begin at the beginning is to take a leap back into antiquity. Over 2500 years ago, Hippocrates advised that ‘a physician must be experienced in many things, but assuredly in rubbing’. Over the centuries that followed, many forms of physical treatment have been shown to be beneficial.

Osteopathy as a medical philosophy was developed in the 1880s by Andrew Taylor Still, a doctor from the American mid-west (Figure 1.1). Dr Still became disillusioned with the medicine practised at that time, which included bleeding, purgatives and other equally unpleasant forms of treatment. Instead, his anatomical studies led him to envisage a system of medicine that placed chief emphasis on the structural integrity of the body as being vital to the well being of the organism. In other words, if the structure is fine, then the body can function normally. Over the years, a number of definitions of varying length and complexity have been proposed for osteopathy, but Dr Still’s original concept has largely been preserved.

LEGISLATION

If human medicine was basic in the time of Dr Still, then the care of animals was also less than satisfactory. In early years the treatment of horses was the responsibility of farriers, regulated in England by the Worshipful Company of Farriers established in 1674. However, they competed with cow-leeches and horse doctors in applying uncomfortable and invasive treatments such as oiling, firing and rowelling, and prescribing toxic substances, of which antimony and sulphur were particularly popular. In 1844, the Royal Charter for the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons advocated that horses should be treated by veterinary surgeons. Over the following decades, farriers reverted to specialising in the craft of shoeing horses, and those trained at the new veterinary colleges undertook the treatment of animals.

In the 20th century, all professions moved towards the regulation of training and practice. For osteopaths in America this meant merging with the medical profession in the 1960s. In England, osteopaths preserved their identity as an independent profession, and the Osteopaths Act of 1993 restricted the title of osteopath to those who had fulfilled the necessary training required by the General Osteopathic Council.

Similarly, the Veterinary Surgeons Act of 1966 made it illegal for anyone other than a veterinary surgeon to treat an animal. An exception to this was physical therapists. This category included physiotherapists, chiropractors and osteopaths, who could treat an animal under the direction of a vet. This recognised the contribution of physical treatments made by these disciplines. It also provided protection for animals in terms of early diagnosis of pathological processes and preventing inappropriate treatment.

HISTORY OF OSTEOPATHIC TREATMENT OF ANIMALS

Recognition of osteopathy as a healing system spread and it soon became clear that a treatment apparently so successful in humans could be applied with equal success to the treatment of animals.

Many of those regarded as forerunners in the field were osteopaths practising in the first half of the 20th century. The stories of the way they started will reflect a common experience in the generations that followed. Some began after a request from a patient to look at a family pet; others began in response to the suffering of their own animals. Colin Dove, a former principal at the British School of Osteopathy, remembers applying his cranial expertise to treat a colleague’s dog that was crippled after an afternoon cavorting with his children! Osteopaths in rural areas were approached by farmers concerned about their various animals. Practitioners such as Greg Currie in Epsom were inevitably drawn into the racing world.

For some these will have been one-off or infrequent experiences, but for others it was a launching pad into an exciting, challenging and rewarding field. One of the pioneers in the field, working alongside vets, was Arthur Smith (Figure 1.2). Arthur qualified in 1951 from the British School of Osteopathy and set up practice in Leicestershire. One of his patients was a vet who, having felt the benefit of osteopathic treatment for himself, asked whether the principles could be applied to horses. Initially reluctantly, he took time out to study horse anatomy at a local museum and decided that it might be possible. After successes with the first few cases, veterinary surgeons referred hundreds of horses to him over subsequent years. In his retirement he described vividly techniques that involved a general anaesthetic and six strong men!

Figure 1.2 Arthur Smith (centre): a pioneer in the osteopathic treatment of horses under general anaesthetic.

Society of Osteopaths in Animal Practice (SOAP)

In the early 1980s, in response to increasing interest from the general public and the profession itself,Mr Barry Darewski, the registrar of the regulating body, the General Council and Register of Osteopaths (GCRO), asked for a list to be compiled of osteopaths with a special interest in treating animals. This list formed the core members of the special interest group, Osteopaths in Animal Practice (OAPs) which was to become SOAP (Society of Osteopaths in Animal Practice) in 2004.

This group and the osteopathic schools have assisted in sharing knowledge in this field through postgraduate education. Interdisciplinary communication with vets, physiotherapists, chiropractors, farriers, dentists and saddlers has flourished in this environment. Institutions such as zoos, the army and the police have also come to appreciate the contribution osteopathy can make to animals in their care. More recently, the advantages of research in this area have become evident in demonstrating the effectiveness of osteopathy in subjects not susceptible to placebo.

With the growth and development of this field, osteopathy has been shown to make a valuable contribution as part of a multidisciplinary team devoted to the care of animals. It is also an exciting and rewarding part of the rich tapestry that is osteopathy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hunter P (2001) Researching the past: archival sources for the history of veterinary medicine. In: Rossdale PD, Green G (eds) Guardians of the Horse II. Romney Publications, Newmarket, pp. 34–39.

Osteopaths Act 1993. HMSO, London.

Prince LB (1980) The Farrier and His Craft. JA Allen, London.

Still AT (1902) The Philosophy and Mechanical Principles of Osteopathy. Hudson-Kimberly, Kansas City.

Veterinary Surgeons Act 1966. HMSO, London.

2

Horse Anatomy for Osteopaths

Julia Brooks and Anthony Pusey

The anatomy of the horse is a huge subject. It is certainly not possible to squeeze it into a few pages, which is why this chapter will concentrate on some of those aspects that may be useful in osteopathic practice. For the rest, it is a case of studying some excellent but weighty anatomical tome, of which there are many. Another useful way of extending anatomical knowledge is to beg a body part from a knacker’s yard and dismember it with the aid of a dissection guide. Care should be taken with storage, however. A colleague who was to have provided a horse’s head for a study group had it dragged from his garage and away over the fields by a gourmet fox. Fortunately, he was able to provide ‘an old one’ from his deep freeze!

This text will concentrate on the basic structure, the surface anatomy and the regional anatomy insofar as these have clinical and osteopathic relevance.

OVERVIEW

If some of the anatomical volumes seem a little daunting, there should not be cause for complete despair. Those who still remember human anatomy will appreciate the remarkable similarity in the basic structure between the species (Figure 2.1). The differences are mainly those of scale, proportion and orientation. Also, horses do not have clavicles and have fewer fingers and toes.

The main structural difference is in the legs. It is as though someone has grabbed hold of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal where they join the carpal and tarsal bones respectively, and pulled them out, so elongating them and losing most of the fingers in the process. This means that the carpal bones, instead of being situated towards the end of the limbs as in the human, actually end up towards the middle of the limb. Many of the bone and joint names will sound familiar (Figure 2.2). However, one trickier vagary of nomenclature is that vets refer to the carpal joints in the middle of the forelimb as the knee, which is actually the wrist in human terms. The human idea of the knee, complete with patella, is actually found tucked up at the upper end of the hindlimb and is called the stifle. ‘A knee in the groin stifles all comment’ may help as an aidem émoire!

Ossification rates of bones are also different. Growth continues up to 4 years and some adjacent ossification centres do not unite until 30 years old, if at all. This should be borne in mind when looking at X-rays to avoid the classic mistake of thinking that an epiphyseal plate or suture is a fracture line.

Muscles that will be recognisable from human studies may be better developed in the horse and have a different orientation to reflect its function as a grazing quadruped. Anatomists have managed to make things slightly more awkward by naming a few things differently, and a number of these names have been changed over time. Some of the muscles are called by alternative names, but as the terminology generally describes the origin and the insertion this should not prove to be too much of a problem.

Body orientation is also different in quadrupeds. The horse stands with around 60% of its body weight through the front limbs, with recent texts indicating a centre of mass at the level of the 13th rib along a line extending between the points of the shoulder and buttock. This explains the observation that, while resting one or other of the hind limbs may be normal, not weight-bearing through a forelimb is usually an indication that there is something wrong.

Figure 2.1 Horse and human skeleton: similarities are remarkable and differences are largely of scale, proportion and orientation.

ANATOMICAL DESCRIPTORS

With all four limbs in contact with the ground, some of the anatomical positional terms will be different and so a quick review of descriptive terms may be helpful (Figure 2.3). Planes that face towards the ground, such as the abdominal surface, are described as ventral while those directed skywards are dorsal. Anything facing forwards is referred to as cranial, and backwards as caudal. This also applies to the legs until, below the carpals and tarsals, the forward-facing part of the limb is the dorsal surface and the backward-directed parts become palmar and plantar surfaces respectively. At the head, structures towards the nose are considered to be rostral.

Proximal parts of the limb are located towards the trunk, while distal parts are found at the end of the limb. Other terminology to be aware of includes medial (directed towards the median plane) and lateral (towards the outside of the body).

Descriptions often refer to anatomical planes. The median plane describes a slice taken through the midline of the body from poll to tail, dividing the body equally into left and right halves. Sagittal planes are those running parallel to the median line. The dorsal or frontal plane divides the body into dorsal and ventral portions. Transverse planes are slices at right angles to the median plane of the body or to the long axis of a limb.

When it comes to describing planes of movement, flexion is where opposing surfaces approximate and extension is where surfaces separate. Sidebending, familiar in human terminology, is referred to as lateral flexion.

The following text outlines the regional anatomy of the head, neck, back and limbs with reference to surface features and structural components and touching on areas susceptible to dysfunction and pathology.

THE HEAD

Overview

The head is a large, elongated structure. It provides a considerable surface area for muscle attachments and to accommodate teeth so that horses can do efficiently what horses like doing best: eating. The head is also heavy, whichmeans that, by moving up, down and side to side, it can be used very effectively as a kind of weighted bob to change the horse’s centre of gravity and induce momentum during movement (Figure 2.4).

Surface Anatomy

Observable and palpable features include the poll (nuchal crest) from which runs the external or parietal crest. Laterally, the facial crest gives an attachment for the powerful masseter muscle, and the infraorbital foramen conveys a branch of the maxillary nerve to the upper lip. Medially, the nasal peak lies between the nasoincisive notches. On the mandible, rostral and medial to its angle, is a vascular impression that carries the facial artery, vein and parotid duct and is a site often used for taking a pulse. Further along, the mental foramen carries branches of the alveolar nerve to the lower lip.

Anatomical Components

The skull can be divided into two regions by a transverse line through the orbits: the cranium and the face.

The Cranium

The cranium, forming only a small part of the skull, contains a brain of about 600 g, which compares unfavourably with the 1300 g human organ. It lies in the area between the poll (nuchal crest) and the temporal fossa and consists of the same elements that are found in the human skull: occiput, frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, temporal and parietal bones, in addition to an interparietal bone that is separate only in horses and cats (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.2 Joints and bones: many of the structures are familiar to human anatomists.

As with human skulls, the union between the bones depends on whether ossification occurs in membrane or cartilage. The membranous bones of the vault are joined by sutures which are generally closed by the age of 7 years. The main cartilaginous unions ossify at 4 years between the body of the sphenoid and the basiocciput and 3 years between the pre-sphenoid body with its orbital wings and post-sphenoid body with its temporal wings and pterygoid processes.

An interesting departure from this pattern of progressive ossification is the occipito-mastoid sutures which do not fuse until the horse is in its twenties. From the osteopathic viewpoint, this may be an area where dysfunction can be identified and this is often corroborated by infrared imaging where the site appears as a ‘hot spot’ (see Chapter 3).

The occiput, at the back of the skull, is the strongest and thickest of the bones. It is topped with the ridge of the nuchal crest which has a central bony eminence, corresponding to the external occipital protuberance in man, to which the nuchal ligament is attached. This crest or poll is the highest part of the head and is often hit if the horse rears and falls backwards. The occiput is not, however, as frequently fractured as the smaller bones of the cranial base.

The caudal part of the occiput bears the occipital condyles which lie either side of the foramen magnum and articulate with the first cervical vertebra. These are very susceptible to compression injuries as a result of falling, which will affect the flexion/extension range of movement of the head on the neck.

Cranially, the brain is protected by the frontal bone with its sizeable sinus. It is this sinus, lying between the temporal fossae, which allows a direct approach to the brain when humane destruction is necessary. The frontal bone also forms the supraorbital ridge, which, together with the zygomatic process of the frontal bone and the zygoma itself, form part of the orbit.

The ear

Rising above the nuchal crest but attached around the external auditory meatus of the temporal bone are a series of cartilages which form the ear. Unlike the human ear, it is freely mobile in order to turn towards the source of sound. This requires an extensive network of voluntary muscles. Lying on the temporalis muscle and in front of the auricular cartilage, which forms the visible outline of the ear, is a small, quadrilateral plate termed the scutiform cartilage.

Figure 2.3 Anatomical descriptors: with all four feet on the ground, some descriptions will be different from the human equivalent.

This can be regarded as a kind of sesamoid bone acting as an insertion for muscles such as the interscutularis, scutuloauricularis, frontoscutularis and cervicoscutularis which, as the names suggest, run in many different directions.

In osteopathic terms, this complex arrangement allows the ears to be used in fascial and functional techniques to give a handle on the temporal bone and access to the tissues of the cranium and suboccipital region.

The eye

This is a good point at which to look at the structure of the eye. The orbit is placed laterally on the head so that, although this gives a good range of all-round vision (215°), the amount of binocular vision to the front is limited. This problem is compounded by the obstructing presence of a substantial nose. Furthermore, the ciliary muscle which, in the human, contracts to make the lens rounder in order to see close to (accommodation), is relatively weak in the horse. This combination means that a horse cannot see directly in front for a distance of about 110 cm, which is a good reason for always approaching a horse from the side.

In addition the eye does not have a regular shape. Rather than the round eyeball of the human subject, a horse’s eye is slightly flattened cranio-caudally. This flattening is not even consistent from above to below. The upper part of the retina, being furthest from the lens, is adapted for near vision, while the lower part, nearer the lens, serves distant vision. This provides in-built varifocal lenses which allow part of the eye to focus on the next clump of verdure during grazing while simultaneously scanning the horizon for predators.

Figure 2.4 The head: this large, elongated structure provides a large area for teeth and the attachment of powerful muscles of mastication. It also acts as a weighted bob during movement.

Figure 2.5 Cranium: components resemble those of the human skull with a number of additions.

The lens is non-elastic and there is speculation that changes of focus are brought about by changing head position. One can imagine that, where head and neck movement are restricted by a badly fitted bridle or an injury, the ability to focus may be impaired. It would be interesting to know how many nervous jumpers or those suddenly losing form are unable to bring their head into a position where they can see the obstacle properly.

The eye has a third eyelid which can be seen by pressing on the eyeball. This displaces the fat behind the eye and pushes the lid across. The muscle spasticity of the extraocular muscles in tetanus produces the same effect and is in fact a diagnostic sign of the disease.

Above and behind each orbit is a hollow area that houses the coronoid process of the mandible. As the jaw closes, the coronoid forces the fat up from the orbit into the fossa which causes a bulging in this space, an effect readily seen when the horse is feeding.

Running rostrally from the orbit, the zygoma continues as the distinctive zygomatic ridge, referred to as the facial crest, which provides an insertion for the masseter muscle.

The Face

The face is made up of the maxilla, premaxilla, nasal, lacrimal and zygomatic (malar) bones, turbinates, vomer, mandible and hyoid. It is dominated by the elongated oral and nasal cavities and a number of sinuses. The sinuses have a functional role to lighten the large skull area adapted for mastication. They also have a clinical significance in that they can become infected. With unresolving discharge, the frontal, superior and inferior maxillary sinuses can be drained by drilling a small hole (trephining). The sphenoidal part of the sphenopalatine sinus is difficult to access and may be a site of continuing infection.

Osteopathically, some of the cranial techniques can influence the sinuses, an effect which is observable post-treatment when the horse, particularly when sedated, will drop its head low and discharge copious amounts of mucus from the nasal passages.

Laterally, the maxilla bears the infraorbital foramen containing a branch of the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve to the upper lip, which can be compromised by an over-tight noseband.

Oral cavities

The teeth divide the mouth into the outer vestibule, bounded by the cheek and lips, and the central oral cavity. The main support for the vestibule is the buccinator muscle, which holds the cheek close to the teeth, pressing food through into the oral space. This arrangement is disrupted in facial paralysis when food collects laterally, pouching the cheeks.

The lips are mobile and sensitive musculomembranous folds surrounding the orifice of the mouth. The concentration of sensory nerves in this area is utilised when using a twitch as a means of restraint. A twitch, usually a loop of rope, is placed around the horse’s upper lip and then twisted to tighten. A horse will usually go into a trance-like state, dropping the head and closing the eyes, presumably as centrally acting endorphins are released.

Rostrally and centrally, the frenula labii (superioris and inferioris) are made up of two small mucous membranes running from the lip to the gum. The frenulum is sometimes used in osteopathic treatment to achieve general relaxation, presumably using similar endorphin-mediated pathways as those involved when using a twitch.

Tongue

The central oral cavity is filled with the tongue running in the floor of the mouth from the root at the hyoid and pharynx to the free spatula-shaped apex (Figure 2.7).

The tongue is supported in a sling formed by the mylohyoideus muscle running between the horizontal parts of the jaw. The extrinsic tongue muscles, the hyoglossus, the laterally placed styloglossus and the fan-shaped genioglossus, blend with the horizontal, vertical and transverse fibres of the intrinsic muscles to form a highly mobile structure. Under general anaesthetic, the tongue can be used as a tool to relax the intermandibular structures around the hyoid.

Nasal cavities

Horses are obligate nasal breathers. The air is warmed and hydrated as it passes through the large spaces of the nasal cavities. The cavities are roofed by the two triangular-shaped nasal bones, whose bases unite at the frontal and lacrimal bones and then run down to form a sharp apex (nasal peak) with a notch on either side (the nasoincisive notch).

Osteopathic direct inhibition techniques may be used either side of this peak, and appear to reduce tone in the facial musculature and that of the upper cervical spine.

The cavity is divided into two halves by the nasal septum. Projecting into the hindmost part are the ethmoids which have a role in the sense of smell. Rostrally are the turbinates (conchae) whose large, vascular surface warms and moisturises the inhaled air.

Hard and soft palates

The nasal cavities are separated from the oral cavities by the palate (Figure 2.6). The hard palate is made up of the premaxilla, or incisive bone, containing the upper incisors, and the maxilla which accommodates the cheek teeth (molars). This is continuous behind with the large musculomembranous soft palate which extends backwards to contact the epiglottis, so closing off the oral cavity during breathing.

A frequently mentioned condition is dorsal displacement of the soft palate (DDSP). This occurs typically in 2-year-old thoroughbreds during fast work, where the soft palate is displaced above the epiglottis and into the nasopharynx causing turbulence of airflow and giving rise to a characteristic gurgling or choking sound. This anatomical rearrangement resolves on swallowing, when the larynx, poking upwards through the soft palate into the nasopharynx, is drawn down and forwards. This movement allows the epiglottis and soft palate to re-establish their normal relationship.

Figure 2.6 The face: nasal and oral cavities form a significant part of this region.

Guttural pouches

Other anatomical features in this region are the guttural pouches, which are large air-filled invaginations in the eustachian tube connecting the nasopharynx and the middle ear cavity. These may become infected.

Intermandibular space

Between the mandibles lies the intermandibular space. This is an interesting area for both veterinary surgeons and osteopaths. Clinically, by palpating the medial edge of the mandible about 7 cm from the angle of the jaw, the facial artery may be used to measure the pulse, which should be about 35 beats per minute at rest.

In the centre of the space lie the elongated mandibular lymph glands. These become swollen in upper respiratory tract infections and are often the site of abscesses in strangles, a highly infectious respiratory disease caused by Streptococcus equi.

Larynx

Centrally, at the back of the intermandibular space and protecting the lower respiratory passages from food and liquids, sits the larynx, which is suspended from the cranial base by the hyoid. The epiglottic, thyroid, cricoid and paired arytenoid cartilages are the five articulated components of the larynx which join the nasopharynx with the trachea. A condition which may be apparent by 6 years old or older horses over 16 hands is recurrent laryngeal neuropathy, which presents as a whistling or roaring sound on inspiration. Usually affecting the left side, the vocal fold lying in the opening of the larynx, the glottis, becomes flaccid and obstructs airflow. Two operations, sometimes undertaken together, are performed to tighten these folds and open the glottis. The Hobday operation involves the removal of either the left or both the ventricles either side of the vocal cord. The abductor muscle prosthesis or ‘tie-back’ operation uses a band of material to replace the wasted cricoarytenoid muscle and tie the left side of the larynx open.

Hyoid

The hyoid provides a framework for the larynx and an origin for much of the tongue musculature. It is attached to the petrous parts of the temporal bones by approximately 2 cm of bone, termed the stylohyoids or great cornua. These structures descend from the temporal bones on both sides to take the form of a swing. The transverse seat of the swing is represented by the basihyoid from which the lingual process projects rostrally, penetrating deep into the muscles of the tongue. Directed back from the basihyoid, the paired thyrohyoid bones attach to the thyroid cartilage.

Figure 2.7 Hyoid: the hyoid provides a framework for the larynx and an origin for much of the tongue musculature.

From the hyoid, muscles radiate in many directions. They project rostrally, attaching to the mandible (mylohyoideus, geniohyoideus) or as part of the tongue (styloglossus, hyoglossus) (Figure 2.7). They attach to the sternum (sternohyoideus), the scapula (omohyoideus) and even the occiput (occipitohyoideus).

It is these multiple relationships that make the region important when assessing the neck function and the patency of the airway within the intermandibular space. An effective functional osteopathic procedure performed under general anaesthetic uses the tongue to assess and resolve abnormal muscular and fascial tone in the supra- and infrahyoid region (Chapter 13).

The Mandible

The mandible is a large structure which houses the lower arcade of teeth, provides a large surface area for the attachment of the muscles of mastication and articulates with the skull at the temporomandibular joint. This area is clinically important for a number of reasons, which will be mentioned below.

Running from the angles of the jaw, the left and right sides of the mandible are fused rostrally at between 1 and 6 months to form the body which bears the lower arcade of teeth. The mandibular ramus extends up from the angle to end caudally in the condyloid process lying in the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone and cranially in the coronoid process lying in the temporal fossa.

Temporomandibular joint

The mandible, slung below the skull, articulates with the temporal bone at the temporomandibular joint. The articulation is formed by the incongruous articular surfaces of these two components. On the temporal surface, the long axis of the glenoid cavity is directed laterally and somewhat forwards. It is continued in the postglenoid process behind and the temporal condyle in front. This receives the transversely elongated condyle of the mandible.

An articular disc lies between these surfaces, attached to the circumference of the joint capsule. It divides the joint into a lower compartment and a more roomy upper compartment. This gives congruency and facilitates more complex joint movements. External and posterior ligaments reinforce the joint.

The chief movement is around a transverse axis through both joints to give a hinge-like action for opening and closing the mouth. As the mouth is opened, the condyle moves forwards in the glenoid cavity, carrying the disc with it. On closing the mouth, the disc returns to rest under the glenoid cavity. Protrusion and retraction of the lower jaw, such as occurs when dropping and lifting the head, involves the forwards and backwards glide of the disc. The lateral movements, employed in eating, take place about a vertical axis through the condyles, while the disc glides forwards on one side and backwards on the other. This grinding movement is associated with rotation at the atlanto-axial joint.

Not only is the temporomandibular region related to the neck functionally, but there is also a neurological link. The joint is innervated by the spinal trigeminal nerve, whose nucleus stretches from the brain stem down as far as the first cervical segment. Here, the nerve nuclei intermingle with those fibres supplying the upper neck, and changes in signals from one structure will often affect the function of the other.

The state of the muscles operating over the articulation often give a clue as to the symmetry and effectiveness of joint function. The main muscles are the masseter, running from the facial crest to the mandible, and the temporalis, originating in the temporal fossa and inserting on the coronoid process of the mandible. Both muscles act with the medial pterygoid to close the mouth. Other less bulky muscles, the digastric and lateral pterygoid, open the jaw.Where the temporomandibular region is compromised by injury or dental problems, the temporalis and masseter muscles often look and feel flattened and fibrotic.

Dentition

This is a subject in its own right. The state of the dentition is important not only for the condition of the horse through nutrition, but also for ensuring optimum function of the temporomandibular joint, the structures of the intermandibular space and the upper cervical spine.

The table of the teeth is worn down by abrasion at a rate of about 3mm per year. This is replaced as the alveolar cavity, where the root lies, gradually fills with bone and slowly pushes the tooth out beyond the gum line to compensate for attrition at the masticatory surfaces. The erosion exposes different elements of the tooth structure over the years, which gives a way of ageing a horse on the basis of the cross-sectional appearance of the teeth (Table 2.1).

The lower arcade of three pairs of incisors is used to age a horse (Figure 2.8). Owners are sometimes a little vague about dates of birth and it may be helpful to distinguish a 5- from a 15-year-old for prognostic purposes.

Ageing is a somewhat inexact art, particularly after the age of 6 years. Points to look for are the presence of deciduous or permanent teeth, whether they are fully erupted, if they are in wear, if they have cups and the shape of the teeth. The principal landmarks are the age at which the permanent teeth replace the deciduous teeth (21/2 years) and the age at which they start to grind on the surface of the teeth above (in wear).

By 4–5 years, the full complement of permanent teeth on each side is comprised of three incisors, one canine in the male which may be absent or rudimentary in the female, three premolars and three molars. Between the incisors and premolars is the interdental space or diastema where there are no teeth and where the bit of the bridle sits.

In these spaces, there may be supernumerary first premolars called wolf teeth, appearing in the upper jaw between 6 and 18 months of age. They may not erupt through and can be felt as bumps under the gum. These can cause bitting difficulties and behavioural problems when ridden. Removal is a common operation under standing sedation.

As the tooth is pushed down from the root and wears at the crown, different features of its cross section will be exposed, depending on the years of wear. One useful feature is the presence of a fold in the enamel to form an infundibulum or cup on the surface of the tooth. This becomes filled with rotting foodstuff and appears as a black slit in the middle of the tooth surface, which disappears around 8 years old.

On the upper arcade, Galvayne’s groove can be seen appearing in the upper corner incisors at around 10 years old and will extend halfway down the tooth by 15 years of age.

Whereas the incisors are used for cutting verdure, the cheek teeth or molars provide a broad surface for grinding. Important in this process is the type of feed given. Feeding on the ground is preferable as the mandible comes forward into protraction as the head drops and occlusion between upper and lower surfaces is better.

As the lower jaw is narrower than the upper jaw, the teeth do not exactly cover each other and so the wear on the upper and lower arcades of cheek teeth is not even. This is less of a problem if the horse is at grass as there is less lateral movement. However, if uneven wear results in the development of sharp edges, the upper teeth may irritate the labial (near the lips) surface, and the lower teeth may irritate the tongue. Not surprisingly, the horse may change in temperament, alter feeding habit and be very uncomfortable with a bit in its mouth. Referral to a qualified equine dentist is helpful in these cases.

Table 2.1 Ageing a horse using the lower incisors

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The regions of the spine are named in the same way as for humans but there are some variations in the number of vertebrae making up each section. The cervical spine is composed of seven vertebrae; the thoracic spine has 18; the lumbar has six (except breeds such as Arabs, which have five vertebrae); the sacrum is formed from five fused vertebrae; and, at the tail, there are approximately 18 coccygeal vertebrae. The outline of the horse is rather misleading when it comes to locating vertebral position for palpatory examination. Those practitioners used to the accessible human spinal structure conveniently close to the surface of the back will need to appreciate the bulk of some of the ligaments and muscle groups and the size of some of the spinous processes and will have to shift their sights ventrally in the horse (Figure 2.2).

The Neck

Overview

The neck controls the position and movement of the head and provides important information concerning balance. It is the initiator of that sinusoidal movement of the back which produces smooth forward propulsion. From an injury point of view, when a horse falls at speed it will fall on the head and neck: 500 kg at 30 miles an hour falling on to a mobile structure will undoubtedly have some undesirable consequences! Despite all this, many conferences and lectures on back pain will mention that the neck is the most mobile part of the spine and move swiftly on to the intricacies of pelvic lesions and overriding dorsal processes. From the osteopath’s point of view it is an area of huge interest. It is accessible, changes are palpable and the effect of treatment on the mechanics of the rest of the spine can be astonishing.

Figure 2.8 Dentition: the cross-sectional appearance of the lower incisor teeth gives an indication of the age of the horse.

Surface anatomy

Anatomically, the seven bones of the cervical spine adopt an inverted S-shape with the occiput to C3 flexed (convex dorsally) and C3 to the thorax following an extension curve (convex ventrally). This is at variance with the outer contour of the neck and means that, whereas the upper cervical spine is fairly close to the dorsal surface of the neck, the lower cervical vertebrae drop sharply ventral towards the midline of the neck. Therefore, in order to locate the transverse processes, palpation must be much lower down (ventrally) than might be expected from the human equivalent.

The visual and palpatory landmarks are the wings of the atlas, the jugular groove, and the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae. Muscles that may be identified are the brachiocephalicus and sternocephalicus lying each side of the jugular groove, and the trapezius, splenius, and obliquus capitis.

Anatomical components

Occipito-atlanto-axial complex

Starting at the top is the atlas (Figure 2.9). This is essentially a very chunky version of the bodyless, ring-shaped, human atlas. However, the articular surfaces receiving the skull condyles are much deeper than the human equivalent, which one might expect given the weight of the skull hanging from it. These joints allow mainly flexion and extension. A Canadian study on post-mortem horses reported ranges of about 86° flexion/extension, 44° lateral flexion and, with cranio-caudal glide, 27° of rotation was observed.

The atlas also has substantial transverse processes, or wings, which can be observed and palpated. These wings are large to provide an area for the attachment of some powerful neck muscles. They protrude laterally and are very easily seen starting just below the root of each ear. They are useful landmarks when observing the neck movement in the short turn. They are also easily palpated, and positional asymmetries can be identified.

Figure 2.9 Atlas (C1): cranial view showing the ring-shaped bodyless atlas bearing deep, cup-shaped, articular surfaces which receive the occipital condyles and the prominent transverse processes (wings).

Caudally the atlas articulates with the long, imposing structure of the axis (C2) (Figure 2.10