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- Herausgeber: IVP Academic
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Sprache: Englisch
The theology of the apostle Paul is complex, set forth in numerous occasional letters, and subject to a seemingly endless variety of interpretations. How should students of Scripture engage the challenging task of discerning the shape of Paul's thought? In Paul, Apostle of God's Glory in Christ, Thomas R. Schreiner seeks to unearth Paul's worldview by observing what Paul actually says in his writings and laying out the most important themes and how they are connected. According to Schreiner, "The passion of Paul's life, the foundation and capstone of his vision, and the animating motive of his mission was the supremacy of God in and through the Lord Jesus Christ." While continuing to return to this foundation, Schreiner explores themes such as the inclusion of the Gentiles in God's people, the power of sin, God's liberating work of grace, and the unity of the church, as well as the often-neglected topics of Paul as a missionary and his apostolic sufferings. This second edition is revised throughout and engages with more recent works on Paul. While thoroughly informed by the issues of contemporary Pauline studies, Schreiner offers an accessible account of Paul's theology that focuses on the primary sources. Paul, Apostle of God's Glory in Christ remains a sound, insightful, and trusted exposition of Paul's theology that is well-geared to the needs of seminary students and working pastors.
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PAUL, APOSTLE OF GOD’S GLORY IN CHRIST
A PAULINE THEOLOGY
SECOND EDITION
To my children
DANIEL, PATRICK, JOHN, AND ANNA
sources of unspeakable joy
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition
WRITING THE SECOND EDITION OF A BOOK is a trip down memory lane. Reading the first preface reminded me of precious friendships and the wonderful help I received from friends as I wrote the book. Dan Reid, who has recently retired from InterVarsity Press, invited me to consider a second edition, for which I am grateful. Anna Moseley Gissing has picked up Dan’s mantle and has been encouraging and helpful in the process. We can self-publish books today, but having professionals like those at InterVarsity Press edit and proof a book is a great benefit, and one for which I am grateful. Special thanks go to Rebecca Carhart and her team for her excellent editing, for catching mistakes, and for making this book better than it would have been otherwise. I am grateful to Richard Blaylock, one of my PhD students, who did an excellent job in compiling the indexes.
Many significant books on Pauline theology and the apostle Paul have appeared since the first book came out. It isn’t my goal to list them all, but readers should be acquainted especially with the following: John Barclay’s celebrated Paul and the Gift has come out,1 as has the controversial and most interesting book by Doug Campbell, The Deliverance of God: An Apocalyptic Rereading of Justification in Paul.2 Campbell is nothing if not productive, for he has written two other books on Paul since he wrote his magnum opus: Paul: An Apostle’s Journey3 and Framing Paul: An Epistolary Biography.4 E. P. Sanders, who many think launched the new perspective on Paul, has written Paul: The Apostle’s Life, Letters, and Thought.5 David Capes, Rodney Reeves, and Randy Richards have written Rediscovering Paul.6 James Dunn, who is certainly one of the most well-known scholars in the world, published his second edition of The New Perspective on Paul.7 Michael Gorman has published a significant work, Apostle of the Crucified Lord: A Theological Introduction to Paul and His Letters.8 Udo Schnelle’s work on Paul (Apostle Paul: His Life and Theology9) is too often ignored, even though it has been translated, but it is a most valuable and stimulating contribution. Walter Taylor has written Paul: Apostle to the Nations.10 The well-known and prolific Anthony Thiselton wrote The Living Paul: An Introduction to the Apostle’s Life and Thought.11 Stephen Westerholm has written a most helpful summary and assessment of the Pauline thought in his Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics.12 N. T. Wright has written his mammoth two-volume work on Paul, Paul and the Faithfulness of God,13 and he has also written Paul: A Biography.14 Many other monographs on Paul’s writings have been written on particular texts or themes, and we resonate with Ecclesiastes’s words, “there is no end to the making of many books” (Eccles 12:12 CSB).
As in the first edition, it is not the purpose of this work to interact deeply with the many secondary sources. My goal isn’t to make the book longer but to keep it as a textbook that interacts mainly with Paul’s own writings. I have carefully revised the entire book, however, adding notes here and there to interact with more recent work. I hope readers are inspired, not by my book, but by Paul, and especially by the one to whom Paul devoted his life with such energy and passion, Jesus Christ.
Preface to the First Edition
MY GOAL IN WRITING THIS BOOK was to write a textbook on Pauline theology for students at both the college and seminary level. I do not intend, therefore, to interact extensively with other scholars, though I dialogue enough with them to demonstrate that I am conversant with what is happening in Pauline studies. Some books provide a genuine service by sketching in the landscape provided by secondary sources. My aim, however, is to explain the biblical text since students need to see that the primary sources are foundational for doing Pauline theology. My intention is to set forth and defend my particular understanding of Pauline theology. I acknowledge at the outset that I have not written the definitive Pauline theology, but I hope that others can profit from my own wrestling with the text.
When one compares my work with the recent and excellent Pauline theology by James Dunn, at least three major differences are evident. First, Dunn’s theology is a mammoth work that both examines the biblical text and interacts with the secondary sources. Such an enterprise is extremely helpful, but because I do not dialogue as extensively with secondary sources, I limited the size of my book. Second, I have tried to organize my book in a fresh way. Dunn uses Romans as the template to organize Pauline theology, and this is a valuable way to proceed. Yet I do not believe that there is only one way to structure a Pauline theology. I think my approach opens some new windows into Paul’s theology by focusing on Paul as a missionary and on his apostolic sufferings—two topics that are often neglected in Pauline theologies. I also argue that God’s work in Christ is the foundation and goal of Paul’s theology. I think it is a mistake to identify some aspect of salvation, whether it is justification or salvation history, as the key to Paul’s thinking. Third, Dunn excludes Ephesians and the Pastoral Letters from his study, and he thinks Colossians was written by Timothy while Paul was still living. I am persuaded, however, that all thirteen letters are authentic. I do not argue the case for authenticity in my theology; instead I refer the readers to others who have made the case effectively.1 The Pauline theology offered here is distinctive in that all thirteen letters ascribed to Paul are mined to decipher his theology.
Finally, I want to thank those who have assisted me in the writing of this book. I am grateful to Dan Reid, the academic reference editor at InterVarsity Press, for his encouragement and assistance in the writing of this work. Dan is himself an expert in Pauline studies, and hence he made numerous suggestions that have been incorporated into the book so that it is better than it would otherwise be. Frank Thielman, professor of New Testament at the Beeson Divinity School, read the entire manuscript, pointed out some deficiencies that needed correction and was a great encouragement to me. Boyd Luter, the dean at Criswell College, offered to read the entire work in a short time period, corrected a number of mistakes, and commented helpfully at a number of places. Justin Taylor read the entire manuscript, corrected a number of errors, and made many helpful suggestions. Five students at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary helped me significantly. My Garrett fellow and longtime friend Philemon Yong chased down references, copied needed articles, and proofed the manuscript carefully. Jeff Evans and Jim Hamilton proofed the book under a tight deadline, and I am thankful for their help in spotting errors. I also am grateful to Randall Tan and Brian Vickers, who serve as editors at The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology. Randall Tan read the manuscript with a sharp eye and made many suggestions for improvement. A special thanks goes to Brian Vickers for his labor of love in reading the manuscript so diligently and for his numerous stylistic suggestions. Every reader made the book better than it was before, for which I am thankful. I also want to thank my wife, Diane, for her love. Her faithfulness to me over twenty-five years of marriage has been a wellspring of life to me. I dedicate this book to our children—Daniel, Patrick, John, and Anna. They have been sources of unspeakable joy to me. Finally, I pray that God would be magnified and praised through Jesus Christ by what I have written here. The grace of our glorious God sustained me as I wrote.
Abbreviations
AB
Anchor Bible
AGJU
Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums
AnBib
Analecta biblica
BBB
Bonner biblische Beiträge
BBR
Bulletin for Biblical Research
BECNT
Baker Exegetical Commentaries on the New Testament
BETL
Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium
Bib
Biblica
BJRL
Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester
BSac
Bibliotheca sacra
BZ
Biblische Zeitschrift
BZNW
Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
CBQ
Catholic Biblical Quarterly
Chm
Churchman
EvQ
Evangelical Quarterly
ExAud
Ex auditu
FRLANT
Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments
HBT
Horizons in Biblical Theology
HTR
Harvard Theological Review
HUT
Hermeneutische Untersuchungen zur Theologie
ICC
International Critical Commentary
Int
Interpretation
JBL
Journal of Biblical Literature
JETS
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society
JSNT
Journal for the Study of the New Testament
JSNTSup
Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series
JTS
Journal of Theological Studies
LEC
Library of Early Christianity
NAC
New American Commentary
NICNT
New International Commentary on the New Testament
NIGTC
New International Greek Testament Commentary
NIVAC
NIV Application Commentary Series
NovT
Novum Testamentum
NovTSup
Novum Testamentum Supplements
NTAbh
Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen
NTL
New Testament Library
NTS
New Testament Studies
PSBSup
Princeton Seminary Bulletin Supplement
PTMS
Pittsburgh Theological Monograph Series
RTR
Reformed Theological Review
SBG
Studies in Biblical Greek
SBLDS
Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
SBLMS
Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series
SBT
Studies in Biblical Theology
SJLA
Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity
SJT
Scottish Journal of Theology
SNT
Studien zum Neuen Testament
SNTSMS
Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series
StudBibT
Studia Biblica et Theologica
TBei
Theologische Beiträge
Them
Themelios
TJ
Trinity Journal
TynBul
Tyndale Bulletin
TZ
Theologische Zeitschrift
USQR
Union Seminary Quarterly Review
WBC
Word Biblical Commentary
WEC
Wycliffe Evangelical Commentary
WMANT
Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament
WTJ
Westminster Theological Journal
WUNT
Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament
ZNW
Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
The Centrality of God in Christ in Paul’s Theology
THE GOAL IN WRITING A PAULINE THEOLOGY is to unearth his worldview and present it to contemporaries. The task is not merely to reproduce Paul’s thinking on various topics, but to rightly estimate what is most important in his thinking and to set forth the inner connections between the various themes. Such a task is difficult since Paul’s theology is complex and presented in occasional letters written to churches. If scholars debate the nature of John Calvin’s theology, even though he wrote an organized summary of his theology in the Institutes of the Christian Religion, how much more challenging is it to discern Paul’s theology since we lack a systematic explanation of his thought. It would be naive and pretentious to assert that I have discovered the key to Paul’s theology. Nonetheless, I believe that I have detected some themes that are insufficiently appreciated in most standard works on Paul. The goal in this work is not to interact point by point with other scholars who have investigated Pauline thought.1 Such a task would make this book far too long (and boring!). It should be evident, on the other hand, that this work has not been done in a vacuum and that the contributions of other scholars form the backdrop for what is discussed. The footnotes in each chapter either provide the source for a citation or point to works that should be consulted for further research.
The goal in the present work is to see what Paul says and to see it in the right proportions. Adolf Schlatter, the famous German New Testament scholar whose work has been rediscovered today, has rightly commented that the hardest thing to observe is often right in front of our eyes because we may think we have understood when we actually only have a superficial acquaintance with reality. He perceptively remarks:
The first task of New Testament theology consists in perceiving the facts of the case, and it would be childish to worry that there is no more work for us to do since countless scholars have been observing the New Testament for a long time now. That would show how little we were aware of the size of the task posed by the formula “observation.” What has happened exceeds in its fullness and depth our capacity for seeing, and there is no question of an end being reached even of the first and most simple function of New Testament study; namely, seeing what is there.2
Schlatter is correct when he says that the task is so large that no one can claim to have seen all that is present in the documents before us. And yet I hope that I can introduce a fresh vision of Paul to students in a relatively nontechnical way.
THE CENTER OF PAUL’S THOUGHT
Scholars have been attempting to perceive the central theme in Paul’s thought ever since biblical theology became a discipline in its own right.3
The sheer number of proposals has led some to doubt that any center can be identified at all. The very search for a center is dismissed as an attempt to capture the uncapturable. It smacks of an enlightenment pretension that claims the ability to summarize everything under one main idea. Anything that conflicts with the central theme is swept aside or domesticated. In the process the genuine Paul, the Paul with rough edges and sides, is planed down to fit a prefabricated theory. The danger of imposing an alien center on Paul is a real one, and it may be the case that no single theme embraces the whole of Paul’s thought. One of the problems here is with the word center itself. If one theme is in the center, then we may form an image or picture in our minds of other teachings in Paul radiating out from that center. If we conceive of the center as a bull’s-eye and of other Pauline themes as circles around the center, then we could get the impression that some Pauline teachings are crucial since they are near the center, whereas others are peripheral and insignificant since they are far from the center. We may be tempted, therefore, to erect a “canon within the canon” in which the core represents Paul’s real convictions and in which other themes (which do fit with our center) are dismissed as secondary and unimportant. The image of a center could lead to a static conception of Pauline theology that gives one theme hegemony and slots in other themes accordingly. No vital connection is established between the various themes, and the whole enterprise appears startlingly subjective.
Some centers proposed, however, have struck a chord with many Pauline scholars. Scholars have sensed that these themes are comprehensive enough to warrant further scrutiny or even to be accepted as “the center.” We think of themes like justification, defended by Ernst Käsemann, Peter Stuhlmacher, and Karl Kertelge;4 reconciliation, which has been proposed by Ralph Martin;5 the mystical doctrine of being “in Christ,” as it is set forth by Albert Schweitzer, or participation in Christ, as explained by E. P. Sanders;6 salvation history, supported by Herman Ridderbos and C. Marvin Pate (and we can probably put N. T. Wright here as well);7 or the imminent apocalyptic triumph of God, as defended by J. Christiaan Beker and now in a fresh way by Douglas Campbell.8 It is not the intention of this work to discuss the merits and demerits of each of these proposals individually. They would not have exercised such appeal if they were secondary motifs in Paul. Their obvious importance has provoked some scholars to propose, and some to ratify, them as the center. And yet others have, just as emphatically, denied that these various themes serve as the center of Paul’s thought, for in each case there are some Pauline themes that sit awkwardly with the proposed center.
I would like to suggest that each theme fails as the “center” for the same reason. Every proposed center suppresses part of the Pauline gospel. Identifying the center as, say, justification exalts the gift given above the giver. The gift of righteousness is not more important in Paul’s thinking than the person who gave the gift. A similar objection could be directed against the idea that reconciliation should have pride of place. Nor does salvation history or apocalyptic fare any better. In these instances the fulfillment of God’s promises in the history of redemption is featured. Jesus Christ is acknowledged as the fulcrum of history, but the focus is fixed on salvation history, reconciliation, or apocalyptic instead of on God and Jesus Christ. God’s unfolding plan in history cannot be more central than the person who generates and sustains the plan. The fulfillment of God’s saving promises is of massive importance. It would be a mistake, though, if the promises received more attention than the one who made and fulfilled them. Now some may object that I have already imposed on Paul my own “center.” They may think that I have placed a preformed grid over the Pauline materials so that my preferred theme emerges as victorious. We must all beware of preformatting Paul in such a way that his voice is not heard. I can only say at this juncture that I will attempt to demonstrate in this chapter that the centrality of God in Christ is not imposed from without but is vindicated by an inductive study of his letters.
THE IMAGE OF A HOUSE
The image of a house may help us visualize the heart and soul of Pauline theology. I am not using the illustration of the house in the same way Paul himself does, where the house functions as an illustration of the church. For instance, Paul describes Apollos and himself as workers in God’s house, that is, in the church of Jesus Christ (1 Cor 3:5-13). Paul plays the vital role of the one laying the foundation of the house (i.e., the church), and he warns that those who work on the house must be careful to build on the foundation (1 Cor 3:9-15). The foundation of the building is Jesus Christ himself (1 Cor 3:11). Similarly, in Ephesians 2:20-22, Paul also conceives of the church as God’s temple, though here the foundation is the apostles and prophets and Jesus Christ is the cornerstone. I use the illustration of a house here because it is suggestive in conceiving of Paul’s theology, not because Paul himself supplies such an illustration. No analogy fits perfectly when we try to communicate the Pauline gospel. Visualizing Paul’s thought in terms of the building of a house provides an entry point into Paul’s thought, a doorway through which we can enter into his worldview.
The foundation of the house is God himself. From him the house takes its shape, and it is utterly dependent on him for its growth. The house in this illustration represents God’s saving plan in history, and that plan includes the role of the church in history. God is the foundation for all that occurs, “because from him and through him and for him are all things. May the glory be his forever” (Rom 11:36).9 The words we wish to highlight here are “from him” (ex autou): God is the source of all things—he is the foundation. This verse is not wrenched out of context because Paul introduces this thought after explaining in Romans 9–11 God’s saving plan by which both Jews and Gentiles will be beneficiaries of God’s saving mercy. God has constructed history so as to pour his lavish mercy on both Jews and Gentiles. That God is the origin of all things is confirmed in 1 Corinthians 8:6, “But for us there is one God, the Father, from whom are all things.” One advantage of thinking of God as the foundation is that the other teachings of Paul are not then conceived as concentric circles that are farther and farther from the center. Whether Paul thinks of justification, reconciliation, or sin, they are all based on the foundation; they are not separate from the foundation, nor are they far removed from it. These themes frame the house (or they are the pillars of the house) and give it detail, but all these themes depend on the foundation. Since God is the foundation of the house and it depends on him for its survival, he deserves honor for the building of the house. Paul draws this very conclusion in Romans 11:36. Since God is the one from whom all things come, he is therefore the one who receives glory.
Such an illustration also highlights the importance of salvation history, what is often called the “already but not yet” dimension of Pauline theology. When we speak of salvation history, we think of the fulfillment of God’s saving plan and promises. The fulfillment of God’s plan in history is announced in the Pauline gospel. The promises made to Israel in the Old Testament have now become a reality in and through the ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. God’s saving promises are already a reality for the believer in Jesus Christ—in this sense God’s plan is “already” being fulfilled. The gift of the Holy Spirit, for example, demonstrates that God’s covenant promises are now a reality for those who have faith. On the other hand, believers still await the consummation of salvation history; in this sense we do “not yet” enjoy all that God has promised. Believers who have the gift of the Spirit still struggle with sin and await the day when their bodies will be resurrected (Rom 8:18-25). Salvation history, then, could represent the remodeling of the house since the new covenant fulfills what was promised in the old (Jer 31:31-34; 2 Cor 3:4-18). The image of “remodeling” is misleading if it suggests that God “starts over” with the church. Perhaps we should think of the Old Testament as the framing of the house and think of the fulfillment of salvation history as the completion of the inside of the house. We could also say that the theme of salvation history is the gospel of God (Rom 1:1). Hence, the image of the house nicely captures various dimensions of Paul’s theology—the foundation is God and Christ, salvation history portrays the progress being made on the house, and the theme of the house is the gospel.
The newer apocalyptic study of Paul questions a salvation-historical emphasis as too neat and tidy, contending that salvation history ignores the disruptions in history when the people of God move backward instead of forward. The story isn’t a linear narrative but is full of starts and stops, and salvation history in particular, it is worried, fails to see God’s irruption into history, the dramatic and sudden work of God that totally transforms everything. I would suggest, however, that apocalyptic and salvation history aren’t enemies but friends. Yes, there is a story and it has a linear shape, but the story moves forward and lurches backwards, and so we don’t have a straight line.10 God’s intervention into history upends history and simplistic explanations of the storyline. Still, there is a storyline beginning from the promises made to Eve (Gen 3:15), Abraham (Gen 12:1-3), David (2 Sam 7), the prophets (e.g., Jer 31:31-34; Ezek 36:26-27), and moving forward to Christ. Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of the story, even if that fulfillment takes place in surprising and unanticipated ways.
GOD AND CHRIST
God is not only the foundation of the house; he and his Son, Jesus the Messiah, are the means by which the house is built. They are the architects, the contractors, and the workers who build the house. Saying that God is the one who builds the house does not deny the role of human beings in the house’s construction. It has already been noted that Paul lays the foundation of the house (i.e., the church) and others build on the foundation (1 Cor 3:9-15). But the work accomplished by Paul and others is ultimately ascribed to God (1 Cor 3:5-7). One plants and another waters, “but God is the one who gives the growth” (1 Cor 3:7). And the foundation laid for the house is none other than Jesus Christ (1 Cor 3:11).
One should not conceive of God (or Christ) merely as a static foundation of the house; he is actively building the house now. Once again, both Romans 11:36 and 1 Corinthians 8:6 are germane. The house comes not only from God but also “through him” (Rom 11:36). The agency of Jesus Christ is featured. In 1 Corinthians 8:6 he says that there “is one Lord, Jesus the Messiah, through whom are all things and we exist through him.” Jesus is the agent through which all things, without exception, exist. A similar theme is sounded in Colossians. Everything in the universe is created “in Christ,” whether earthly or heavenly beings. In other words, “all things have been created through him and for him” (Col 1:16). Nothing exists in the universe apart from the mediating, creative work of Christ. Nor is it right to think of Christ’s work in the past only, as if he brought the world into being and then it continues on its own power. Colossians 1:17 clarifies that “all things in him hold together.” The natural world endures and continues because of the dynamic work of the Son who continually sustains and preserves it. Suffice it to say that we have ample evidence that the building, whether it is conceived of as the people of God or the universe, would not remain without the sustaining and preserving work of the Father and the Son.
To continue the illustration, what is the ultimate goal of the building of the house? The goal is not the building itself, whether it is conceived in terms of God’s righteousness, reconciliation, salvation history, or apocalyptic. All of these themes are dimensions of the house, but they are not the end for which the house was made. Fulfilling salvation history cannot itself be the goal of salvation history since that would be redundant. Instead God has built the house to bring honor and praise to himself. Romans 11:36 again surfaces as a crucial text: “Because from him and through him and for him are all things. May the glory be his forever.” Not only do all things have their source and agency in God, he is also the one “for whom” (eis auton) all things exist. Similarly, in 1 Corinthians 8:6, after Paul says that all things are from the Father, he reaches a climax by saying that “we exist for him” (hymeis eis auton). Nor is such language restricted to the Father, for not only were all things created by means of the Son’s agency, but also “all things were created for him” (Col 1:16). The ultimate reason for the creation of the world and for the fulfillment of salvation history (see Rom 11:36) is for the sake of the Father and the Son. Doubtless the metaphor of the house is imperfect since, for example, the Father is both the foundation of the house and the reason the house was made. But it conveys the dynamic interaction of the various themes better than the term center, and it also provides a visual image by which the various Pauline themes are laid on the superstructure of the ultimate foundation, that is, God himself. He is the source, the means, and the goal of all things. Thus, to return to the image of the center, God is the center of Pauline theology. But to say that God is the center of Pauline theology is not to diminish the centrality of Christ, for, as we shall see, the exaltation of Jesus the Messiah brings glory and praise to God. Perhaps we can say that God in Christ is the foundation of Pauline theology.
When we want to assess what is foundational for a writer, we can learn by paying attention to what surfaces as he discusses a variety of subjects. In Paul’s case the priority of God and Christ emerges again and again as that which dominates his thinking. We might be tempted, for example, to think that the gospel is Paul’s foundational motif.11 After all, Paul was called as an apostle for the sake of the gospel (Rom 1:1). He devoted the bulk of his life to preaching the gospel and planting churches, and he was filled with joy when his converts stay true to the gospel (1 Thess 3) and deeply grieved when they abandon it (Gal 1:6-9). Furthermore, Paul explicates and unpacks the gospel in his letters. In one sense, we could say that the gospel is the theme in Paul’s writing, as long as we see that the gospel is “the gospel of God” (Rom 1:1), indicating that the gospel cannot be prized over the God who makes it a reality. The gospel is good news because it proclaims the saving message about God and from God, and this gospel centers on God’s Son, who fulfills the ancient prophecies (Rom 1:2-3). We note how easily Paul glides from the gospel of “God” to the gospel “concerning the Son,” since in his mind the centrality of Christ and the centrality of God are of a piece. As noted earlier, the gospel can be conceived of as the theme of the house, while the glory of God and Christ constitute its foundation.
THE GOSPEL OF GOD IN CHRIST
The centrality of Christ is evident in the letter to the Galatians. The reason Paul is so deeply distressed about the Galatians’ defection from the gospel is that it undermines the person and work of Jesus Christ. They have forsaken the “grace of Christ for another gospel” (Gal 1:6). The Torah, according to Paul’s adversaries, is the determinative issue for one’s salvation, but, if the Torah is so crucial, then faith in Jesus Christ becomes secondary (Gal 2:16-21). The essence of Christian living is “faith in the Son of God” (Gal 2:20), but this is undermined if the Torah is the gateway into the people of God. Indeed, those who lobbied so fiercely for circumcision turned the clock back in salvation history. In effect, they installed the law as the climax of salvation history instead of seeing that the Messiah, Jesus, was the fulfillment of Abraham’s promise and is the fulfillment of God’s saving promises (Gal 3:15–4:7). The centrality of Christ emerges because he is the only offspring of Abraham (Gal 3:16), and thus entrance into Abraham’s family is only through him. The law played a temporary role until the coming of Christ (Gal 3:24). Now all people, both Jews and Gentiles, can be part of the family of Abraham in Christ Jesus through faith (Gal 3:26). The issue is not whether one has had a physical operation on a part of one’s body; the issue is whether one has been clothed with Christ and immersed into Christ.
Indeed, if one’s eternal destiny turns on the acceptance or rejection of circumcision (Gal 5:2-6), then Christ died for nothing (Gal 2:21). If those who agitate for circumcision are on target, Christ’s death is not the pathway for entrance into the people of God. In Galatians, circumcision and the cross of Christ are polar: one lives under the banner of either the one or the other. If one adopts circumcision, then Christ cannot profit for salvation (Gal 5:2). Those who desire to be righteous before God by virtue of the law are cut off from Christ and have fallen from grace (Gal 5:4). Either people receive the marks of circumcision, or—like Paul—they bear on their body the marks of Christ’s death (Gal 6:17) by accepting the suffering that comes when one forsakes circumcision and trusts Christ for eschatological salvation. Christ’s death (not circumcision) delivers people from the evil age (Gal 1:4). His death is evacuated of all meaning if righteousness is available through the law (Gal 2:21; cf. Gal 3:1). Apparently, the Galatians, if they succumbed to circumcision, would be saying that the curse of the law could be removed by keeping the law (Gal 3:10-12), but Paul counters that it can only be removed through the curse-bearing work of Christ on the cross (Gal 3:13). Liberation from the power of the law and sin is due to Christ’s redeeming work (Gal 4:4-5). If circumcision is accepted as salvific, the scandal of the cross is nullified (Gal 5:11). Those who subscribe to and advocate circumcision do so to avoid the persecution of the cross (Gal 6:12-13), for only through the cross of Christ is allegiance to the old world order severed (Gal 6:14-15), and that old world order includes circumcision!
The priority of Christ manifests itself in another situation that is remarkably different from what happened in Galatia. In 1 Corinthians 1–4 we see that the church is plagued with divisions over ministers. The long discussion on wisdom (1 Cor 1:18–2:16) suggests that the quarreling over ministers (Paul, Apollos, Peter, etc.) centered on the Corinthians’ estimation of the wisdom of the various ministers. Many suggestions have been advanced to explain the nature of the divisions in Corinth, and we can hardly resolve the debate here. The most likely theory is that the debate over the wisdom of the ministers was not an argument over the theology of the various leaders. Rhetorical skills, not false teaching, fomented the debate. Duane Litfin and Bruce Winter argue this thesis persuasively.12 The Greco-Roman world highly prized rhetoric, and speakers were estimated in accordance with their ability to dazzle audiences with their artistry, skill, and persuasive power. What is striking about Paul’s response is his conclusion that, if the Corinthians are entranced by the rhetorical ability of the various ministers, they have misunderstood and undercut the cross of Christ. Devotion to human rhetoric and skill panders to human pride, and anything that exalts human wisdom detracts from the cross of Christ since the preaching of the cross underscores the truth that believers are utterly dependent on God for everything. Human wisdom is not the path to life (1 Cor 1:18-25), nor does God call those who are intellectuals, strong, and members of the upper class (1 Cor 1:26-31). Paul renounces rhetorical artistry in preaching the gospel so that faith depends on God instead of the strength and wisdom of human beings (1 Cor 2:1-5). What troubles Paul is that devotion to various human ministers nullifies the cross of Christ, which is the heart of the gospel. The Corinthians are transfixed by either Paul or Apollos, and they have forgotten that God is the one who gives the growth (1 Cor 3:7). The underlying problem in promoting the various human ministers is pride (1 Cor 1:29, 31; 3:21; 4:6-7). By exalting human ministers the Corinthians have forgotten God! The Corinthians are satisfied with too little, for they boast in human ministers and have forgotten that they have something greater—namely, God and Christ. In having God and Christ they have all things, including human ministers (1 Cor 3:21-23). The reason Paul brings in the cross as a counter to human wisdom is so that people will boast in God and keep him central (1 Cor 1:29, 31). When Paul learns of divisions in the church, he perceives that the church has abandoned the core of its message: the cross of Christ and the centrality of God in all things. This in turn suggests that such themes were the foundation of Paul’s preaching.
UNITY AND LIVING FOR CHRIST
When we turn to Philippians, we again find indications of tensions in the community.13 Euodia and Syntyche are at odds (Phil 4:2-3), and the long summons to unity (Phil 1:27–2:30) suggests that disharmony plagued the church. Paul calls the church back to the gospel of Christ as its uniting cause. Paul himself was harassed by fellow believers who preached the gospel of Christ but had a personal animus against him (Phil 1:12-18). Their message was in accord with the truth, but their personal motives were self-seeking and injurious. Presenting himself as a model to the Philippians, Paul informs them how he reacts to his envious detractors. He rejoices in the message preached—even though the motive of the messengers is flawed—because “Christ is preached” by his competitors (Phil 1:18). The way to triumph over petty squabbles, Paul informs the Philippians, is to keep the missionary mandate firmly before one’s eyes. Since Paul’s greatest joy was in Jesus Christ, he could overlook the antagonists who wanted to bring him grief, and he informs the Philippians (Phil 1:19-26) that his goal, whether he lives or dies, is for “Christ to be magnified in his body” (Phil 1:20). The Christ-saturated vision of Paul is expressed in his famous statement, “For to me to live is Christ and to die is gain” (Phil 1:21). Thus he is willing, as Christ’s slave (cf. Phil 1:1), to die now and be with him or to have his life extended so that he can minister to others. In either instance, Jesus Christ and the mission to proclaim his gospel are the animating principles that drive Paul.
When Paul exhorts the church to be united, it is not a call to unity “for the sake of unity” (Phil 1:27–2:4). They are to live “worthily of the gospel,” to stand united “for the faith of the gospel” (Phil 1:27). The cause of the gospel of Christ and its extension in the world are the reasons he prizes unity. He appeals here to the example of Christ Jesus himself (Phil 2:5-11), who did not take advantage of his equality with God but endured a humiliating death on a cross because God had called him to do so. In response to Jesus’ obedience, God exalted him as the universal Lord who is to be confessed as such by all beings. The centrality of Christ emerges in his death, resurrection, and exaltation. Does the exaltation of Jesus Christ threaten the supremacy of the Father? By no means, for Christ’s humiliation, resurrection, and exaltation were “for the glory of God the Father” (Phil 2:11). The Father’s glory is not diminished but enhanced by the work of Christ on the cross.
This fits with 2 Corinthians as well. Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of salvation history since all “the promises of God are yes in him” (2 Cor 1:20). In addition, the fulfillment of the promises in Christ brings glory to God (2 Cor 1:20). The new covenant is superior to the old since the glory of Christ outshines the glory of Moses (2 Cor 3:10-11). The gospel is nothing less than “the glory of Christ” (2 Cor 4:4). But the stunning radiance of Christ’s glory does not diminish the glory of God the Father, for the glory of Christ is not in conflict with the glory of God. God “has shone in our hearts to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ” (2 Cor 4:6). We observe here that the glory of God is revealed in “the face of Christ.” It is not the case that the splendor of Christ blinds our vision to God’s glory or that his glory is dimmed by Christ’s glory. God’s glory is enhanced and manifested when his Son is glorified.
The Christ-exalting passion of Timothy and Epaphroditus is the primary reason Paul commends them (Phil 2:19-30). People live for many things, but Timothy stands out because he is worried about the faith of the Philippians (Phil 2:20). Others seek their own interests, but Timothy seeks “the things of Jesus Christ” (Phil 2:21). Timothy’s joy is fulfilled in Christ, and in turn he wants to share that joy with others. Epaphroditus, similarly, is so devoted to the work of Christ that he risked his life on behalf of the cause of the gospel (Phil 2:25-30). And we see in chapter 3, once again, why Paul reacts so vehemently to those who demanded circumcision. Instead of boasting in Christ, they were boasting in the flesh (Phil 3:3). Adherence to circumcision robs Christ of his glory and ascribes it to the person submitting to the rite. For Paul the heart of his new faith is personal devotion to Christ (Phil 3:7-11). He counts his past religious accomplishments as worthless and meaningless compared to the supreme joy of knowing the Messiah Jesus as his Lord. The goal of his life is to know him better, to have his righteousness, to participate in his sufferings, and to obtain the resurrection of the dead. Even though he has not yet attained perfection (Phil 3:12-16), he exerts his energy to reach the prize of perfection, which awaits him at the eschaton. Thus, those who oppose the message of the gospel are to be avoided as enemies, while those who live like Paul are to be imitated as coworkers and friends (Phil 3:17–4:1). In a sense, Paul’s message in Philippians can be summarized in the words, “Rejoice in the Lord” (Phil 4:4). One’s greatest joy lies in one’s greatest treasure, and Paul’s treasure is the Lord.
THE PREEMINENCE OF CHRIST
The preeminence of Christ breathes through all of Colossians. Apparently, the church was influenced by certain teachers who contended for a different path to divine fullness. We need not determine here the precise contours of what is often called “the Colossian heresy.”14 The details are obscure, but the main picture is reasonably clear. The teachers advocated divine fullness through asceticism and devotion to angels (Col 2:8-23). Paul emphatically repudiates this teaching because it robs Christ of his supremacy. The magnificent hymn of Colossians 1:15-20 emphasizes the person of Christ. He is the image of God, the firstborn, the agent of creation, and the purpose of creation. The created order is sustained and preserved by him, and he is “before all things” (Col 1:17). Not only is he the ruler of creation, but he is also the ruler of the church (Col 1:18). He was resurrected “in order that he should be preeminent in all things” (Col 1:18). The divine fullness is in him, and reconciliation of all things is via his cross (Col 1:19-20). The rival teachers may claim to have the “mystery” that is the secret to vitality and growth, but they should be summarily dismissed. The “mystery” is “Christ in you” (Col 1:27), God’s mystery is “Christ” (Col 2:2), and “in him are all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge hidden” (Col 2:3). Seeking to find wisdom through any other source than Christ is folly. The philosophy offered by the teachers is deficient because “it is not according to Christ” (Col 2:8). Growth in the Christian life comes by living in him (Col 2:6-7), not by following some ascetic regimen that forbids certain foods and observes special festival days (Col 2:16-17, 21-23). These things are “shadows,” and the substance is Christ (Col 2:17). Nor will people discover fullness by pandering to angels or worshiping them (Col 2:10, 15, 18). The angels are subordinated to Christ because he created them (Col 1:16), defeated them at the cross (Col 2:15), and reigns over them (Col 2:10). Since all of God’s fullness resides in Christ, believers will experience fullness only in him (Col 2:9-10). Believers should hold fast to the head, who is Christ himself (Col 2:19), realizing that in him they have all they need: their sins are forgiven (Col 2:11-14), they have died to the elements of the world (Col 2:20), and they have been raised up with Christ (Col 3:1). “Christ is your life” (Col 3:4), and believers await future glory with him.
RIGHTEOUS LIVING AND THE PRIORITY OF GOD IN CHRIST
Thus far the supremacy of God and Christ has been traced in particular Pauline letters. If we cast the net thematically, similar conclusions emerge. In Colossians, for instance, Paul exhorts the recipients to put off sin and be clothed with righteousness (Col 3:5-17). The exhortations are punctuated with the words, “And everything, whatever you do, whether in speech or deed, do all things in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him” (Col 3:17). We could scarcely claim, therefore, that ethics can be sundered from the preeminence of Christ since everything done by believers is to be done in the name of Jesus and for his honor. There is no conception here of doing what is right simply because it is the right thing to do, or of duty for duty’s sake. A similar statement comes near the end of Paul’s discussion of food offered to idols in 1 Corinthians 8–10. He sums up by saying, “Whether then you eat or drink or whatever you do, do all things for the glory of God” (1 Cor 10:31). In Colossians the animating motive is the name of Jesus; here it is the glory of God. These two are not in conflict but are compatible for Paul. We simply observe here that there is no activity in life, no realm of existence that is outside the sphere of God’s rule. Even the ordinary actions of eating and drinking should be done to honor God. That honoring God should be the goal of ethics is unsurprising once we grasp that dishonoring him is the root of all sin. The wrath of God is visited on the world (Rom 1:18-25) because people have rejected him. They know he is God, but they refuse “to glorify him as God or give thanks” (Rom 1:21). They abandon the glory of God and turn to the worship of idols (Rom 1:23). They “worshipped the creature rather than the creator” (Rom 1:25). Because God has been rejected as God, he hands human beings over to all the other sins that blight human existence (Rom 1:24, 26, 28). The fundamental sin, however—which is the root of all others—is the failure to honor, praise, and glorify the one and only true God. It is fitting, then, that a life pleasing to God is marked by doing all things in his name, by the desire to honor him in all things.
Once we grasp that the origin of all sin is failure to serve and worship God, we also understand why “whatever is not of faith is sin” (Rom 14:23). Most commentators argue against applying this text universally to all situations, but the statement is axiomatic and can be applied to every circumstance if it is rightly understood. Paul conceives of ordinary actions like eating and drinking being done for God’s glory!15 Conversely, he says that anything not animated by faith is sin. The best commentary on this is the depiction of Abraham’s faith in Romans 4. Abraham was asked to believe the impossible, that he and his wife—though beyond the age of bearing children—would indeed have a child. Abraham was keenly aware of the inadequacy of both Sarah and himself (Rom 4:19); his faith did not consist in his denying the facts of life. His faith was directed to God’s promise because he “was fully assured that he was able to do what he had promised” (Rom 4:21). Despite the impossibility of the situation, “he grew strong in faith, giving glory to God” (Rom 4:20). The essence of faith, then, is that it grants glory to God, trusting that he will do what he promised. God is glorified in faith because he is honored as the all-sufficient one who can meet every need. He is conceived of as the one who can raise the dead and create out of nothing (Rom 4:17). Thus, trust and honor are inevitably intertwined. The one who is trusted is also the one whom we honor as trustworthy. That which is done outside the realm of faith is sin because such actions are done outside the realm of God’s lordship.
Paul’s call to honor God in our everyday existence is not restricted to the few texts cited above. Though various terms are used, the notion that God and Christ are the center and circumference of the ethical life permeates Paul’s writings. A few examples will suffice. The Corinthians are warned about the dangers of sexual immorality, and a number of arguments are presented against sexual license (1 Cor 6:12-20). Paul concludes by reminding the Corinthians that their lives are not their own. They have been purchased with the price of Christ’s blood. He draws the final conclusion in verse 20, “Therefore glorify God with your body.” The fundamental reason for sexual purity is that such a life honors God, showing that the person who lives in a pure way trusts that following God’s will is the path to joy. The Corinthians are exhorted to give generously so that thanksgiving might be rendered to God (2 Cor 9:11-12) and so that he will be honored and glorified (2 Cor 9:13). Indeed, such gift giving reminds him of Christ’s coming for salvation: “Thanks be to God for his indescribable gift!” (2 Cor 9:15). Similarly, Paul thanks the Philippians for their generosity to the gospel cause in Philippians 4:10-20, and he is careful here because he does not want the Philippians to think that they put God in their debt, and yet at the same time he is genuinely grateful for their assistance. He reminds them that God will supply all their needs, and thus “to our God and Father belongs the glory for all the ages, amen” (Phil 4:20). The ultimate source of every gift is the one who is to be praised for his lavish generosity.
The centrality of God and Christ in the warp and woof of life is woven into the fabric of Pauline ethics. Believers are to live worthily of the Lord (Col 1:10) and give thanks to the Father for their liberation from sin (Col 1:12). They should avoid the vain and licentious behavior of Gentiles, for they did not learn of Jesus in such a way (Eph 4:20). Tensions surfaced between the weak and strong in Rome (Rom 14:1–15:6). Paul calls on them to accept one another and wants them to worship in harmony instead of being rent by mutual recriminations. The reason he wants them to accept each other is that such acceptance brings glory to God (Rom 15:7).
In the concrete circumstances of life, the particulars that constitute everyday existence, Paul directs his readers’ minds Godward. The household code in Ephesians 5:21–6:9 is a case in point. Husbands and wives (Eph 5:22-33) are not merely to follow social conventions, though the extent to which social conventions are reflected is debated. Wives are to submit to husbands “as to the Lord” (Eph 5:22). They are to submit in the same way the church subordinates itself to Christ her Lord (Eph 5:24). Some commentators detect the parallels in Paul’s advice to other secular writers of his day, but they often give short shrift to what is distinctive in the exhortations. The wife is not to subordinate herself to the husband, finally and ultimately, because of social convention or because society will run smoothly. She is to do so in honor of her Lord, Jesus the Messiah. Similarly, and even more radically in Paul’s day, husbands are summoned to love their wives “as Christ loved the church and gave himself for it” (Eph 5:25). Surely Paul could have exhorted husbands to treat their wives with kindness and affection and to look out for their wives’ interests. There was no need to invest his exhortation with the great themes of Christ’s redemptive work. Nonetheless, when he calls on husbands to love their wives, he summons them to reflect on Christ’s redemptive work for the church and to model it in their treatment of their wives. Even if Paul appropriates the cultural ethic of his day, he does not appropriate it without transmuting it through the refinery of the gospel. We will return in due course to what Paul says about slavery. Here it should simply be observed that the obedience rendered by slaves is suffused with the Christ-centered vision of Paul. Slaves should render their service to please the Lord and not to receive commendation from their human masters (Eph 6:5-8; Col 3:22-25). The primary issue for slaves is how their earthly lives relate to their Lord Christ. The estimation of human masters is secondary.
THE CENTRALITY OF GOD IN CHRIST IN HISTORY
When human beings reflect on their lives, the fundamental issue, according to Paul, is not their social status but whether they are in Adam or in Christ. For Paul these two persons (Rom 5:12-19) are the key individuals in human history. If people are in Adam, then they are under the reign of sin and death. If they are in Christ, they have been freed from these tyrannical powers. The “old person” (palaios anthrōpos) “has been crucified with” Christ (Rom 6:6). Similarly, in the midst of the exhortations in Colossians 3:5-11, Paul reminds believers that they have put off the old person and put on the new (Col 3:9-10). The new Adam, the last Adam, is none other than Christ himself, for he represents the new humanity, and all those who are in him are incorporated into the people of God. Thus, “where” (hopou) Christ is, social distinctions are irrelevant (Col 3:11). Whether one is Greek or Jewish, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian or Scythian, slave or free is immaterial because ethnic identity constitutes no advantage relative to salvation. Christ alone is sufficient for salvation, and in that sense Christ is all. The centrality of Christ and the new humanity formed in him signifies that all other human classes, organizations, and distinctions are outmoded.
During the present evil age believers face suffering, pressures, and afflictions. Such sufferings, however, are designed to bring thanksgiving to God who so powerfully rescues his people in and through the painful circumstances of life (2 Cor 1:3-11). Being led to death in suffering is a means by which the fragrance of the gospel of Christ is wafted into the world (2 Cor 2:14-16). The treasure of the gospel resides in weak and suffering vessels so that all will see that the power comes from God and not from Paul (2 Cor 4:7). Paul does not preach himself, after all, but Jesus Christ as Lord (2 Cor 4:5). The life of Jesus is manifested powerfully when his servants are suffering (2 Cor 4:10-11). His strength shines in Paul’s weakness (2 Cor 12:9). If Paul and the others who proclaimed the gospel were glorious and strong, they would be praised for their wisdom and strength. The advance of the gospel would be attributed to the quality of the messengers. When the gospel advances through weak and suffering messengers, however, people are provoked to thank God for its advance and triumph, and thus the glory goes to him rather than those who proclaim the message (2 Cor 4:15).
When Paul asks the Corinthians to reflect on their calling (1 Cor 1:26), it becomes evident that their ranks are not composed of intellectuals, the mighty, and the ruling class. Those whom “God has chosen” (1 Cor 1:27-28) are deemed foolish, weak, and of ill-repute in the world. God has selected the insignificant in the world “so that no flesh should boast in his presence” (1 Cor 1:29). Indeed, God’s saving work is from start to finish a miracle of grace: “Because of him [ex autou] you are in Christ Jesus” (1 Cor 1:30). And Jesus is the wisdom from God on behalf of believers. Indeed, righteousness, sanctification, and redemption are all his work (1 Cor 1:30). Ascribing ultimacy to God’s saving righteousness, sanctification, or redemption would be a mistake, for verse 31 indicates the purpose (hina) for the bestowal of these gifts. God has lavished his grace on believers “so that the one who boasts should boast in the Lord” (1 Cor 1:31). God’s ultimate goal, according to Paul, is not redemption, righteousness, or sanctification. He grants these saving gifts to his people so that they will exult in him and praise his name. We are reminded of Romans 5:1-11, where Paul proclaims the tremendous hope that is ours because of God’s saving righteousness. The climax of the paragraph is reached with the words, “And not only this, but we also boast in God through our Lord Jesus Christ through whom we have now received reconciliation” (Rom 5:11). The capstone of the experience of believers is not reconciliation or the gift of righteousness (Rom 5:9); it is the exultation in God that becomes ours through Jesus the Christ.
A text with a similar theme is Ephesians 1:3-14. Paul recounts the spiritual blessings that belong to believers in Christ. They are chosen to be holy and blameless before the foundation of the world and are predestined to be adopted as his sons (Eph 1:4-5). Why has God lavished such blessings on his people? He did so “for the praise of the glory of his grace” (Eph 1:6). Through Christ believers are redeemed and forgiven of their sins (Eph 1:7). They know the mystery of his will, which centers on Jesus Christ himself (Eph 1:9-10). They have received the predestined inheritance (Eph 1:11). Why are these gifts ours? “So that we who have already hoped in Christ might be to the praise of his glory” (Eph 1:12). Believers have been sealed with the Spirit who is the promised down payment of the eschatological inheritance (Eph 1:13-14). They are guaranteed that their bodies will be redeemed on the day of the Lord. God grants these blessings “for the praise of his glory” (Eph 1:14). It could scarcely be clearer that redemption is penultimate and the praise of God is ultimate. Three times Paul clarifies the reason God lavishes his merciful grace on his children. Indeed, the same theme heads up the paragraph, “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Eph 1:3). Paul begins the paragraph with praise to God for his inestimable blessings, and then he explains three times that God’s saving gifts were given so that we would praise his grace.
