Physical Processes and Measurement Devices E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 818

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

This series of five volumes proposes an integrated description of physical processes modeling used by scientific disciplines from meteorology to coastal morphodynamics. Volume 1 describes the physical processes and identifies the main measurement devices used to measure the main parameters that are indispensable to implement all these simulation tools. Volume 2 presents the different theories in an integrated approach: mathematical models as well as conceptual models, used by all disciplines to represent these processes. Volume 3 identifies the main numerical methods used in all these scientific fields to translate mathematical models into numerical tools. Volume 4 is composed of a series of case studies, dedicated to practical applications of these tools in engineering problems. To complete this presentation, volume 5 identifies and describes the modeling software in each discipline.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Introduction

PART 1. FLOODS AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Chapter 1. Presentation of the Environmental Hydraulics Treatise

1.1. Context

1.2. Origin of environmental hydraulics

1.3. Modeling at the crossroads of several sciences

1.4. What can we represent and what are the big unknowns of the water cycle?

1.5. How do we move from theory to software?

1.6. Time and space process scales (from real time to sedimentology)

1.7. Bibliography

Chapter 2. Flooding and Natural Disasters

2.1. Disaster risk

2.2. Floods and disasters: global impacts

2.3. How to reduce disaster risks?

2.4. Contribution of meteorological and hydrological services and the WMO to the reduction of risks of disasters

Chapter 3. Climate Change and Hydrology

3.1. The observed changes in climate and their hydrological effects

3.2. Modeling the effects of climate change

3.3. Conclusion

3.4. Bibliography

PART 2. HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Chapter 4. Formation of Clouds and Rain

4.1. Water in the atmosphere

4.2. Microphysics of warm clouds

4.3. Microphysics of cold clouds

4.4. Observation of clouds and precipitation

4.5. Bibliography

Chapter 5. Evapotranspiration

5.1. Introduction to evapotranspiration

5.2. Influence magnitude

5.3. Soil properties

5.4. Properties of vegetation

5.5. Some orders of magnitude of evapotranspiration

5.6. Bibliography

Chapter 6. Runoff

6.1. Hydrological balance of drainage basins

6.2. Circulation of water in soils

6.3. Genesis of flood flows

6.4. Particular case of an urban environment

6.5. Conclusion

6.6. Bibliography

Chapter 7. Drainage Basin

7.1. Delimitation of a drainage basin

7.2. Geometrical characteristics of a drainage basin

7.3. Geomorphological characteristics

7.4. Soil nature and occupation

7.5. Conclusion: from a global view to a distributed and dynamic description

7.6. Bibliography

Chapter 8. Statistical and Semi-Empirical Hydrology. Rain and Flow Analysis

8.1. Description of a sample

8.2. The most common probabilistic models

8.3. Some examples of the use of statistical distributions in hydrology

8.4. Conclusion

8.5. Bibliography

PART 3. HYDRAULICS AND RIVER

Chapter 9. Mechanisms of Free-Surface Flow

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Different flow regimes

9.3. Steady uniform flow

9.4. Gradually varied steady flow – concept of backwater curve

9.5. Rapidly varied steady flow with hydraulic structures

9.6. Unsteady flow: propagation of floods in natural environment

9.7. General case – examples of propagation in nature

9.8. Exchanges with the water table – infiltration

9.9. The particular case of mountain torrents

9.10. Impact of development on flows and propagation

9.11. Bibliography

Chapter 10. Generation and Propagation of Floods in Urban Areas

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Typology of urban floods

10.3. Mechanisms of water flow in a city during a flood

10.4. Background: the risk of flood in urban areas

10.5. Flood of cities and flood of fields

10.6. Key parameters associated with urban floods

10.7. Levels of operation: starting from effects to classify rain

10.8. Prevention and risk management of urban floods

10.9. Bibliography

Chapter 11. Quality of Surface Waters

11.1. Definitions

11.2. Operation of a hydrosystem

11.3. Characteristics of stagnant waters (lakes)

11.4. Characteristics of running waters (rivers)

11.5. Anthropization

Chapter 12. Transport of Sediments – Bedload and Suspension

12.1. Mechanisms of sediment transport

12.2. Concept of dynamic equilibrium of a river

12.3. Critical shear stress for incipient motion of sediments

12.4. Granulometric sorting

12.5. Hydrodynamic shear stresses

12.6. Reference granulometry

12.7. Bedload and total transport

12.8. Bibliography

Chapter 13. Fluvial Morphodynamics

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Mechanism of transport by bedload: pebbles, gravels and coarse sands

13.3. Transverse circulation: meanders and braided riverbeds

13.4. Transport mechanisms of sandy rivers

13.5. Bibliography

Chapter 14. Typology of rivers and streams

14.1. Definitions

14.2. Role of substratum

14.3. Streams and alluvial fans

14.4. Braided rivers

14.5. Effect of changing the hydrological regime on the morphology of braided and meandering rivers

14.6. Complementary aspects of rivers with meanders

14.7. Analysis of some disturbances of the morphological equilibrium

PART 4. ESTUARY, SEA AND COASTLINE

Chapter 15. Estuaries

15.1. Defining the estuary

15.2. Geometry – continuity laws of widths and sections – channel roughness

15.3. Interfering hydraulic phenomena in an estuary: tide, river discharge, influence of the weather

15.4. Currents in the estuaries, oscillating volumes and instant discharges in the different sections – residual currents

15.5. Salinity in estuaries – river and sea water mix

15.6. Diversity and sediment movement in estuaries

15.7. Physical process modeling in an estuary

15.8. Bibliography

Chapter 16. The Tide

16.1. Description of the phenomenon

16.2. Different aspects of the tide, definitions

16.3. The models

16.4. Bibliography

Chapter 17. Waves

17.1. General information on undulatory phenomena at sea

17.2. Properties of waves at sea

17.3. Generation of waves at sea

17.4. Swell propagation in high seas

17.5. Deformation of waves close to shore

17.6. Sea state measure

17.7. Databases

17.8. Bibliography

Chapter 18. Storm and storm surge forecasts

18.1. The storm surge phenomenon

18.2. Forecast models for storm surges at sea

18.3. Storm surge propagation models in estuaries

18.4. The model used at Météo-France

18.5. An example of version DOM/TOM: cyclone Hugo

18.6. A metropolitan version usage example: the storm of December 27, 1999

18.7. Storm surge propagation in an estuary

18.8. Bibliography

Chapter 19. Coastal Zone

19.1. Geo-morphological coastal forms

19.2. Concepts for the operating conditions of the coastal zone

19.3. Morpho-dynamics of shores and beaches

19.4. Long-shore sediment transport

19.5. Evolution of French shores

19.6. Bibliography

PART 5. NECESSARY DATA FOR THE MODELING TOOLS

Chapter 20. Introduction to Measuring Systems

Chapter 21. Measurement of the Meteorological Parameters Related to the Water Cycle

21.1. Pluviometers

21.2. Meteorological radar

21.3. Radar runoff curve number: a pluviometer/radar integration

21.4. Measurement of the snow thickness

21.5. Evaporation and evapotranspiration

21.6. Measurement of the wind speed

21.7. Inventory of the data provided to the models

21.8. Bibliography

Chapter 22. Topographic and Bathymetric Data

22.1. Usual means used for bathymetry and topography: point sampling techniques

22.2. High yield onboard bathymetric monitoring means

22.3. Airborne monitoring means

22.4. Constitution of a DEM and an SET

22.5. Visualization of elevation data

22.6. Inventory of the topographic data

Chapter 23. Soils, Water and Water in Soils

23.1. Measurement of the water state in soils

23.2. Hydraulic properties of soils

23.3. Which data for the models and in which form?

23.4. Bibliography

Chapter 24. Levels and Flowrates in Watercourses, Lakes and Reservoirs

24.1. Limnimetric scales

24.2. Limnimeters

24.3. Measurement of velocities and determining river flow rates through gauging

24.4. Measurement of flowrate by permanent systems

24.5. Reconstruction of the flowrate from numerical models

24.6. Exploitation of discharge measurements: rating curves establishment

24.7. Exploitation of longitudinal profiles of water levels

24.8. Summarization of discharge and waves level and level measurements

24.9. Inventory of data provided by the instruments to hydrological and hydraulic models

Chapter 25. Water Quality Measurements

25.1. Taking a representative sample

25.2. Ground measurements

25.3. Measuring dissolved oxygen

25.4. Temperature measurements

25.5. Measuring turbidity

25.6. Measuring color

25.7. Measuring transparency

25.8. Sampling for biological analysis

25.9. Multicellular organisms

25.10. Biochemical oxygen demand

25.11. Inventory of data provided to the water quality models

Chapter 26. Measuring Ice Cover Thickness

26.1. Impact of ice cover on economic activities

26.2. Monitoring stages of ice cover

26.3. Simulation models and studies

26.4. Possible developments to contend with floods

26.5. Inventory of data provided to hydrological and hydraulic models

26.6. Bibliography

Chapter 27. Measurements in Fluvial Sedimentology

27.1. Samplers and in situ measuring devices for suspension transport

27.2. Measurement of granulometry and the nature of the bed

27.3. Measurement of bedload

27.4. Bibliography

Chapter 28. Measurements in Urban Hydrology

28.1. Sewage system monitoring

28.3. Velocity measurement

28.4. Measurement of water quality

28.5. Measurement chain

28.6. Inventory of data provided to urban hydrology models

Chapter 29. Measuring Currents, Swells and the Sea Level

29.1. Sea currents

29.2. Swell

29.3. Sea level

29.4. Measurements used by littoral models

Chapter 30. Sedimentological Measurements in a Coastal Environment

30.1. Recognition of surface and subsurface bottoms

30.2. Sediment transport

30.3. Bibliography

Chapter 31. New Technologies from Space

31.1. Measuring the state of the surface

31.2. Rain measurement

31.3. Current and swell measurements

List of Authors

Index

General Index of Authors

Summary of Other Volumes in the Series

Summary of Volume 2: Mathematical Models

Summary of Volume 3: Numerical Methods

Summary of Volume 4: Practical Applications in Engineering

Summary of Volume 5: Modeling Software

First published 2010 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Adapted and updated from two volumes Traité d’hydraulique environnementale 1 et 2 published 2009 in France by Hermes Science/Lavoisier © LAVOISIER 2009

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

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John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA

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© ISTE Ltd 2010

The rights of Jean-Michel Tanguy to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Traité d’hydraulique environnementale. English.

Environmental hydraulics / edited by Jean-Michel Tanguy.

v. cm.

Includes index.

Contents: v. 1. Physical processes and measurement devices -- v. 2. Mathematical models -- v. 3. Numerical methods -- v. 4. Practical applications in engineering -- v. 5. Modeling software.

ISBN 978-1-84821-152-0 (set) -- ISBN 978-1-84821-153-7 (v. 1) -- ISBN 978-1-84821-154-4 (v. 2) --

ISBN 978-1-84821-155-1 (v. 3) -- ISBN 978-1-84821-156-8 (v. 4) -- ISBN 978-1-84821-157-5 (v. 5)

1. Environmental hydraulics. I. Tanguy, Jean-Michel, 1951- II. Title.

TC163.5.T6913 2010

627--dc22

2010019879

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-84821-152-0 (Set of 5 volumes)

ISBN 978-1-84821-153-7 (Volume 1)

Introduction1

This series on hydraulics is divided into five volumes. Volume 1 discusses the context for this environmental hydraulics treatise: the evolution of the different scientific and technical disciplines involved along with the space and time dimensions of the processes described. It evokes the importance of the global flood risk and outlines a first quantification approach of the impact of climate change on hydrology. It then describes in detail the physical processes relating to hydrology, hydraulics and river morphodynamics.

This continues with a part dedicated to describing the physical processes and the hydrosystems involved. The following part lists systems of measurements that may provide data for digital models:

– firstly focusing on estuarian processes, the tide, waves, storm surge and storm forecasting and on shore;

– then describing forecasting systems for weather parameters linked to the hydrological cycle, those necessary for the acquisition of topographical and bathymetric data, and for the characterization of soils and water in the soil. We then address the river field with systems of measurement of water levels and floods relative to the quality of water, to the measurement of ice thickness and coverage, to measurements of river sedimentology and in urban hydrology. We continue with the measurement of sea parameters: currents, swells and the sea level and by sedimentological measures in an inshore environment. The last chapter discusses new technologies arising from the spatial dimension.

Volume 2 focuses on mathematical modeling in hydrology and fluvial hydraulics, with a following part dedicated to the mathematical modeling of marine hydraulics, to transportation models and conceptual models.

Volume 3 discusses digital modeling.

Volume 4 shows examples of software applications in water engineering case studies.

Finally, Volume 5 describes a few operational software packages in the field of water engineering.

1 Introduction written by Jean-Michel TANGUY.

PART 1

Floods and Climate Change

Chapter 1

Presentation of the Environmental Hydraulics Treatise1

1.1. Context

The management of water has become daily news, whether due to excess, with large devastating floods in the world, or due to scarcity with dry summers or the progression of semi-arid and arid areas that we know today. This pushes public authorities to enforce measures of protection and resource management. Climate evolution would appear to exacerbate extreme phenomena. According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) source (see also Chapter 2):

approximately 1.5 billion people in the world were victims of floods from 1991 to 2000. Recently, an increase in the number of disasters associated with this phenomenon has been observed, mainly due to the development of land in floodplains and its densification. Natural disasters create a lot of suffering, particularly in developing countries with low income economies which are sensitive to the repetition of these events. It is true that the fact of living in a flood plain provides undeniable advantages in terms of richness of soils in order to obtain high agricultural yields;

drought is probably the type of natural disaster with the most devastating effects. From 1991 to 2000, this phenomenon was responsible for more than 280,000 deaths in the world and caused billions of dollars of material damage. By 2025, it is expected that the population living in countries facing water shortage problems will increase from 1 to 2.4 billion people, representing 13% to 20% of the world population.

The World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg in August and September 2002 underlined the need to fight against drought and floods through better use of information, climate and weather forecasting, fast warning systems, better management of land and natural resources, agricultural practices and ecosystems conservation in order to reverse the current trends in soils and water degradation

In addition, because of global warming, an increased frequency of some extreme weather phenomena like heat waves and very heavy rainfalls is expected, but nothing is yet certain (see Chapter 3). We do not have enough hindsight in terms of climate change as yet to isolate evolutions caused by changes in natural conditions from those due to human activities. However, everything seems to contribute to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. The global awareness of these problems has led to the ratification of major international protocols on climate change like Kyoto in 1997 or Bali in 2007 which laid the groundwork and then outlined the main principles of sustainable development. All this led to international or European initiatives which have since been outlined in regulations in each country. Moreover, it is in this context that in France the Environment Round Table (Grenelle de lEnvironnement) was launched, which has given more emphasis to water conservation. This favorable context reminds us that water is a valuable resource and is of limited quantity, which should encourage developers to adopt an integrated approach by considering the impacts of each project in a much wider context and consider its actions both in the short and long term.

1.2. Origin of environmental hydraulics

In this critical context, it seemed necessary to establish a state of knowledge regarding hydraulics in a broad sense, so as to inform policy makers by providing overwhelming evidence not only on the behavior of water and its richness, but also on its fragility. This treatment of environmental hydraulics deals with the physical processes of water from a raindrop all the way to the sea. Its publication stems from a number of motivations:

the lack of works covering this subject in its global nature. The literature is rich in works covering meteorology, hydrology, hydraulics or hydrogeology on the one hand and mathematical modeling and numerical methods on the other hand. These works are often very theoretical and do not grant enough space for illustrations and practical examples. We want to present these fields in an integrated manner, starting from the description of physical processes through mathematical theories and by illustrating our comments with examples of applications and the description of software;

the evolution of current knowledge in the areas of water resource management and risk management. Public authorities implement policies to protect people and goods combining prevention, protection and anticipation. New tools must be developed to implement and evaluate these policies;

the necessary networking of teams and dissemination of knowledge. The hydrological community (in a very broad sense) has been structured for several years around national, European or international projects. Researchers and professionals in this field have developed a project culture that requires the sharing of common knowledge laterally. The publication of this work should be brought to the forefront of expertise in this field;

the authors also identified the need to reinstate the different approaches in terms of modeling processes within a unified conceptual framework, thus meeting the needs of experts who use simulation tools that seem at first glance to be of different origins, but that result from the same theories;