Physical significance of entropy or of the second law E-Book

John Frederick Klein

• Herausgeber: Librorium Editions
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

In the Introduction to this article we called attention to the two distinct modes of attacking any physical problem. Now the conception "state of a body" varies with the chosen mode of attack. Of course as both modes are legitimate and lead to correct results, these differences in the conception of "state" can be reconciled and a broader definition reached. We can illustrate these different methods of approach, as PLANCK has done, by assuming two different observers of the state of the body, one called the microscopic-observer and the other the macroscopic-observer. The former possesses senses so acute and powers so great that he can recognize each individual atom and can measure its motion. For this observer each atom will move exactly according to the elementary laws prescribed for it by General Dynamics. 

Leseprobe

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENTROPY OR OF THE SECOND LAW

BY

J. F. KLEIN

© 2023 Librorium Editions

ISBN : 9782385742744

PREFACE

In this little book the author has in the main sought to present the interpretation reached by BOLTZMANN and by PLANCK. The writer has drawn most heavily upon PLANCK, for he is at once the clearest expositor of BOLTZMANN and an original and important contributor. Now these two investigators reach the result that entropy of any physical state is the logarithm of the probability of the state, and this probability is identical with the number of "complexions" of the state. This number is the measure of the permutability of certain elements of the state and in this sense entropy is the "measure of the disorder of the motions of a system of mass points." To realize more fully the ultimate nature of entropy, the writer has, in the light of these definitions, interpreted some well-known and much-discussed thermodynamic occurrences and statements. A brief outline of the general procedure followed will be found on p. 3, while a fuller synopsis is of course given in the accompanying table of contents.

J. F. Klein.

Lehigh University, October, 1910.

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENTROPY OR OF THE SECOND LAW

PREFACE

THE PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENTROPY AND OF THE SECOND LAW

INTRODUCTION PURPOSE, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, THE TWO METHODS OF APPROACH AND OUTLINE OF TREATMENT

PART I DEFINITIONS, GENERAL PRELIMINARIES, DEVELOPMENT, CURRENT AND PRECISE STATEMENTS OF THE MATTERS CONSIDERED

SECTION A

SECTION B THE APPLICATION OF CALCULUS OF PROBABILITIES IN MOLECULAR PHYSICS.

SECTION C

SECTION D

SECTION E

SECTION F

PART II ANALYTICAL EXPRESSIONS FOR A FEW PRIMARY RELATIONS

SECTION A MAXWELL'S LAW OF DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR VELOCITIES

SECTION B SIMPLE ANALYTICAL EXPRESSION FOR DEPENDENCE OF ENTROPY ON PROBABILITY

SECTION C DETERMINATION OF A PRECISE, NUMERICAL, EXPRESSION FOR THE ENTROPY OF ANY PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION

PART III PHYSICAL INTERPRETATIONS

SECTION A OF THE SIMPLE REVERSIBLE OPERATIONS IN THERMODYNAMICS

SECTION B OF THE FUNDAMENTALLY IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

SECTION C NEGATIVE CHANGE OF ENTROPY; SOME OF ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES OR NECESSARY ACCOMPANIMENTS

SECTION D PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EQUIVALENTS FOR GROWTH OF ENTROPY GIVEN ON PAGES 42-43

SECTION E PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MORE SPECIFIC STATEMENTS OF THE SECOND LAW GIVEN ON PAGES 44-47

PART IV SUMMARY: THE CONNECTION BETWEEN PROBABILITY, IRREVERSIBILITY, ENTROPY AND THE SECOND LAW

SECTION A

SECTION B IRREVERSIBILITY

SECTION C ENTROPY

SECTION D THE SECOND LAW

PART V REACH AND SCOPE OF SECOND LAW

SECTION A ITS EXTENSION TO ALL BODIES

SECTION B GENERAL CONCLUSION AS TO ENTROPY CHANGES

THE PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENTROPY AND OF THE SECOND LAW

[There is no difference between change of Entropy and Second Law, when each is fully defined.]

INTRODUCTION PURPOSE, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, THE TWO METHODS OF APPROACH AND OUTLINE OF TREATMENT

THIS article is intended for those students of engineering who already have some elementary knowledge of thermodynamics. It is intended to clear up a difficulty that has beset every earnest beginner of this subject. The difficulty is not one of application to engineering problems, although here too there have been widespread misconceptions,[1] for the expressions developed by CLAUSIUS are simple, have long been known and much used by engineers and physicists. The difficulty is rather as to the ultimate physical meaning of entropy. This term has long been known as a sort of property of the state of the body, has long been surmised to be of essentially a statistical nature, but with it all there was a sense that it was a sort of mathematical fiction, that it was somehow unreal and elusive, so it is no wonder that in certain engineering quarters it was dubbed the "ghostly quantity."

Now this instinct of the true engineer to understand things down to the bottom is worthy of all encouragement and respect. For this reason and because the matter is of prime importance to the technical world, the final meaning of entropy (i.e., of the Second Law) must be clarified and realized. Indeed, we may well go beyond this somewhat narrow view and say that this is well worth doing because change of entropy constitutes the driving motive in all natural events; it has therefore a reach and a universality which even transcends that of the First Law, or Principle of the Conservation of Energy.

In striving to present the physical meaning of entropy and of the Second Law, the writer cannot lay claim to any originality; he has simply tried here to put in logical order the somewhat scattered propositions of the leading investigators of this subject and in such a way that the difficulties of apprehension might be minimized; in other words, to present the solutions of his own difficulties, in the hope that the solutions may be helpful to other students of engineering and thermodynamics. In overcoming these difficulties, the writer owes everything to the books and papers by PLANCK and BOLTZMANN, pre-eminently to PLANCK, who has so clearly and appreciatively interpreted the life work of BOLTZMANN.[2] The writer furthermore wishes to say that he has not hesitated here to quote verbatim from both these investigators and not always so that their own statements can be distinguished from his own. If any part of this presentation is particularly clear and exact the reader will be safe in crediting it to one or the other of these two investigators and expositors, although it would not be right to consider them responsible for everything contained in this little book.

In considering the proper approach to the matter in hand we must remember that[3] "in physical science there are two more or less distinct modes of attack, namely, (a) a mode of attack in which the effort is made to develop conceptions of the physical processes of nature, and (b) a mode of attack in which the attempt is made to correlate phenomena on the basis of sensible things, things that can be seen and measured. In the theory of heat the first mode is represented by the application of the atomic theory to the study of heat phenomena, and the second mode is represented by what is called thermodynamics." In solving the special problem before us, as to the physical meaning of entropy and of the Second Law, our main dependence must be on the first mode of attack.

The second mode will furnish checks and confirmations of the results developed by the first, or we may say that the combination of the two modes will give the well-established characteristic equations and relations of bodies and their physical elements.

The whole discussion will now be taken up in a non-mathematical way, without the full proof required by a complete presentation, and about in this order:

(a) The definitions, general preliminaries and current statements of the matters considered.

(b) More or less precise statement of the primary relations and theorems.

(c) The physical interpretations.

(d) Summary of the connection between probability, irreversibility, entropy and the Second Law.

(e) Reach or scope of the Second Law.

On account of the difficulty which every student experience in realizing the physical nature of entropy we will in the main confine our attention here to gases and indeed to their simplest case, the monatomic gas, and will as usual assume that the dimensions of an atom or particle are very small in comparison with the average distance between two adjacent particles, that for the atoms approaching collision the distance within which they exert a significant influence on each other is very small as compared with the mean distance between adjacent atoms, and that between collisions the mean length of the particle's path is great in comparison with the average distance between the particles. Later on we will indicate in a very general and brief way how the entropy idea may be extended to other states of aggregation and to other than purely thermodynamic phenomena. Mostly, therefore, we will only consider states and processes in which heat phenomena and mechanical occurrences take place.

[1]See Entropy, by JAMES SWINBURNE; this author has called attention to necessary corrections and duly emphasized the engineering aspect.

[2]BOLTZMANN, Gas Theorie; PLANCK, Thermodynamik, Theorie der Wärmestrahlung, and Acht Vorlesungen über Theoretische Physik.

[3]Professor W. S. FRANKLIN, The Second Law of Thermodynamics: its basis in Intuition and Common Sense. Pop. Science Monthly, March, 1910.

PART I DEFINITIONS, GENERAL PRELIMINARIES, DEVELOPMENT, CURRENT AND PRECISE STATEMENTS OF THE MATTERS CONSIDERED

SECTION A

(1) The "State" of a Body and its "Change of State"

As we will make constant use of the terms contained in this heading and as they here represent fundamentally important conceptions, we will seek to make them clear by presenting them in the various forms into which they have been cast by the different investigators, even at the risk of being considered prolix.

In the Introduction to this article we called attention to the two distinct modes of attacking any physical problem. Now the conception "state of a body" varies with the chosen mode of attack. Of course as both modes are legitimate and lead to correct results, these differences in the conception of "state" can be reconciled and a broader definition reached. We can illustrate these different methods of approach, as PLANCK has done, by assuming two different observers of the state of the body, one called the microscopic-observer and the other the macroscopic-observer. The former possesses senses so acute and powers so great that he can recognize each individual atom and can measure its motion. For this observer each atom will move exactly according to the elementary laws prescribed for it by General Dynamics. These laws, so far as we know them, also at once permit of exactly the opposite course of each event. Consequently there can be here no question of probability, of entropy or of its growth. On the other hand, the "macro-observer," (who perceives the atomic host, say as a homogeneous gas, and consequently applies to its mechanical and thermal events the laws of thermodynamics) will regard the process as a whole to be an irreversible one in accordance with the Second Law.... Now a particular change of state cannot at the same time be both reversible and irreversible. But the one observer has a different idea of "change of state" from the other; the micro-observer's conception of "change of state" is different from that of the macro-observer. What then is "change of state?" The state of a physical system can probably not be rigorously defined, otherwise than the conception, as a whole, of all those physical magnitudes whose instantaneous values, under given external conditions, also uniquely determine the sequence of these changing values.

BOLTZMANN'S statement is much more clear, namely, "The state of a body is determined, (a) by the law of distribution of the particles in space and (b) by the law of distribution of the velocities of the particles; in other words, a body's condition is determined (a) by the number of particles which lie in each elementary realm of the space and (b) by a statement of the number of particles which belong to each elementary velocity group. These elementary realms are all equal and so are the elementary velocity groups equal among themselves. But it is furthermore assumed that each elementary realm and each elementary velocity group contains very many particles."