Plastic Waste Management E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH GmbH
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- Sprache: Englisch
Plastic Waste Management
Comprehensive resource on innovative and breakthrough developments in plastic waste management, covering a wide range of processing techniques and applications
Plastic Waste Management offers a complete guide to the best plastic waste management practices through recycling, incineration, landfill, and other processes, discusses applications of plastic waste management including energy generation, biochemical production, construction, and food packaging, covering current challenges relating to plastic waste, explaining the sources of waste and their routes into the environment, and providing systematic coverage of plastic waste treatment methods, including mechanical processing, monomerization, blast furnace feedstock, gasification, and thermal recycling.
The book also discusses different biodegradation mechanisms of plastic wastes and ecotoxicity and ecological Implications of marine plastic debris. From a cultural perspective, the book provides information regarding environmental and health implications, societal issues, and current challenges associated with plastic waste management.
Written by leading experts in the field and edited by two highly qualified academics, Plastic Waste Management covers specific sample topics such as:
- A a roadmap towards a circular economy and environmental sustainability via effective management strategies for plastic wastes
- Implementation of an analytical hierarchy process for developing better waste collection systems, and chemical recycling of plastic waste for sustainable development
- Mechanisms, perspectives, and challenges for natural biodegradation of plastic wastes, and conversion of plastic wastes into value added materials
- Plastic wastes management and disposal in developing countries, and challenges and strategies for plastic waste management during and post COVID-19 pandemic
Plastic Waste Management is a highly valuable resource for scientists and researchers working in the fields of environmental science, environmental engineering, and plastic engineering towards the goal of developing sustainable materials, along with graduate and postgraduate students in related programs of study, and professionals and engineers in related industries.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Introduction to Plastic Wastes: Processing Methods, Environmental and Health Implications
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Plastic materials: Composition and Classification
1.3 Techniques of Plastic Processing
1.4 Global Plastic Production
1.5 The Health and Environmental Effects of Plastic Debris
1.6 Management Strategies for Plastic Debris
1.7 Conclusion
References
2 Management Strategies for Plastic Wastes: A Roadmap Toward Circular Economy and Environmental Sustainability
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Waste Plastics Management Strategies
2.3 Recycling and Reuse of Waste Plastic in a Circular Economy
2.4 Circular Economy in Waste Plastic Management
2.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
3 Implementation of Analytical Hierarchy Process for Developing Better Waste Collection System
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Barriers to Better Waste Collection and Management Systems
3.3 Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process
3.4 Prioritization of Barriers and Sub‐Barriers of Developing Better Waste Collection System
3.5 Conclusions
References
4 Processing and Recycling of Plastic Wastes for Sustainable Material Management
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Collection, Recycling, and Processing of Plastic Waste: Case Studies on Treatment Technology Available in India and Worldwide
4.3 Integrated Solid Waste Management
4.4 Plastic Waste Management: Recent Approaches
4.5 Treatment of Plastics with Composting
4.6 Utilizations of Plastic Waste as Civil Construction Materials
4.7 Public Health Effects of Plastic Wastes
4.8 The Effect of Plastic Waste on Land and Ocean Animal
4.9 Conclusion
References
5 Chemical Recycling of Plastic Waste for Sustainable Development
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Plastic Consumption, Waste Production, and Issues
5.3 Plastics Waste and Plastic Properties
5.4 Plastic Waste and Sustainable Development
5.5 Challenges Associated with Plastic Chemical Recycling
5.6 Future Perspectives
5.7 Conclusion
References
6 Plastic Wastes Management and Disposal in Developing Countries: Challenges and Future Perspectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Methods of Research
6.3 Results
6.4 Plastic Waste Reduction: Challenges and Recommendations
6.5 Conclusion
References
Note
7 Plastic Waste Management During and Post COVID‐19 Pandemic: Challenges and Strategies
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biomedical Plastic Wastes' Environmental Effects?
7.3 Impact of COVID‐19 on Plastic Waste Generation
7.4 Packaging Plastic During and Post COVID‐19 Pandemics
7.5 Types of Plastic Product Use During and Post COVID‐19 Pandemics
7.6 The Status of Uses of Personal Protective Equipment Before, During, and Post COVID‐19 Pandemic
7.7 Major Material and Composition used During the Production of PPE During Pandemic
7.8 Status of Biodegradable and Nonbiodegradable Plastics Used in COVID‐19 Management
7.9 Role of Medical Waste on the Plastic Industry During and Post‐COVID 19 Pandemic
7.10 Waste Management During the COVID‐19 Pandemic
7.11 Challenges for the Current Waste Management Systems
7.12 Strategies for the Current Waste Management System
7.13 Biological Advantages of Plastic Waste Management During and Post‐Pandemic
7.14 The Economic Development and Advantages of Plastic Waste Management During and Post‐Pandemic
7.15 Future Prospects
7.16 Conclusion
References
8 Biodegradation of Plastic Waste: Mechanisms, Perspectives, and Challenges
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Plastic Wastes Degradation
8.3 Biodegradation
8.4 C–C Backbone Degradation in Plastic Polymers
8.5 C–O Backbone Degradation in Plastic Polymers
8.6 Synthetic Plastic Polymer Biodegradation Method
8.7 Toxicological Aspects of Plastic Waste Biodegradation
8.8 Future Outlook, Recommendations, and Viable Alternatives
8.9 Conclusion
References
9 Conversion of Waste Plastics into Value‐added Materials: A Global Perspective
9.1 Introduction
9.2 From Recycling to Upcycling
9.3 Chemical Recycling
9.4 Emergent Technology in Waste Plastic Conversion
9.5 Mechanical Recycling
9.6 Recycling in Additive Manufacturing
9.7 Innovative Characterization Techniques
9.8 Future Work and Recommendations
9.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
10 Plastic Waste Management in Construction Industry: Opportunities and Technological Challenges
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Applications of Polyethylene (PE) Based Plastic Waste in Construction Field
10.3 Applications of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Plastic Waste in Construction Field
10.4 Applications of Polypropylene (PP) Plastic Waste in Construction Field
10.5 Applications of Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Plastic Waste in Construction Field
10.6 Applications of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Plastic Waste in Construction Field
10.7 Technological Challenges Associated with Plastic Waste Utilization in Construction Field
10.8 Conclusion
References
11 Perspectives of Material Flow Analysis in Plastic Waste Management
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Plastic
11.3 MFA
11.4 Conclusion
References
12 Life Cycle Assessment Approach for Mitigating Problems of Plastic Waste Management
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Effect of Plastic Waste on the Environment and Living Beings
12.3 Current Strategies for Plastic Waste Management
12.4 Life Cycle Assessment
12.5 Challenges in LCA
12.6 Current Status on Sustainable Plastic Development
12.7 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
13 Technologies and Recycling Strategies of Municipal Solid Waste: A Global Perspective
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Technological Implications for Recyclable Material Procurement
13.3 Sustainability of Recycling Measures: Stakeholder Participation and Collaboration
13.4 Municipal Solid Waste: Challenges and Perspectives for Recycling
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Management of Marine Plastic Debris: Ecotoxicity and Ecological Implications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Marine Plastic Debris Composition
14.3 Toxicity of Plastic Waste
14.4 Ecological Impact of Plastic Waste
14.5 Plastic Waste Management Strategy Through Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle (3R)
14.6 Integrated Scenario for Managing Plastic Waste
14.7 Conclusions
References
15 Societal Awareness, Regulatory Framework, and Technical Guidelines for Management of Plastic Wastes
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Empowerment of Social Capital for Community Awareness
15.3 Plastics Technical Guidelines
15.4 Regulatory Framework and Regulations for Plastic Waste Management
15.5 Policy and Action Recommendations for Global Sustainability
15.6 Remarks
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1. Different kinds of plastic products.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 MCDA‐based studies on WCM and WMS.
Table 3.2 Barriers and sub‐barriers of WCM and WMS.
Table 3.3 Linguistic scale.
Table 3.4 Pairwise comparison with respect to barriers to better waste collection....
Table 3.5 Pairwise comparison with respect to political barriers (B1).
Table 3.6 Pairwise comparison with respect to economic barriers (B2).
Table 3.7 Pairwise comparison with respect to sociocultural barriers (B3).
Table 3.8 Pairwise comparison with respect to technical barriers (B4).
Table 3.9 Pairwise comparison with respect to legal and legislative barrie...
Table 3.10 Ranking of sub‐barriers with respect to the goal of a better wa...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Different additive used in plastic production, their effect and th...
Table 4.2 Effect of plastic waste on ocean animal [54].
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Application of products obtained from plastic wastes.
Table 5.2 Percentage yield of products from waste plastic materials through ...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Description of types of plastic additives.
Table 6.2 List of nations with the worst practices for managing plastic wast...
Table 6.3 Comparison of waste management techniques in low‐ and high‐income ...
Table 6.4 Potential solutions of certain challenges of plastic waste faced b...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Conventional and upcoming waste plastic management strategies with...
Table 9.2a Slow pyrolysis of some plastic with modification [12].
Table 9.2b Fast pyrolysis of some plastics.
Table 9.2c Flash pyrolysis of LDPE with different experimental parameters.
Table 9.3 Thermal treatment routes for the production of some plastic waste ...
Table 9.4 Hydrogen production from plastic waste using supercritical water g...
Table 9.5 Plastic waste to fuel using microwave‐assisted pyrolysis.
Table 9.6 Some reductive depolymerizations with environmentally friendly cat...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Types and quantities of plastics in municipal solid waste (1000 t...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 EI offered by one functional unit of blanket production [72].
Table 12.2 Different ranks assigned to polymers based on normalized green de...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Important actors/stakeholders and their prospective roles/challen...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 List of plastics and gaseous emitted [36].
Table 14.2 Potential chemicals released when burning plastic materials and t...
Table 14.3 Plastic additives and human health [4].
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Examples of activities under the programs for sustainable plastic...
Table 15.2 Categorical consideration of plastic waste according to the three...
Table 15.3 Examples of guidance documents, technical guidelines, practical m...
Table 15.4 Examples of the scope of plastic waste under the guidelines relat...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Global plastics production.
Figure 1.2 Comparison of the familiar SPI system and the new ASTM system for...
Figure 1.3 Plastic litter can substantially end up in the global ocean.
Figure 1.4 MSW components [42].
Figure 1.5 Fate and detrimental effects of plastic products on the ecosystem...
Figure 1.6 Primary microplastics (left side) and secondary microplastics (ri...
Figure 1.7 Potential pathways of microplastic exposure in the human body and...
Figure 1.8 GHG emissions in the life cycle of plastic.
Figure 1.9 Microplastics harmful effects on the ocean carbon sequestration....
Figure 1.10 Circular economy model for plastic materials.
Figure 1.11 Microorganism potential for (micro)plastic degradation.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Harmful effects of plastics on ecosystem.
Figure 2.2 Schematic of a general pyrolysis plant (1) coarse refuse bunker, ...
Figure 2.3 Stages in the degradation of plastics by microbes.
Figure 2.4 Schematic of an incineration.
Figure 2.5 Postconsumer plastic waste rates of recycling, energy recovery, a...
Figure 2.6 Proposed integrated plastic waste management in a circular econom...
Figure 2.7 Locally managed decentralized circular economy process from plast...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Hierarchical structure of barriers to waste collection system.
Figure 3.2 Prioritization of major barriers to better waste collection syste...
Figure 3.3 Prioritization of sub‐barriers with respect to political barriers...
Figure 3.4 Prioritization of sub‐barriers with respect to economic barriers ...
Figure 3.5 Prioritization of sub‐barriers with respect to sociocultural barr...
Figure 3.6 Prioritization of sub‐barriers with respect to technical barriers...
Figure 3.7 Prioritization of sub‐barriers with respect to legal and administ...
Figure 3.8 Global weights of the sub‐barriers with respect to goal.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Impact of plastic materials on ecosystem.
Figure 4.2 Classification of plastics.
Figure 4.3 Degradation period of plastic waste.
Figure 4.4 Hierarchy of waste management.
Figure 4.5 Plastic resin consumption in India by type.
Figure 4.6 Schematic representation of green design.
Figure 4.7 Conventional and emerging methods of plastic disposal.
Figure 4.8 Process concept for PET chemical recycling.
Figure 4.9 Mechanism of microbial degradation of plastic wastes.
Figure 4.10 Plastic waste to high‐value products.
Figure 4.11 Fuel formation from plastic waste.
Figure 4.12 Plastic waste as construction material.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Demonstration of aquatic and terrestrial life disturbance by plas...
Figure 5.2 Synthesis of PET poly(ethylene terephthalate).
Figure 5.3 Sustainable development approach.
Figure 5.4 Global share of waste treatment and disposal according to the met...
Figure 5.5 Common fates for current plastic waste.
Figure 5.6 Role of plastic waste chemical recycling in environmental sustain...
Figure 5.7 Demonstration of incorporation of plastic wastes in structural ma...
Figure 5.8 Chemical recycling processes of mixed plastic waste via pyrolysis...
Figure 5.9 Acid hydrolysis of PET poly(ethylene terephthalate).
Figure 5.10 Feedstock, process, and products involve in chemical recycling t...
Figure 5.11 Developing chemical recycling for use on industrial scale.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Plastic waste cycle in developing countries.
Figure 6.2 Production of plastic at global level.
Figure 6.3 Types of recycling used for plastic/polymers.
Figure 6.4 Policies design for sustainable plastic use.
Figure 6.5 Plastic waste impact on aquatic environment.
Figure 6.6 Biopolymer approach to obtain value‐added bioplastic products.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Biological waste based on plastics emerged during the COVID‐19 ep...
Figure 7.2 Materials and potential methods of dealing with SARS‐CoV‐2‐relate...
Figure 7.3 The impact of COVID‐19 pandemic on plastic waste generation.
Figure 7.4 Despite the possibility of air pollution, the COVID‐19 pandemic h...
Figure 7.5 A comparative scenario of and post COVID‐19 plastic management sy...
Figure 7.6 A biggest challenge for the management of wastage during the COVI...
Figure 7.7 The current strategy of post COVID‐19 plastic management system [...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Synthetic plastics and their worldwide market share.
Figure 8.2 Factors influencing the rate of plastics degradation.
Figure 8.3 Synthetic plastic eating insects.
Figure 8.4 The pathway of a C–C backbone synthetic plastic material microbia...
Figure 8.5 Microbial degradation pathway of polyurethane.
Figure 8.6 Microbial biodegradation pathway of PET.
Figure 8.7 Steps of microbial degradation.
Figure 8.8 Graphical representation of the enzymatic system of fungi and the...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Schematic representation of value‐added‐materials.
Figure 9.2 Products from catalytic conversion of different plastics.
Figure 9.3 Variety of products derived from different plastics.
Figure 9.4 PP mask used in the synthesis of nongraphitizable carbon powder f...
Figure 9.5 (a and b) Various energy materials developed from waste PE [54, 5...
Figure 9.6 Adsorption of Cu(II) and Cr(VI) ions on PWCMs.
Figure 9.7 Enzymatic hydrolysis in the biodegradation of waste plastic.
Figure 9.8 Mechanism for the conversion of plastic into fuel using Fenton ox...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Statistics on consumption and production of various plastic mate...
Figure 10.2 The tentative quantitative utilization of plastic in different d...
Figure 10.3 Schematic illustration of waste plastic recycling using mechanic...
Figure 10.4 Comparison of sorting, reprocessing, and recycling potentials of...
Figure 10.5 Techniques for plastic waste management.
Figure 10.6 Applications of various plastic materials in construction indust...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Application usages (%, on a wet weight basis) of each polymer in...
Figure 11.2 The overview of system boundaries and related model besides the ...
Figure 11.3 Summary of total plastic material flows in India for 2018–2019 [...
Figure 11.4 Plastic production, disposal, and recycling routes.
Figure 11.5 Barriers and strategies for improving the approach to recycling ...
Figure 11.6 The layout and structure of the modeled recycling system (a) and...
Figure 11.7 Mechanical recycling of plastics [102].
Figure 11.8 Different qualitative management parts for WEEE plastic.
Figure 11.9 (a) Different processes of plastics supply including a linear ec...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Summary of ocean‐bound waste collection; generation, upcycling a...
Figure 12.2 Flowchart for treatment of wastes generated from electrical equi...
Figure 12.3 Different impact parameters for conducting various treatment sce...
Figure 12.4 Conceptual demonstration of the life cycle of plastic waste from...
Figure 12.5 LCA results of different sorting and recycling scenarios in term...
Figure 12.6 (a) Environmental relative impact, (b) Environmental benefit, an...
Figure 12.7 (a) EI of all the 25 polymers offered during production and recy...
Figure 12.8 Comparation of EI offered by conventional PCB and bio‐PCB with a...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 A typical composition of recyclable materials in MSW.
Figure 13.2 Plastic waste recycling and disposal pathways and their relation...
Figure 13.3 Attributes of essential pathways obligatory for building sustain...
Figure 13.4 Advanced or tertiary recycling methods.
Figure 13.5 Collaborating factors and stakeholder involvement for building s...
Figure 13.6 Social, political, economic, and legal factors responsible for r...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Plastic debris mechanism to the sea [5].
Figure 14.2 Average plastic waste generation in each region of Indonesia....
Figure 14.3 (a) Grouping of objectives by Fisheries Management Areas in Indo...
Figure 14.4 Top 10 countries ranked according to plastic waste emitted to th...
Figure 14.5 Annual plastic waste generation in Indonesia from 2018 to 2021....
Figure 14.6 Different types of plastics.
Figure 14.7 The primary sources of indoor and outdoor plastic trash that are...
Figure 14.8 Association to sustainable development.
Figure 14.9 Plastic impact on the environment.
Figure 14.10 Plastic (microplastics and nanoplastics) impact to phytoplankto...
Figure 14.11 Hierarchy of plastic waste management [65].
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 The negative impacts of marine plastic pollution on wildlife inc...
Figure 15.2 Components and treatment options for biomedical and domestic pla...
Figure 15.3 Two pathways for the input of medical plastic waste into the fre...
Figure 15.4 A plastic management model that meets the principles of a circul...
Figure 15.5 List of focuses for plastic waste regulatory options.
Figure 15.6 Use of general policy for plastic waste management.
Figure 15.7 Coastal and marine environment protection regulations in Latin A...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Plastic Waste Management
Methods and Applications
Edited by Kalim Deshmukh and Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai
Editors
Dr. Kalim DeshmukhChemical Processes and Biomaterials, New Technologies ‐ Research CentreUniversity of West BohemiaUniverzitní 8, PlzeňCzech Republic
Dr. Jyotishkumar ParameswaranpillaiDepartment of Science, Faculty of Science & TechnologyAlliance UniversityChandapura‐Anekal Main Road, Bengaluru 562106Karnataka, India
Cover Image: © Moonnoon/Shutterstock
All books published by WILEY‐VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
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Print ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐35214‐2ePDF ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐84218‐6ePub ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐84219‐3oBook ISBN: 978‐3‐527‐84220‐9
Preface
Nowadays, plastics have become an important product worldwide because of their manifold applications in commercial and industrial sectors comprising electronics, construction, automotive, healthcare, agriculture, and packaging owing to their remarkable physical and chemical properties. In recent years, the demand for plastics has grown significantly owing to their number of advantages, which include resistance to corrosion, sustainability, ease of use, production simplicity, and low cost. Based on their functionality, plastics can be easily modified to desired shape and color, and the large‐scale production of plastics has increased drastically because of high community demand and worldwide industrial revolution. However, the excessive utilization of plastics and their nondegradable nature accompanies several environmental and health problems caused by poor waste management after utilization and negligence during the production of plastics. Municipal solid waste contains about 10% to 12% of residual plastic, which post‐combustion releases the gases into the environment, thereby increasing air pollution and causing greenhouse effects. In general, the poor disposal and ill‐treatment of plastic waste affect animals, public health, and environmental pollution. The implications of plastic waste management on health and the environment are increasing day by day, particularly in developing countries, and therefore regulatory affairs dealing with environmental clearance and safety are employed. Thus, governments, municipal corporations, civil society, and territorial governance constitute various measures and legislative norms concerning environmental protection that can guide citizens to dispose of waste plastic after its use. Some examples of waste management strategies are recycling, incineration, bioremediation, and landfilling. These strategies are developed to ensure environmental safety, cleanliness, and efficient disposal of plastic waste. Thus, constituting accessible and efficient waste management policies is a cornerstone of sustainable development and environmental sustainability.
This edited book provides a comprehensive discussion on cutting‐edge research and breakthrough advancements in plastic waste management. The book offers a complete guide to the best plastic waste management practices through recycling, incineration, landfilling, and other processes. The book provides an in‐depth understanding of plastic waste management techniques and approaches that are useful in maintaining environmental sustainability. In particular, the book emphasizes different recycling techniques (chemical, mechanical, and biological) for plastic waste with an emphasis on life cycle analysis and different processes being implemented for developing efficient waste collection systems. The environmental and health implications of plastic waste and the applications of plastic waste management including energy generation, biochemical production, construction, and food packaging industry are also discussed in this book. The book comprises 15 chapters covering various topics. Chapter 1 introduces plastic waste management and discusses processing methods and environmental and health implications. Chapter 2 discusses different management strategies for plastic waste that can serve as a roadmap toward a circular economy and environmental sustainability. Chapter 3 provides a discussion on the implementation of the analytical hierarchy process for developing a better waste collection system. Chapter 4 discusses the processing and recycling strategies of plastic waste used in sustainable material management. Chapter 5 provides a critical review of the chemical recycling methods of plastic waste for sustainable development. Chapter 6 discusses the challenges and future perspectives of plastic waste management and disposal in developing countries. Chapter 7 discusses the challenges and strategies of plastic waste management during and after the COVID‐19 pandemic. Chapter 8 describes the mechanisms, perspectives, and challenges of biodegradation of plastic waste. Chapter 9 provides a discussion of the global perspectives on the conversion of plastic waste into value‐added materials. Chapter 10 gives a comprehensive review of the opportunities and technological challenges of plastic waste management in the construction industry. Chapter 11 discusses perspectives on material flow analysis in plastic waste management. Chapter 12 gives information about the life cycle assessment used in mitigating plastic waste management. Chapter 13 provides a critical discussion on the global perspective of the technologies and recycling strategies of municipal solid waste. Chapter 14 discusses the ecotoxicity, ecological implications, and management of marine plastic debris. Chapter 15 provides a discussion on societal awareness, regulatory framework, and technical guidelines for the management of plastic waste.
Overall, this book will be a valuable source for all working in the fields of environmental science, environmental engineering, plastic engineering, and waste management. We highly appreciate the excellent cooperation and valuable chapter contributions from various authors. Our sincere appreciation also goes to the staff at Wiley‐VCH, especially Felix Bloeck and Dorairaj Vijayan, Aswini Murugadass, Chandra Mohan Vishali and Anjana Sridhar for their dedicated support during the publication of this book. Finally, we would like to thank Wiley‐VCH for publishing this book on time.
Dr. Kalim Deshmukh
Dr. Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai
4/1/2024, Plzeň, Czech Republic
1Introduction to Plastic Wastes: Processing Methods, Environmental and Health Implications
Ali Mahmoudnia1, Behnam Nejati2, Mahsa Kianmehr3, Masood R. Deiranloei1, and Farshad G. Kootenaei1
1Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, 16th Azar St., Enghelab Sq, 1417466191, Tehran, Iran
2Department of Renewable Energies Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hesarak blvd, Daneshgah Square, Sattari Highway, 1477893855, Tehran, Iran
3Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Knowledge and Health Town, Shahid Fakouri Blvd, 9919191778, Mashhad, Iran
1.1 Introduction
The term “pliable,” which means “easily formed,” has been the origin of the word plastic [1]. The word “plastic” was first used in the 1630s to refer to a material that could be shaped or molded. This word is obtained from the Latin word “plasticus,” meaning to mold or shape, and the Ancient Greek word plastikos, which describes something that may be molded. Leo Hendrick Baekeland initially used the term “plastic” in the current sense in 1909, and it is now a general term that is used to describe a wide range of materials [2]. Moreover, plastics are referred to as long chains of monomers called monomers, joined to different indistinguishable subunits to create a polymer. Depending on the type of plastic, commercial plastics typically include between 10,000 and 100,000,000 monomers per chain. Polymers in which each monomer is the same as the following monomer in the sequence are called “homopolymer.” Nevertheless, polymers may be made up of various alternating monomers, named “copolymers.” Polymers can also be made from branched chains in different architectures, different from a simple and basic linear polymer chain. Two polymers may also be blended to create a plastic mix that concurrently demonstrates the features of each polymer, subsequently giving both advantages. Moreover, combining two polymers can comprise a blend with improved features compared to either polymer alone. Polymers can have originated by nature, namely cellulose, which serves as the primary the components of plant cell walls and aids in the adaptation of cellular activities [3, 4]. Cellulose is known to be one of the most prevalent bio‐based polymers on the globe. However, synthetic plastics created by humans are the vast majority of polymers of the modern age. John Wesley Hyatt was the inventor of the process for making celluloid, the first artificial plastic. John Wesley created a synthetic plastic that could be molded into many shapes and made to replicate natural materials namely horn, tortoiseshell, and linen that could be used in the manufacture of plastic by correctly processing cellulose polymers formed from cotton fibers with camphor [5].
The invention of synthetic polymers utilized to produce plastic materials has extended their application in varieties of products from packaging to cosmetics. Nevertheless, the majority of these polymers are not biodegradable, and after they are utilized and destroyed, they pose significant problems for waste management. Nevertheless, the usage of plastics can also have unfavorable externalities, including increasing atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs) or harm to the environment. It often is not biodegradable, which means that it might stay around as garbage for a very long period and possibly endanger both the environment and public health.
In the current chapter, we draw on existing knowledge about plastic to be an introduction to plastic waste management. We discuss plastics’ environmental and health effects and show how plastic materials contribute to climate warming from cradle to the grave. We also present that the widespread use of plastic materials is a fix that backfires archetype. Then appropriate strategies to deal with plastic waste are discussed.
1.2 Plastic materials: Composition and Classification
The bulk of plastics consist of fillers, binders, plasticizers, pigments, and additional ingredients. Plastic's main characteristics are determined by the binder, and frequently, the plastic's name is derived from binder molecules. Binders might be synthetic or natural, including milk protein, casein, or a derivative of cellulose. It is also noted that most binders are made of synthetic resins [6]. For the most part, plastics are made from polyethylene. In accordance with the required properties of the finished product, it can alternatively be described as an ethylene polymer with the molecular and empirical formulae CH2–CH2 and (–CH2–CH2–)n, respectively. The majority of organic solvents, acids, alkalis, and water have no effect on polyethylene [7]. Thermoplastics and thermosets are two categories of plastic that may be distinguished depending on their chemistry and physical features. Thermoplastics are a form of plastic that can be heated up, melted, and molded, then cooled down to become rigid. Additionally, these three steps are repeatable for thermoplastics. This feature of the plastic also makes them suitable for mechanical recycling, which is an effective means of waste management. The internal structure of thermoplastics, which including chemical bonding, as well as other structural characteristics and properties, can be used to categorize them.
1.2.1 Thermoplastics
Since 1940, the thermoplastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) has been made based on fossil feedstock. Currently, it is utilized in the packaging of bottles and the textile industry. PET still enters the environment in substantial amounts even though it was developed for industrial purposes. A type of thermoplastic polymer known as high‐density polyethylene (HDPE) is created from ethylene monomers. Similar ethylene molecules undergo a polymerization event to create polyethylene. According to this empirical formula (C2H4)n, polyethylene is an unsaturated organic alkene formed of structurally organized hydrogen and carbon. HDPE is an inexpensive thermoplastic having a linear structure with minimal branching in comparison with other thermoplastics. It is made at a low pressures of 10 to 80 bar and low temperatures of 70–300°C environment. HDPE is frequently used to make soap containers and liquid cleaning product packaging, freezer and shopping bags, food and drinks storage, faux wood planks, bottle caps, pipelines, protective helmets, insulation, and vehicle fuel tanks [8].
The production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is the world's biggest use of chlorine gas. In total, human activities consume 16 million tons of chlorine or 40% of global production annually. Organochlorine, which can be referred to as a massive class of compounds that have recently come under regulatory and scientific investigation due to their widespread use and negative impact on public health and also the environment, is most commonly produced in PVC. The majority of plastic wastes with chemical compositions devoid of chlorine are more harmful to the community than plastic trash produced by plastics [9]. Vinyl manufacture, the creation of hazardous compounds, and excessive energy and resource consumption during various production stages all have negative consequences on the environment.
Ethylene is made from natural gas, oil, or chlorine gas, which is mostly made from sea salt through high‐energy electrolysis. These are the two essential ingredients used to create vinyl [10]. Chlorine gas and the organic molecule ethylene are joined in chemical reactions to produce ethylene dichloride (EDC), also known as 1,2‐dichloroethane in science. The term “chlorination” refers to this manufacturing procedure. A by‐product of this process is organic HCl, which is mixed with more ethylene to make additional EDC via the chemical manufacturing technique known as oxychlorination. By a process known as pyrolysis, the generated EDC is simultaneously further transformed into chloroethylene (VCM – vinyl chloride monomer). A lengthy chain of PVC known as white powder is created by joining the VCM monomers created during the pyrolysis process. Stabilizers, plasticizers, colorants, and different essential additives, which can provide any particular attribute for the desired plastic working, are added with pure PVC. Because of its stiffness, brittleness, and ability to progressively accelerate its disintegration with intensity from UV radiation, PVC in its pure state is not terribly beneficial. PVC is made usable by adding additives to the polymer to boost its moldability and flexibility. [11]. PVC is frequently utilized in vinyl records, sewage and water pipes, garments, water bottles, and medical containers. It is also utilized in furniture, flooring, electric conductors, and other utilitarian wires [12].
In contrast to HDPE that has an extensive branching structure and contains both short‐chain and long‐chain monomers, LDPE is a long chain of identical subunits that is transparent and semirigid. Free radical polymerization is used to produce LDPE, which requires very particular circumstances including high pressure and temperatures ranging from 80 to 300 degrees Celsius. A total of 4000–40,000 carbon atoms with numerous short branches and subbranches are used in the LDPE's synthesis. Two alternative processes, stirred autoclaving and tubular methods, can be used to create LDPE. Presently, tubular reactors are utilized more frequently compared to autoclaving because of the benefits that tubular reactors provide, including a greater ethylene transformation rate. Laundry bags, bin bags, drink cartons, work tables, drink ring holders, machine components, lids, trays, protective shells, computer hardwires, playground fixtures, and containers are just a few typical uses for LDPE.
Thermoplastic polymers utilized in different usage is polypropylene (PP), and (C3H6)n is the empirical formula for it. PP, a semi‐nonpolar chemical molecule that is partially crystalline, is produced through a polymerization reaction that converts propylene into a continuous chain of the polymer. The advantages of PP as a polyolefin, which is less dense than other commodities, led to its invention in 1954. Chemical resistance is just one of several advantages that make PP well suited for use in a diverse range of applications and conversion procedures, including extrusion molding and injection. High‐temperature resistance and chemical branching are related to its physical and chemical features. The fabrication of various household objects, like as bottles, instrument jars (which may be often cleaned for use in a clinical setting), funnels, pails, and trays is both possible and given top attention by PP. PP's superior mechanical qualities and colorlessness make it a better choice than polyethylene in many applications. Due to colorless nature of PP and having superior mechanical qualities, polyethylene is a preferable choice than polyethylene in many applications. PP is widely utilized in a variety of industries, including packing tape, food containers, crisp bag, straws, hobby model supplies, lunch boxes, bottle caps, apparel, and surgical instruments and tools [13].
1.2.2 Thermosets
Thermosets are polymers that undergo a number of physicochemical conversion processes under various heat treatments, in which a cross‐linking reaction materializes the chemical linkage between macromolecular chains and facilitates the creation of a three‐dimensional network. After being subjected to the heating treatment, these thermoset molecules are unable to be reconstructed or remolten, and the process of transformation itself is irreversible. The fact that thermosets may change their physical state from a liquid with a relatively low viscosity to a solid with a high melting point illustrates that a wide variety of materials with different physical and chemical characteristics can be generated using thermosets. The viscosity of thermosetting monomers or subunits is typically low, making it possible to modify them and make them simple for consumers. The performance of thermosets may be maximized and optimized through the application of a number of additives, which in turn makes it possible for these materials to be put to a broad variety of specialized uses [14].
The polymerization of organic monomers known as urethane leading the polymer formation known as polyurethane, which also known as a carbonate in the commercial is setting. Many thermoset polyurethanes are also known as thermoplastic polyurethanes [15]. Polyurethane is widely used in a number of goods, including paints, coatings, foams, furniture, adhesives, and insulators because of its versatility and physical and chemical properties. Polyurethanes, much like many other types of polymers, are mostly composed of petrochemicals, either as the primary component of their main structural components or as a basic ingredient or subunit [16].
1.3 Techniques of Plastic Processing
Processing of plastic is the set of operations that turns raw plastic or polymer ingredients into refined products that can alter the standard of living in a variety of aspects, including financial, health, and developmental ones. Plastics see heavy application in the food and drink processing industries. Plastics can have their durability, applications, and modifiability enhanced by the use of certain synthetic substances that are referred to as additives. Examples of additives that can help with the altering processes include plasticizers made of phthalates and bisphenols. Several techniques can be used to transform polymer into high‐quality plastics. There are several ways to turn polymer into high‐quality plastics, and these ways can be classified into three different categories. For instance, there are primary processing techniques like transfer molding, compression, extrusion, and injection, secondary processing techniques such as thermoforming, coating, calendaring and fabrication, roto‐coating, as well as casting, and tertiary processing techniques includes drilling, welding, and briquetting.
1.3.1 Primary Techniques
Thermosets, also known as thermoplastics, can be manufactured at a temperature that is kept under control by employing an injection process that involves the use of a plunger or screw pump to lower the viscosity of the polymer that is stored in a heated barrel and inject it under regulated pressure by compression into runners through a nozzle, molds cavities, and gates [17]. The mold injection method is used for creating a wide variety of goods, including those used in the automobile industry, as well as bottle caps, spools, gem clips, crates, bobbins, and buckets. Another common processing technique is blow molding, which requires the use of electricity and band heaters to heat the area to the point where plastic melts and may be deformed from the raw material of plastic pellets [18]. The blow molding technique is used to make a wide variety of goods, including portable toilets, air ducts, drinking bottles, armrests, and gas tanks. During the extrusion processing, raw thermoplastic materials or resins are loaded into the mounted hopper at the top, where they are allowed to fall into the extruder's barrel as a result of the gravitational attraction force. Chemical additives, such as UV inhibitors and colorants, can be inserted and incorporated into the resin before it reaches the hopper in order to finish the processing of extruding plastics. These chemical additives can come in the form of pellets or liquids [19, 20]. A number of the products which can be manufactured using extrusion are plastic films and sheeting, strapping, thermoplastic coatings, multilayer films, and pipe or tubing [19]. Another technique for processing plastics that involves heating is compression molding. A heated polymer is introduced into a hot mold cavity during the plastic material processing. The mold is completely sealed with the plug or closed, and then the material is compressed to fill the whole inside surface of the mold cavities [21]. This compression molding method simplifies the production of a material with intricate patterns in terms of thickness and length. The high strengths, hardness, and durability of the items produced using this technology make them appealing to users from a wide variety of industries and individuals [22]. A vast range of useful things are produced using compression and molding operations, including engine handles, cisterns, plugs, electrical sockets, and switches for engine casings. Another common plastic processing method employed by many specialists to produce different kinds of rubber components is transfer molding. Throughout the course of processing, the quantities of molding must be calculated, positioned, and introduced into the pot; afterward, the material is heated and put under pressure, which causes it to enter into the mold cavity [23].
1.3.2 Secondary Techniques
The plastic molding process known as rotational molding is well suited for creating hollow objects. In contrast to previous techniques, no pressure is used throughout this procedure. As casting techniques are used, the production process is shortened, and production costs are reduced, so having a short production process is advantageous from an economic standpoint [24]. Thermoforming is a type of plastic molding that can be used to make many different kinds of practical plastic instruments. In the manufacturing process, small plastic sheets are heated to facilitate an easy manipulation process. The sheets are heated to a malleable temperature to create the required products, and the final product is then cooled down to finalize the production process [25]. Calendaring is a type of secondary processing techniques utilized to produce a variety of high‐quality plastic sheet and film products as well as high‐volume plastics. It is frequently used to produce PVA and other polymers with different properties. The molten polymer is sent through the extruder, where it is treated to heat and pressure, and the calendaring rolls are used to shape the resulting sheets [26]. Another fascinating and practical way to process plastic is by casting method, which involves pouring a liquid state into a mold with cavities that resembles the shape of the finished product. Once the liquid has solidified, it takes on the shape of the plastic needed to create the desired product. In order to complete the process of the solidified component, the mold must be extracted or cast out from the product.
1.4 Global Plastic Production
Due to their outstanding physicochemical characteristics (e.g. durability, availability, hygienic, lightweight, and flexibility) and being cost‐effective, plastic has become a primary product around the world and has diverse applications in industrial and commercial commodities. The amount of plastic produced worldwide has increased significantly to satisfy the growing market for these products [27, 28]. Annual global plastic production has accelerated throughout the last decade from 2 million tons in the 1950s to 359 million tons in 2018 [29] and reached 368 million tons in 2020 [30]. Historically, global plastic production has incremented by approximately 9% per year [31]. According to scientific reports by 2014, the rate of the world's plastic production had achieved 311 million tons each year [32]. This indicates that global plastic production has increased by around 25% annually in just 5 years; meanwhile, global annual plastic production has grown dramatically to 20,000% in 65 years. China is known as the world's largest plastic producer, followed by European countries and North America which, respectively, produce 26%, 20%, and 19% of global plastic production (Figure 1.1) [33]. Moreover, recent long‐term projections indicate that the manufacture of plastic products displays no signs of slowing down and is anticipated to increase further [34]. Scientific research has projected that about an additional 33 billion tons of plastic materials will have been produced by 2050 [35], and the global annual plastic production will be between 850 million tons [36] and 1124 million tons [34]. However, these projections can be more aggravated due to the unprecedented consumption of plastic‐containing materials, including plastic‐based PPE and packaging.
Figure 1.1 Global plastics production.
Source: Shen et al. [33]/Elsevier/CCBY 4.0/Public domain.
The foremost commonly used and plenteous polymers (namely polystyrene (PS), PET, PVC, PP, HDPE, and low‐density polyethylene (LDPE)) are presented in Table 1.1. They together comprise nearly 90 percent of the whole plastic production of the world [37]. To determine specific sorts of plastics materials from other types, most plastic products, particularly those utilized in packaging, food, and drink, have an internationally recognized codes that determine the kind of polymer from which the commodities are made. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has issued the present coding system. The Society of Plastics Industry (SPI) administered the most common commodity plastics in 1998, with a designator code to help reprocessing measures, allowing plastics materials to be recognized easily [38]. Nevertheless, ASTM International took charge of the oversight of the codes in 2008. ASTM International, in 2013, took the decision to alter the familiar three mutually chasing arrows, revise the symbols, and replace them with solid equilateral triangles as a part of the recent modified ASTM D7611 system. The reason of this action was that the initial symbols were very similar to the global recycling symbol. It can be inferred that was a source of confusing because, despite the mutually chasing arrows, at that time, many recycling facilities would only accept plastics with specific codes and would not accept any other plastic sorts (Figure 1.2) [2]. Therefore, consumers were bewildered why the plastics were refused even with a recycling emblem. Hence, ASTM International desired to guarantee that the introduced symbols and abbreviations just determined the kind of plastics, regardless of their capacity to be recycled [39]. Therefore, the solid equilateral triangle system was presented to provide efficacious and trustworthy usage of the resin recognition coding system for the stakeholder society.
Table 1.1. Different kinds of plastic products.
Source: Crawford and Quinn [2]. Copyright 2017. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
ASTM designator code
Polymer type
Specific gravity
Applications
Polystyrene (PS)
1.05
Foam packaging, plastic tableware, food containers, single‐use cups, cassette boxes, CDs, jugs, tanks, and building materials (insulation)
High‐density polyethylene (HDPE)
0.94
Detergent bottles, pipes, tubes, milk jugs, and insulation molding
Low‐density polyethylene (LDPE)
0.91–0.93
Shower curtains, outdoor furniture, films, siding, clamshell packaging, and floor tiles
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
1.37
Bottles of carbonated beverages, pipes, tubes, plastic film
Polyester (PES)
1.40
Textiles and fibers
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
1.38
Plumbing pipes and guttering, window frames, shower curtains, films, and flooring
Polyamides (PA) (nylons)
1.13–1.35
Fibers, toothbrush bristles, fishing line, and food packaging
Polycarbonate (PC)
1.20–1.22
Compact disks, lenses, security windows, riot shields, construction materials, and eyeglasses
High‐impact polystyrene(HIPS)
1.08
Refrigerator liners, vending cups, food packaging, and electronics
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
1.06–1.08
Electronic equipment (such as keyboards and printers), automotive bumper bars, and drainage pipe
Polypropylene (PP)
0.83–0.85
Drinking straws, appliances, bottle caps, car fenders, tanks, and jugs
Figure 1.2 Comparison of the familiar SPI system and the new ASTM system for plastic identification.
Source: Crawford and Quinn [2]. Copyright 2017. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
Despite their outstanding features, plastic waste has become a severe concern globally. Among all the plastics that have been made, yearly, around 33% are expected to be disposable and are normally discarded within 12 months of production [2]. Moreover, among all plastics manufactured, it is assessed that around 10 percent has been discharged into the global ocean [39]. The assessment of United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) suggested that about 80% of waste in the marine environment originates from land, while only 20% results from sea activities (Figure 1.3). It has been assessed that between 4.8 and 12.7 million tons of plastic litter ended up in the global ocean in 2010 alone [40], while according to scientific estimates, in 2015, approximately 8 million tons of plastic waste were reached by the ocean [34]. This amount is anticipated to rise to about 32 million tons annually by 2050 [34]. Thus, the increasing amount of marine plastic litter poses various challenges from environmental and health aspects.
Figure 1.3 Plastic litter can substantially end up in the global ocean.
1.5 The Health and Environmental Effects of Plastic Debris
The increasing population, rapid industrialization, and growing urbanization have all contributed to various environmental problems caused by human activity. Solid waste management has emerged as one of the most pressing problems facing our planet, particularly in metropolitan regions and megacities and is considered to be one of the most significant environmental issues. Currently, the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) is approximately 2 billion tons annually, and by 2025, it is anticipated to reach 3 billion tons [41]. MSW has comprised a wide range of wastes, include organic residues like vegetables, fruits, and food scraps as well as inorganic wastes, like plastic, glass, and metal (Figure 1.4) [42]. A large segment of the MSW's inorganic components is made up of plastic litter fractions. Plastic garbage in MSW principally incorporates bottles, bags, packaging material, lids, containers, and cups. Because of their durability and stability, originating from their polymeric nature [43], plastic wastes have drawn tremendous attention compared with any other type of MSW. Due to the growing pace of plastic production materials and the lack of availability of appropriate means of management, treatment, and disposal, plastic trash has emerged as a serious problem in the modern world. Around 16% of plastic garbage produced annually in India, over 10% annually in China, and 2.5% annually in the UK [43]. Due to their recalcitrant and nonbiodegradable nature, it takes centuries for complete degradation. Hence, plastic wastes tend to accumulate instead of decomposing in natural environments or landfills. The accumulation of this growing amount of plastic debris in the environment can cause various health and environmental effects. The fate and detrimental effects of plastic particles are depicted in Figure 1.5 [44] and will be discussed in the following sections.
Figure 1.4 MSW components [42].
Source:https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/guide-facts-and-figures-report-about.
1.5.1 Plastic Debris and Microplastics
While scientific communities are dealing with that tremendous amount of mismanaged plastic waste, the microplastics' arrival has posed a severe new concern for the world. Microplastics are characterized as 1‐m to 5‐mm polymer particles [45, 46]. Microplastics are categorized into secondary and primary microplastics considering their sources [47, 48]. “Primary microplastic” refers to plastic particles made in micro‐size primarily. They exist in personal care and cosmetic products, toothpaste, facial cleansers, body washes, and lipstick. In contrast, “secondary microplastic” refers to micro‐size plastic particles formed by the breakdown of broader plastic products, such as face masks and clothes' synthetic fibers, due to exposure to severe environmental conditions such as UV radiation and mechanical forces [49–53]. Therefore, washing clothes, road marking and tiers, landfilling, littering, construction, sports arenas, plastic production industries, mulching in agriculture fields, cosmetics, and healthcare products are the potential sources of microplastics [54–59]. Microplastics are subdivided based on their size and appearance into 10 types as part of standardized size and color sorting system (SCS), including pellets (plastic spheres with diameters ranging from 1 to 5 mm), microbeads (small spherical pieces of plastic less than 1 mm to 1 μm in diameter), fragments (irregularly shaped pieces of plastic less than 5–1 mm in size along its longest dimension), microfragments (irregularly shaped pieces of plastic less than 1 mm–1 μm in size along its longest dimension), fiber (plastic filament or strand that is less than 5–1 mm in length along its longest dimension), microfiber (plastic filament or strand less than 1 mm–1 μm in size along its longest dimension), film (thin sheets of plastic less than 5–1 mm in size along their longest dimension), microfilm (thin sheets of plastic less than 1 mm–1 μm in size along their longest dimension), foam (foam‐like plastics less than 5 mm to 1 mm in size along their longest dimension), and microfoam (foam‐like plastics less than 1–1 μm in size along their longest dimension) [60]. These plastic particles may distribute vertically or horizontally. Almost the primary cause of the vertical transportation of (micro) plastics in the water column is polymers' density [61, 62]. While they can distribute horizontally because of hydrodynamic processes including river flow, wind, as well as ocean current, or they may be transferred by fauna after ingestion [58]. This distribution process may be allowed microplastics to end up in acceptor ecosystems, including freshwater [63], oceans [46], soil [64], groundwater [65], Arctic snow [66], the atmosphere [67], human foods like fishes [68], and eventually human body [69]. Figure 1.6 shows examples of primary and secondary microplastics.
Figure 1.5 Fate and detrimental effects of plastic products on the ecosystem.
Source: Lamichhane et al. [44]. Copyright 2023. Adapter from Springer Nature.
Figure 1.6 Primary microplastics (left side) and secondary microplastics (right side).
Thus, the extensive persistence and buildup of (micro)plastics in ecosystems across the world clearly pose a threat to public health. Our knowledge of the potential dangers of microplastics on public health is, however, fairly limited because of ethical limitations, a lack of effective detection techniques, and stringent biosecurity regulations for handling human samples. Therefore, it is still debatable how (micro)plastic environmental impacts and the increased incidence of associated human disorders interact. The various entry points for (micro)plastics into the human body as well as any potential negative consequences on health are discussed in the section that follows. Then, the environmental effects of plastic waste will be discussed. The chapter intends to identify future avenues for (micro)plastics research by helping readers better understand the intricate environmental health issues around (micro)plastic contamination.
1.5.2 Plastic Effects on Human Health
Microplastics may reach the human body via three critical pathways: by ingestion of microplastic‐contaminated water and food, inhalation of microplastics from the environment, and skin contact with microplastics found in dust, goods, or textiles [69, 70]. Figure 1.7 shows potential pathways of microplastic exposure in the human body and their toxicity routes [71]. Microplastics have been shown to contain in human foods, such as commercial fish [72], mussels [73], sugar [74], table salt [75], and drinking water [76]. Therefore, ingestion is considered the primary pathway of individual's exposure to microplastics [77]. Based on food consumption, it is predicted that each individual consumes between 39,000 and 52,000 particles of microplastic annually [78]. Microplastics may end up in the gastrointestinal system through foodstuff, possibly leading to increased permeability, an inflammatory response, and changes in metabolism and gut microbe composition [79].
Figure 1.7 Potential pathways of microplastic exposure in the human body and their toxicity routes.
Source: Ageel et al. [71]/© Royal Society of Chemistry.
Microplastics may remain suspended in the atmosphere, settle in aquatic or terrestrial, and then resuspend in the atmosphere. These airborne microplastics resulting from mismanaged plastic waste can be considered particulate matter (PM) constituents in air pollution. Microplastics may be present in an unidentified part of the PM because the minimum size of microplastics detected by usual methods is 5 μm. Nevertheless, recent research quantified and characterized a considerable amount of airborne microplastics in urban, suburban, remote mountains, and indoor environments [80–82]. The result of a scientific research note that indoor microplastic concentrations ranged from 3 to 15 MP particles/m3 in private apartments or offices [83]. Moreover, the concentration of microplastics in the outdoor environment in Spain reported by González‐Pleiter et al. [84] are 1.5 particles/m3 in a rural area and 13.9 particles/m3 in Madrid. It is estimated that adults' average air volume is approximately 15 m3/day [85]. Thus, every human is exposed to a considerable amount of airborne microplastics each day, which depends on individuals' situation, such as their job, population density in the city of residence, and the amount of time spent indoors. It is estimated that airborne microplastics via inhalation by adults would be 26–130 microplastic per day [86]. Moreover, dermal contact (from dust, microbeads in cosmetics, and synthetic fibers) is another plastic particle exposure pathway in the human body and mainly is related to nanoplastics (<100 nm) [69].
After exposure, microplastics cause toxicity in different ways. Due to their vast area of surface, the release of oxidizing pollutants such as metals adsorbed to their surface, or reactive oxygen species (ROS) unleashed during the inflammatory response, microplastics can be the origin of oxidative stress in the human body [87]. For example, oxidative stress in mice [88] and zebrafish (Danio rerio) [89] has been noted after exposure to microplastics. Oxidative stress, particle toxicity, and inflammation caused by plastic particles can also lead to cytotoxicity. Schirinzi et al. [90] has reported that in epithelial and cerebral human cells, exposure to PS and polyethylene at concentrations between 0.05 and 10 mg/l increased ROS to high quantities, which contributed to cytotoxicity. The equilibrium between intake, expenditure, and the amount of energy available from reserves is known as energy homeostasis. Recent research has demonstrated that microplastics may affect human energy homeostasis by reducing nutrient (energy) intake, increasing energy consumption, and adjustment of metabolism [69]. Nevertheless, because humans require more energy than the examined species and are exposed to lower exposure concentrations, it may be difficult to observe these effects.
After exposure, plastic particles may accumulate locally or translocate in the body, leading to exposure of other tissues. For instance, ingested microplastics may end up in the ileum and penetrate mucus in the intestinal lumen. Although T‐cells, B‐cells, and macrophages internalize plastic particles, M‐cells transmit microplastics to the lymph and blood vessels. In this way, microplastics re‐release and translocate to other textiles before going to urine and feces [77
