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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
POLLUTANTS AND WATER MANAGEMENT Pollutants and Water Management: Resources, Strategies and Scarcity delivers a balanced and comprehensive look at recent trends in the management of polluted water resources. Covering the latest -practical and theoretical aspects of polluted water management, the distinguished academics and authors emphasize indigenous practices of water resource management, the scarcity of clean water, and the future of the water system in the context of an increasing urbanization and globalization. The book details the management of contaminated water sites, including heavy metal contaminations in surface and subsurface water sources. It details a variety of industrial activities that typically pollute water, such as those involving crude oils and dyes. In its discussion of recent trends in abatement strategies, Pollutants and Water Management includes an exploration of the application of microorganisms, like bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, and cyanobacteria, for the management of environmental contaminants. Readers will also discover a wide variety of other topics on the conservation of water sources including: * The role of government and the public in the management of water resource pollution * The causes of river system pollution and potential future scenarios in the abatement of river pollution * Microbial degradation of organic pollutants in various water bodies * The advancement in membrane technology used in water treatment processes * Lead contamination in groundwater and recent trends in abatement strategies for it * Highly polluting industries and their effects on surrounding water resources Perfect for graduate and postgraduate students and researchers whose focus is on recent trends in abatement strategies for pollutants and the application of microorganisms for the management of environmental contaminants, Pollutants and Water Management: Resources, Strategies and Scarcity also has a place in the libraries of environmentalists whose work involves the management and conservation of polluted sites.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Part I: Water Pollution and Its Security
1 Water Security and Human Health in Relation to Climate Change
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Quantity of Available Water Resources in India
1.3 Quality of Available Water Resources in India
1.4 The Impact of Climate Change on the Quantity of Water Resources
1.5 Impact of Climate Change on the Quality of Water Resources
1.6 The Health Perspective in Association with Water Security and Climate Change
1.7 Major Challenges to Water Security
1.8 Government Initiatives to Ensure Water Security
1.9 Managing Water Resources Under Climate Change
1.10 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
2 Assessment of Anthropogenic Pressure and Population Attitude for the Conservation of Kanwar Wetland, Begusarai, India
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Materials and Method
2.3 Results
2.4 Discussion
2.5 Conclusion
References
3 Grossly Polluting Industries and Their Effect on Water Resources in India
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Industrialization in India
3.3 Categorization of Industries
3.4 Criteria for Determination of Grossly Polluting Industries
3.5 Different Type of Grossly Polluting Industries and their Impact on Water Bodies
3.6 Major Water Body Pollution Due to Grossly Polluting Industries
3.7 Environmental Infrastructure in Grossly Polluting Industries and its Performance
3.8 Challenges Faced in Industrial Water Regulations
3.9 Conclusion
References
Part II: Phytoremediation of Water Pollution
4 Phytoremediation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Status of Heavy Metal Pollution: Global and Indian Scenarios
4.3 Status of Phytoremediation
4.4 Metal Hyperaccumulators for Phytoremediation
4.5 Advancements in Techniques for the Improvement of the Phytoremediation Ability in Plants and the Status of Genetically Modified Organisms
4.6 Physiological Mechanisms for the Sequestration of Metals
4.7 Socio‐Economic Costs and Benefits of Phytoremediation
4.8 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
5 Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals from the Biosphere Perspective and Solutions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Heavy Metals
5.3 Heavy Metals in Air
5.4 Heavy Metals: Problems and Harmful Effects
5.5 Remediation of Heavy Metals: Need and Conventional Treatments
5.6 Conventional Remedial Techniques: Challenges
5.7 Metal Hyperaccumulators: Scope of Phytoremediation
5.8 Advantages and Limitations of Phytoremediation
5.9 Useful Plants
5.10 Conclusion
References
6 Phytoremediation for Heavy Metal RemovalTechnological Advancements
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Phytoremediation
6.3 Bamboo (
Bambusa vulgaris
)
6.4 Mustard (
Brassica juncea
)
6.5 Rhizobacteria
6.6 Seagrass
6.7 Sunflower (
Helianthus annuus
)
6.8 Water Hyacinth (
Eichhornia crassipes
Mart)
6.9 Willow (
Salix alba
L.)
6.10 Description of Heavy Metal Removal from Water
6.11 Conclusion and Future Research Recommendations
References
Part III: Microbial Remediation of Water Pollution
7 Advances in Biological Techniques for Remediation of Heavy Metals Leached from a Fly Ash Contaminated Ecosphere
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Status of Fly Ash Heavy Metals: Composition and Remediation
7.3 Treatment of Fly Ash Heavy Metal Contaminated Ecospheres
7.4 Case Study of Gandhinagar Thermal Power Plant, Gandhinagar, India
7.5 Conclusion and Future Prospectives
References
8 Microbial Degradation of Organic Contaminants in Water Bodies
8.1 Organic Contaminants in Water
8.2 Treatment of Organic Contaminants Using Microbes
8.3 The Process Design for Microbial Treatment
8.4 Future Prospects
8.5 Conclusion
Abbreviations Used
References
9 The Fate of Organic Pollutants and Their Microbial Degradation in Water Bodies
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification of Organic Pollutants in the Environment
9.3 Organic Contaminants in Water and Their Sources
9.4 Effects of Organic Pollutants on Aquatic Ecosystems
9.5 The Fate of Organic Pollutants in Natural Water Bodies
9.6 Microbial Enzymes in the Degradation of Organic Pollutants
9.7 Approaches for Organic Pollutant Bioremediation
9.8 Microbial Bioaccumulation of Organic Pollutant in Water Bodies
9.9 Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation
9.10 Conclusion and Future Recommendations
References
Part IV: Removal of Water Pollutants by Nanotechnology
10 Detection and Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater Using Nanomaterials
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sources of Heavy Metals in Wastewater
10.3 Toxicity of Heavy Metals Concerning Human Health and Environment
10.4 Role of Nanomaterials in the Removal of Heavy Metals
10.5 Different Types of Nanoadsorbents
10.6 Comparison of Adsorption Capacities of Various Heavy Metal Ions by Nanomaterials and Conventional Methods
10.7 Conclusion and Future Trends
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
11 Spinel Ferrite Magnetic Nanoparticles
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Spinel Ferrite Nanoparticles
11.3 Synthesis of Spinel Ferrite Magnetic Nanoparticles
11.4 Adsorption and Photocatalytic Degradation Mechanisms
11.5 Recovery and Reuse
11.6 Future Perspectives
11.7 Conclusion
References
12 Biocompatible Cellulose‐Based Sorbents for Potential Application in Heavy Metal Ion Removal from Wastewater
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Heavy Metal Ions as Pollutants
12.3 Cellulose as Biosorbents: Fundamentals to the Mechanistic Approach
12.4 Modification of Cellulose
12.5 Removal of Various HMi
12.6 Adsorption and Kinetic Studies
12.7 The Role of Thermodynamics
12.8 Prospects Toward Sustainability
12.9 Summary
References
Part V: Advances in Remediation of Water Pollution
13 Advances in Membrane Technology Used in the Wastewater Treatment Process
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Membrane Technologies for Wastewater Treatment
13.3 Advancements in Membrane Technology for Wastewater Treatment
13.4 Conclusions
References
14 Occurrence, Fate, and Remediation of Arsenic
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Sources of Arsenic Contamination in the Environment
14.3 Health Effects of Arsenic Toxicity
14.4 Remediation Techniques for Arsenic Contamination
14.5 Coagulation and Flocculation
14.6 Bioremediation for the Treatment of Arsenic
14.7 The Fate of Arsenic in the Environment
14.8 Conclusion
References
15 Physical and Chemical Methods for Heavy Metal Removal
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Toxicity of Heavy Metals
15.3 Methods
15.4 Chemical Methods for Heavy Metal Removal
15.5 Conclusion
References
Part VI: Policy Dimensions on Water Security
16 The Role of Government and the Public in Water Resource Management in India
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Distribution of Water in India
16.3 Challenges in Water Resource Management
16.4 Traditional Ways of Water Resource Management in India
16.5 Present Management Measures
16.6 The Role of the Public in Water Resource Management
16.7 Recommendations and Conclusion
References
Web References/Online Sources
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Annual surface water availability of India.
Table 1.2 Overview of surface water potential of Indian rivers.
Table 1.3 Groundwater resources assessment from 2004–2017.
Table 1.4 Number of states and districts affected by geogenic contamination i...
Table 1.5 International reports on current and future demands of water of Ind...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Category wise distribution of wetlands in India.
Table 2.2 Land use land cover change analysis in the Kanwar wetland between 1...
Table 2.3 Water quality parameters of the Kanwar wetland.
Table 2.4 Sediment quality parameters of the Kanwar wetland.
Table 2.5 Heavy metal content in various species of the Kanwar wetland.
Table 2.6 Changes in village‐wise population and number of households.
Table 2.7 Socio‐economic characteristics of three resource user groups based ...
Table 2.8 Dependence of resource user groups (in %) on wetland resources and ...
Table 2.9 Attitude of people for conservation.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Four major states comprising large numbers of grossly polluting ind...
Table 3.2 Impact of different types of industries on water bodies.
Table 3.3 Lists of operational effluent treatment plants, with an online cont...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Hazards of heavy metals on various components of ecosystems.
Table 4.2 Permissible limits for common heavy metals in soil, water, and plan...
Table 4.3 Overview of the current status of phytoremediation.
Table 4.4 Various hyperaccumulator plants for heavy metals.
Table 4.5 Utilization and development of various transgenic plants (GMOs) for...
Table 4.6 Comparison of costs of various remediation techniques.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Sources of common heavy metals.
Table 5.2 Summary of different phytoremediation techniques.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Heavy metal contaminants along with their source.
Table 6.2 Overview of phytoremediation techniques.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Fly ash generation and utilization in 2016–2017.
Table 7.2 Fly ash generation and its utilization for 2016–2017.
Table 7.3 Elemental composition of fly ash.
Table 7.4 Physicochemical characterization of ash.
Table 7.5 Heavy metal analysis (μg/g) and relative enrichment factor.
Table 7.6 Metal accumulation in a potential plant.
Table 7.7 Comparative analysis between the bioremediation of heavy metals by ...
Table 7.8 Metal accumulation in roots and shoots of plants (μg/g).
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 A list of some of the microorganisms reported for the biodegradatio...
Table 8.2 Some genetically modified microorganisms for the degradation of org...
Table 8.3 A list of various studies conducted to determine the effect of diff...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Types of pesticides used for various purposes.
Table 9.2 Categorization of dioxins in the environment.
Table 9.3 Different types of phthalates in the environment.
Table 9.4 Different flame retardants in the environment.
Table 9.5 Different types of phenols and their functions.
Table 9.6 Different types of organic pollutants and concentrations in the riv...
Table 9.7 List of several organic pollutants, their limit in water bodies spe...
Table 9.8 Different microorganisms used for the treatment of organic pollutan...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Permissible limit of heavy metals according to the World Health Or...
Table 10.2 Comparison of adsorption capacities of heavy metal ions by convent...
Table 10.3 Adsorption capacities of heavy metal ions by various types of nano...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Some examples of adsorption of organic and inorganic compounds on ...
Table 11.2 Typical examples of spinel ferrite nanoparticles using heterogeneo...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 UNEP reports on HMi and their toxicological effects.
Table 12.2 Different cellulose‐based material used as sorbent for HMi.
Table 12.3 Two‐ and three‐parameter equations for isotherm modeling.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Pressure‐driven membranes used for wastewater treatment.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Arsenic concentration in various minerals/rocks.
Table 14.2 Different methods and oxidants used in the oxidation of As(III) to...
Table 14.3 Examples of
plant growth‐promoting microorganisms
(
PGPMs
) use...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Maximum contaminant level (MCL) standards for the most hazardous h...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Traditional rainwater harvesting techniques used across different ...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Impact of climate change on water resources.
Figure 1.2 Decade‐wise average rainfall annual data of India.
Figure 1.3 The flow diagram of the impact of climate change on glaciers.
Figure 1.4 Impact of climate change on water quality and its association wit...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 A map showing different types of wetlands in India.
Figure 2.2 Percentage of wetlands area under different categories in Bihar....
Figure 2.3 District‐wise wetland area in Bihar.
Figure 2.4 A map of (a) India, (b) Bihar, and (c) study area with sampling l...
Figure 2.5 Monthly rainfall (mm) variations.
Figure 2.6 Monthly temperature variations.
Figure 2.7 Contours lines based on water availability in different months in...
Figure 2.8 Area under four land use land cover change class in 1988 and 2016...
Figure 2.9 Water quality index of the Kanwar wetland.
Figure 2.10 Health risk index of heavy metals via cultivated crop grains in ...
Figure 2.11 Village‐wise literacy.
Figure 2.12 Elevation map of the Kanwar watershed showing possible sources o...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 State distribution of grossly polluting industries in India.
Figure 3.2 Status of groundwater level in India in 2018.
Figure 3.3 Factors responsible for the contamination of water resources.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Classification of various causes of heavy metal pollution.
Figure 4.2 Pollution rates of various heavy metals from diverse sources incl...
Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of the categorization of remediation techniques...
Figure 4.4 Flow chart for the phytoremediation of heavy metals and the utili...
Figure 4.5 Schematic chart of procedures followed to develop GMOs (genetical...
Figure 4.6 Schematic diagram for physiological and molecular mechanisms used...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Reverse osmosis process.
Figure 5.2 Different mechanisms of phytoremediation.
Figure 5.3 Phytoremediation as an interdisciplinary approach.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Different sources of heavy metals in the environment.
Figure 6.2 Different types of phytoremediation processes.
Figure 6.3 Bamboo (
Bambusa vulgaris
) used for the phytoremediation of heavy ...
Figure 6.4
Bambusa vulgaris
after two years of growth during phytoremediatio...
Figure 6.5 Indian mustard plant use for the phytoremediation of heavy metals...
Figure 6.6 Use of rhizobacteria with sunflower (
Helianthus annuus
) for the p...
Figure 6.7 Seagrass used for the phytoremediation of heavy metals.
Figure 6.8 Sunflower (
Helianthus annuus
L.) plant used in the phytoremediati...
Figure 6.9 Water hyacinth (
Eichhornia crassipes
Mart.) plant used in the phy...
Figure 6.10
Salix
sp. used for the phytoremediation of heavy metals
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Percentage share of various energy sources in India.
Figure 7.2 Major modes of fly ash utilization during the year 2016–2017.
Figure 7.3 Gandhinagar thermal power plant.
Figure 7.4 X‐ray fluorescence peaks of fly ash.
Figure 7.5 Phylogenetic tree for isolated organisms.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Different bioreactors used for the microbial degradation of organ...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Sources of organic pollutants.
Figure 9.2 Types of organic pollutants in aquatic environments.
Figure 9.3 Different organic pollutants mixed with fresh water.
Figure 9.4 The effect of organic pollutants on the aquatic environment.
Figure 9.5 Fate of organic pollutants in an aquatic ecosystem.
Figure 9.6 (a) General mechanism of degradation of organic pollutants. (b) P...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Removal of heavy metals from wastewater by using graphene‐based ...
Figure 10.2 Heavy metal removal by adsorption on gold nanoparticles by adsor...
Figure 10.3 Different types of dendritic polymers.
Figure 10.4 The removal of Cr
6+
ions with the help of poly (amidoamine)‐graf...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Representation of the functional groups utilized in the function...
Figure 11.2 Schematic diagram showing the formation of oxygen and hydroxyl r...
Figure 11.3 Schematic diagram for wastewater treatment using spinel ferrite ...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 The chemical structure of cellulose.
Figure 12.2 The sorption mechanism in cellulose for pollutants.
Figure 12.3 Different techniques for the surface modification of cellulose....
Figure 12.4 Versatile applications of cellulose‐based materials.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Challenges of traditional methods.
Figure 13.2 Characteristics of wastewater.
Figure 13.3 Classification of membranes used for wastewater treatment.
Figure 13.4 Pressure‐driven membrane processes for wastewater treatment.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Natural and anthropogenic sources of arsenic.
Figure 14.2 Health effects of arsenic on humans.
Figure 14.3 Different types of phytoremediation techniques for the removal o...
Figure 14.4 The fate of arsenic in the environment.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Physical and chemical methods used for the removal of heavy meta...
Figure 15.2 Methods used for cleaning polluted water.
Figure 15.3 Membrane filtration method produced by Dutta and De (2017). (Use...
Figure 15.4 Coagulation and flocculation for wastewater treatment produced b...
Figure 15.5 Column ion exchange used for heavy metal removal produced by Lal...
Figure 15.6 Advantages of the adsorption method.
Figure 15.7 Adsorption method for removal of lead, zinc, and copper produced...
Figure 15.8 Neutralization method for the removal of contaminants.
Figure 15.9 Schematic representation of a mixer‐settler for continuous opera...
Figure 15.10 Chemical precipitation for metal ion removal produced by Chen e...
Figure 15.11 Electrochemical treatment for the removal of contaminants produ...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 The Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) general framewo...
Figure 16.2 Various components of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWR...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Pollutants and Water Management
Resources, Strategies and Scarcity
Edited by
Pardeep Singh
PGDAV College, University of DelhiNew DelhiIndia
Rishikesh Singh
Banaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar PradeshIndia
Vipin Kumar Singh
Banaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar PradeshIndia
Rahul Bhadouria
University of DelhiNew DelhiIndia
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List of Contributors
Saami AhmedDepartment of Chemistry, Zakir Husain Delhi College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Zeenat ArifDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
B.S. BhauDepartment of Botany, Central University of Jammu, Samba, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Swati ChaudharyDepartment of Applied Sciences, MSIT, GGSIP University, New Delhi, India
Meenakshi ChaurasiaDepartment of Botany, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Sunil DharDepartment of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jammu, Samba, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Kajol GoriaDepartment of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jammu, Samba, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Ankita GuptaInstitute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
R.N. JadejaaDepartment of Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
S. JayakumarEnvironmental Informatics and Spatial Modelling Lab (EISML), Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, Puducherry, India
Jayant KarwadiyaInstitute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Mahima KaushikNano‐bioconjugate Chemistry Lab, Cluster Innovation Centre, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Richa KothariDepartment of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jammu, Samba, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Agam KumarEnvironmental Informatics and Spatial Modelling Lab (EISML), Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, Puducherry, India
Lawrence KumarDepartment of Nanoscience and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Mohan KumarDepartment of Chemistry, Shri Varshney College, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
Pawan KumarDepartment of Physics, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Motihari, Bihar, India
Pradeep KumarDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ravishankar KumarDepartment of Environmental Science and Technology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
Kavita KumariDepartment of Nanoscience and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Avinash K. KushwahaDepartment of Botany, BHU, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Pradeep Kumar MishraDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Virendra Kumar MishraInstitute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sunil MittalDepartment of Environmental Science and Technology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
Indica MohanDepartment of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jammu, Samba, Jammu and Kashmir, IndiaAnam NaheedInstitute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Supriya NathCentral Water and Power Research Station, Pune, Maharashtra, India
Ramesh OraonDepartment of Nanoscience and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Kajal PatelDepartment of Botany, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Sanjeet Kumar PaswanDepartment of Nanoscience and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Deepak PathaniaDepartment of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jammu, Samba, Jammu and Kashmir, India
K.S. RaoDepartment of Botany, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Krishna RawatSchool of Environment and Sustainable Development, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Prafulla Kumar SahooDepartment of Environmental Science and Technology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
M. SathyaEnvironmental Informatics and Spatial Modelling Lab (EISML), Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, Puducherry, India
Naresh Kumar SethyDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Shashikant Shivaji VhatkarDepartment of Nanoscience and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Reetika ShuklaInstitute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sushil Kumar ShuklaDepartment of Transport Science and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Ajeet Kumar SinghEnvironmental Informatics and Spatial Modelling Lab (EISML), Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, Puducherry, India
Anubhuti SinghInstitute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Gurudatta SinghInstitute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Priyanka SinghInstitute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ram Kishore SinghDepartment of Nanoscience and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Sukhendra SinghSchool of Biochemical Engineering, IIT (BHU) Varanasi, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Rupika SinhaDepartment of Biotechnology, MNNIT, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
K.S. SistaResearch and Development, Tata Steel, Jamshedpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
SwatiDepartment of Botany, BHU, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Indu TripathiDepartment of Botany, University of Delhi, New Delhi, IndiaDepartment of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Shashank TripathiInstitute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Bhawna VermaDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Satyam VermaEnvironmental Informatics and Spatial Modelling Lab (EISML), Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, Puducherry, India
Jitesh Narottam VyasCentral Water and Power Research Station, Pune, Maharashtra, India
Amit Kumar YadavSchool of Environment and Sustainable Development, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Deepak YadavChemical Engineering Department, Harcourt Butler Technical University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Monika YadavDepartment of Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Part IWater Pollution and Its Security
1Water Security and Human Health in Relation to Climate Change: An Indian Perspective
Ravishankar Kumar, Prafulla Kumar Sahoo, and Sunil Mittal
Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
1.1 Introduction
The capacity of a population to maintain sustainable access to sufficient quantities of acceptable quality water to ensure human well‐being, livelihood, socio‐economic development, protection against water‐borne and water‐related disasters, and to preserve ecosystems is termed as water security (UN Water 2013). Water demand is increasing with time due to the booming population, rapid industrialization, rampant urbanization, and extensive agricultural practices. In the world, nearly 785 million people lack a safe drinking water service, including 144 million people dependent on surface water (WHO 2019). Nearly, 1.8 billion people use feces contaminated drinking water sources and have a high risk of contracting cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and polio (WHO 2019). It has been estimated that the world population will be around 9 billion by 2050 and water availability will be less than the current availability (UN WWDR 2015). As per a World Health Organization (WHO) estimation, by 2025, 50% of the global population will be living in water scarcity areas (WHO 2019). By 2050, the global water demand is expected to increase by 20–30% as compared with the current scenario, due to growing demand in the domestic and industrial sectors (UN WWDR 2019). The estimation of the United Nations World Water Development Report (2016) indicated that more than 40% of the global population could be living in severe water stress areas by 2050.
Presently, the world's two most populous countries, India and China, are facing severe water security problems. However, the conditions are more critical in India both in terms of quantity and quality due to a lack of required infrastructure, health services, and management. India has only 4% of the world's freshwater but accounts for 16% of the global population. India ranked 120th out of 122 nations in water quality index and 133rd among 180 nations in water availability (NITI Aayog 2018). Approximately 21% of diseases are related to water among all diseases of the country (Snyder 2020). As per UNICEF and WHO (2012) estimates, approximately 97 million Indians do not have access to safe water. Further, the findings of the 2011 census revealed that 138 million rural households had access to safe drinking water, whereas 685–690 million people lacked access to safe drinking water. An ironic fact is that more than 41% of the rural population (out of 833 million people) of India own mobile phones but have no access to potable water which is a basic need. Only 18% of the rural population have access to treated water (Unitus Seed Fund 2014; Forbes India, 2015).
The NITI Aayog report (2018) also said that India is facing its worst water crisis in history, which is only expected to become worse as the country's water demand is projected to be twice the available supply by 2030. The report said that 600 million currently face high to extreme water shortage, with around two lakh people dying every year due to inadequate access to potable water. The increasing water shortage will also affect the gross domestic product (GDP) of the nation, with the country suffering a loss of up to 6% of GDP in 2030 (NITI Aayog 2018).
The quality of both river and groundwater is deteriorating at a rapid pace, making water scarcity more severe. Even toxic heavy metals like uranium, lead, cadmium, selenium, and so on are also reported in groundwater samples from various states (Chowdhury et al. 2016; Kumar et al. 2018, 2020; Sharma et al. 2020). This may lead to severe consequences for water resources. According to the IDSA report (2010), it has been reported that India is expected to become “water‐stressed” by 2025 and “water‐scarce” by 2050.
Further, climate change is also affecting the water security of India as rising temperature affects the Himalayan glaciers as well as altering the monsoon pattern. The combination of these two factors affects the level of river water due to the melting of glaciers and intense rainfall. Further, groundwater resources are also affected directly and indirectly by the alteration of these factors. High water temperature, changes in timing, intensity, and duration of precipitation are the significant consequences of climate change which can further affect the water quality. The alternate pattern of precipitation leads to floods and droughts, which play an important role in the degradation of water quality by adding a quantum of concentrated pollutants. As per the World Bank report (2018), climate change can affect 6% GDP of some regions due to water security, resulting in migration and conflict. As per the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), by 2030, due to climate change impacts on water scarcity, 24–700 million people may be displaced from some arid and semi‐arid places.
The achievement of water security in the future will be a very challenging task. This chapter describes in detail the current situation and future challenges regarding water security along with prospective health changes. Further, the impact of climate change on water security and health has been analyzed. The available opportunities are also discussed to manage future challenges related to water security.
1.2 Quantity of Available Water Resources in India
The annual precipitation (rainfall+snowfall) is estimated as 4000 billion cubic meters (BCM). Out of total annual precipitation, 3000 BCM falls during the monsoon season (Jun to September) (Central Water Commission 2014). Around 53.3% of total annual precipitation is lost due to evapotranspiration, which leaves a balance of 1986.5 BCM. The total annual utilizable water resources of India are 1123 BCM, which consists of 690 BCM surface water and 433 BCM of groundwater (Central Water Commission 2014). The National Commission on Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD) projected that total water demand to expect 973 (low demand scenario) to 1180 BCM (high demand scenario). The water used for agriculture is the highest projected demand (70%), followed by households (23%) and industries (7%) (NCIWRD 1999). The per capita average water availability in India in the year 2001 was 1816 m3, and it is expected to reduce to 1140 m3 in 2050 (MoWR 2015). The people of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh have the highest access to safe treated water, i.e., 36%, and it is lowest for Bihar (2%) (Forbes India 2015). The annual surface water availability of India has decreased since the year 1950 (Table 1.1).
Rivers are the primary sources of surface water in India and are considered as the lifeline of Indian cities. There are 15 large, 45 medium, and 120 minor rivers in India (Raj 2010). The rivers are either rainfed and/or based on the Himalayan glacier. The annual water potential in the major river basins of India is 1869.35 BCM, but the utilizable potential is 690 BCM. The Ganga basin has the highest utilizable potential, i.e., 250 BCM. The detailed account of surface water potential of Indian rivers is depicted in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 Annual surface water availability of India.
Source: Govt. of India (2009).
S. no
Year
Annual surface water availability (m
3
/capita/year)
1
1951
5177
2
1991
2209
3
2001
1820
4
2025
1341
5
2050
1140
Table 1.2 Overview of surface water potential of Indian rivers.
Source: Central Water Commission, http://cwc.gov.in/water‐info.
S. no
River basin
Catchment area (sq km)
Average water resources potential (BCM)
Utilizable surface water resources (BCM)
1
Indus (up to border)
321 289
73.31
46
2
(a) Ganga
861 452
525.02
250
(b) Brahmaputra
194 413
537.24
24
(c) Barak and others
41 723
48.36
3
Godavari
312 812
110.54
76.3
4
Krishna
268 948
78.12
58
5
Cauvery
81 155
21.36
19
6
Subarnarekha
29 196
12.37
6.8
7
Brahmani and Baitarani
51 822
28.48
18.3
8
Mahanadi
141 589
66.88
50
9
Pennar
55 213
6.32
6.9
10
Mahi
34 842
11.02
3.1
11
Sabarmati
21 674
3.81
1.9
12
Narmada
98 796
45.64
34.5
13
Tapi
65 145
14.88
14.5
14
West flowing rivers from Tapi to Tadri
55 940
87.41
11.9
15
West flowing rivers from Tadri to Kanyakumari
56 177
113.53
24.3
16
East flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar
86 643
22.52
13.1
17
East flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari
100 139
16.46
16.5
18
West flowing rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni
321 851
15.1
15
19
Area of inland drainage of Rajasthan
36 202
0
NA
20
Minor river basins draining into Myanmar and Bangladesh
31
NA
Total
1869.35
690
India is the largest and fastest consumer of groundwater, which fulfills the demands of nearly 80 and 50% of the rural and urban population, respectively (Shankar et al. 2011). The groundwater resources of the country are estimated to be 433 BCM, which is 39% of the total water resources of India (CGWB 2017). The net groundwater availability is 396 BCM, while the available for potential use is 245 BCM. The stage of groundwater development is 61% (CGWB 2017). The Indian state Uttar Pradesh has the highest net annual groundwater availability (~72 BCM) and Delhi has the least (0.29 BCM) (CGWB 2014). Around 85% of the rural population uses groundwater for drinking purposes. The volume of groundwater is inadequate to fulfill the demand of the large population, agricultural practices, rampant industrialization, and urbanization. The overall account of groundwater resources assessment 2004–2017 is presented in Table 1.3.
The per capita average water availability in India is continuously decreasing. India has a huge potential in river and precipitation water (rainfall+snowfall), but currently, not even 50% of the potential is being used. Due to the lack of use of the water potential of river and precipitation, groundwater resources are under tremendous pressure and the water table is continuously increasing in most parts of the country over time.
Table 1.3 Groundwater resources assessment from 2004–2017.
Source: CGWB (2017).
Year
Annual replenishable groundwater resources (BCM)
Net annual groundwater availability (BCM)
Annual groundwater draft for irrigation, domestic, and industrial uses (BCM)
Stage of groundwater development
2004
433
399
231
58%
2009
431
396
243
61%
2011
433
398
245
62%
2013
447
411
253
62%
2017
432
393
249
63%
1.3 Quality of Available Water Resources in India
Water quality of both available surface and groundwater resources does not satisfy the criteria for potable water in most parts of the country. The Ministry of Jal Shakti report revealed that 70% of water resources in India are polluted by untreated sewage and industrial effluents. The monitoring report of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB 2011), based on biological oxygen demand (BOD) and coliform bacteria count, indicated that organic pollution is predominant in aquatic bodies. The groundwater of around 600 districts (i.e. almost one‐third of India) is nonpotable. On the other hand, the Central Groundwater Water Board (CGWB) has reported the presence of contaminants like fluoride, nitrate, arsenic, iron, and other heavy metals in the groundwater of many regions (Table 1.4). As and F− contamination of groundwater is a significant public health risk concern for Indian people. As and F− contamination of groundwater is a health threat for approximately 100 and 66 million Indian people, respectively (Bindal and Singh 2019; Kadam et al. 2020). Other major groundwater contaminants like U, NO3−, Fe, HCO3−, etc. have also been reported in several parts of India. High nitrate content in water is another grave concern in many states (Ministry of Water Resources 2014; Kaur et al. 2019). Apart from governmental organizations, various studies/reports on groundwater and surface water quality have confirmed the presence of other contaminants like uranium, cadmium, lead, copper, sulfate, pesticides, and organic pollutant in the water resources of India (Bacquart et al. 2012; Mittal et al. 2014; Chowdhury et al. 2016; Kumar et al. 2016; Bajwa et al. 2017).
Both the groundwater and surface water quality are not qualifying criteria for potable water in most parts of the country. Surface water is continuously facing quality issues due to the discharge of sewage and industrial and agricultural wastes. Groundwater in India is affected by heavy metals (As, Fe, Pb, U) and anions (F−, NO3−, SO42−) in different parts of the country.
Table 1.4 Number of states and districts affected by geogenic contamination in groundwater.
Source: CGWB (2019).
Contaminants
No of affected states
No of affected districts
Arsenic (As)
10
68
Fluoride (F
−
)
20
276
Nitrate (NO
3
−
)
21
387
Iron (Fe)
24
297
1.4 The Impact of Climate Change on the Quantity of Water Resources
Climate change affects water resources through warming of the atmosphere, alterations in the hydrologic cycle, glacier melting, rising sea levels, and changes in precipitation patterns (amount, timing, and intensity). In the Indian scenario, due to the alteration of monsoon patterns, rainfall becomes more intense and cumbersome, and it is concentrated on fewer rainy days. Climate change influences the quantity of water resources of India through the impact on glaciers, groundwater, and flood events. The probable climate change impacts on water resources of India are depicted through the flow diagram in Figure 1.1.
1.4.1 Rainfall
Using decade‐wise average rainfall annual data of 116 years of data (1901–2019), no significant trend was observed for annual rainfall on a national basis (Figure 1.2). However, a decreasing trend in annual rainfall was observed across India since the year 2000. This data set is based on more than 2000 rain gauge data spread over the country.
Climate change has affected the rainfall pattern of India in the form of fewer rainy days, but more extreme rainfall events. This is resulting in an increased amount of rainfall in each event, leading to significant flooding. Most of the global models suggest that Indian summer monsoons will intensify. The timing of seasonal variation may also shift, causing a drying during the late summer growing season. There has been a significant change in precipitation and temperature pattern in India from 2000 to 2015. This could indicate a signature of climate change in India (Goyal and Surampalli 2018).
1.4.2 Glaciers
Around 9040 glaciers have been reported in India, covering nearly 18 528 km2 in the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra basins (Sangewar et al. 2009; Sharma et al. 2013). Any changes in a glacier can affect river run‐off and the water availability in the Himalayan rivers (Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra) and agricultural practices in India. The annual rate of glacial shrinkage is reported to be nearly 0.2–0.7% in the Indian Himalayan region for 11 river basins during the period 1960–2004 with a mean extent of 0.32–1.40 km2 (Kulkarni et al. 2011; Bolch et al. 2012). Ramanathan (2011) reported the mass balance of Chhota Shigri glacier (15.7 km2), located in the Chandra River basin of Himachal Pradesh, showed a net loss of about 1000 m from 2002–2009. The flow diagram demonstrating the impact of climate change on glaciers is depicted in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.1 Impact of climate change on water resources.
Figure 1.2 Decade‐wise average rainfall annual data of India.
(Source: Envi Stats India 2018; https://data.gov.in/keywords/annual‐rainfall.)
In India, climate change is expected to affect Himalayan rivers (Ganges and Brahmaputra) due to the faster rate of melting of Himalayan glaciers. Himalayan glaciers are known as the “Water Tower of Asia,” a major source of water in all major Asian rivers (Shiva 2009). As per the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), these glaciers are receding faster than any other part of the world (IPCC 2007). The Gangotri glacier (source of the river Ganga), receded 20–23 miles/year, whereas other glaciers can retreat more than 30 miles/year as a result of rising temperatures (Shiva 2009). If the conditions continue, glaciers will melt quicker and no glaciers will be left to supply water for the entire year, then rivers like Brahmaputra and Ganges will become seasonal rivers. In the monsoon season, the combination of the heavy melting of glaciers and intense heavy rainfall for fewer days may create a flash flood‐like situation. On the other hand, reduced rainfall in the rest of the year may lead to drought in some regions. Chevaturi et al. (2016) illustrated the climate change impact on the northern region of Ladakh. The Ladakh area is unique due to its location in high altitude, dry desert with cold temperatures, and water flows to the mountains. Research showed a warming trend with reduced seasonal precipitation, making it highly sensitive to temperature changes.
Figure 1.3 The flow diagram of the impact of climate change on glaciers.
(Source: Pandey and Venkataraman 2012.)
1.4.3 Sea Level
Rising sea levels and flooding are the biggest threats of climate change. As temperature rises, ice melts and water level rises. This threatens to engulf coastal areas and cause mass displacement and loss of life. Initial predictions expected a sea‐level rise of over 59 cm by 2100, but current rates will likely exceed this by a wide margin. According to Pandve (2010), a sea‐level rise of 1 m would inundate up to 5763 km of India, as many cities lie only a few feet above sea level, making severe coastal floods.
1.4.4 Groundwater
Groundwater resources are affected due to an inadequate amount of water percolating down to aquifers due to reduced rainfall. The increased atmospheric temperature also increases the rate of evapotranspiration, which leads to a reduction in the actual amount of groundwater available for human use. India extracts 1000 km3 of groundwater annually, which is 25% of groundwater at a global level (Mukherji 2019).
Climate change affects Indian water resources through warming of the atmosphere, alterations in the hydrologic cycle, melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, and changes in precipitation patterns (amount, timing, and intensity). The alteration of monsoon patterns decreases rainy days but increases the amount of rainfall. Himalayan glaciers are receding faster than any other part of the world. Further, the combined impacts of changes in precipitation patterns, glaciers melting, and sea‐level rise has caused flood‐like situations in different parts of the country. One noticeable thing, if the conditions continue, glaciers will melt quicker and no glaciers will be left to supply water for the entire year, then rivers like Brahmaputra and Ganges will become seasonal rivers.
1.5 Impact of Climate Change on the Quality of Water Resources
The impact of climate change on water quality has not gained much concern as an emerging topic in water research to date. However, possible effects are discussed with the association of health as depicted in Figure 1.4. Floods and droughts also affect the surface water qualitatively (in terms of pollutant concentration) and quantitatively. Whenever drought condition persists, the groundwater resources are depleted and the concentration of the pollutants are elevated in the residual water (IPCC 2007). Changes in precipitation or hydrological pattern and increased run‐off can result in the rise of pathogens and contaminants in water bodies. Increased frequency and intensity of rainfall may cause more water pollution due to run‐off water. The decrease in dissolved oxygen in water due to the increase in the temperature of the water is the direct consequence of climate change on water quality. Further, the concentration of dissolved carbon, phosphates, nitrates, and micropollutants are also directly altered as a consequence of climate change and they produce an adverse impact on health (Delpla et al. 2009).
Climate change is not only expected to influence the quantity of groundwater but also to influence the quality of groundwater (Dragoni and Sukhija 2008). Water recharges during an arid period contain a high concentration of salts and increases total dissolved solids (TDS). However, in a wet period, the reverse phenomena can occur. Climate change increases sea surface temperatures and results in rising sea levels. Further, rising sea levels may lead to saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers, which influences groundwater quality and contaminates drinking water sources whenever salty water percolates into the freshwater system. It is very difficult to reverse the process. Climate change influences the amount or pattern of precipitation, resulting in a flood‐like situation and affects groundwater quality through the release of agrochemicals/industrial wastes from soil to groundwater.
Figure 1.4 Impact of climate change on water quality and its association with health.
Climate change affects water quality through the decrease of dissolved oxygen due to the rise of temperature, while alternations to the hydrological cycle increase pathogens and contaminants in surface water. Groundwater quality has been indirectly affected by climate change due to increases in TDS, salts, and other contaminants. Further, rising sea levels may lead to saltwater percolation in coastal aquifers, which influences groundwater quality.
1.6 The Health Perspective in Association with Water Security and Climate Change
As per the WHO (2018), in the period between 2030 and 2050, climate change could be the reason for approximately 250 000 additional deaths per year by malnutrition, malaria, diarrhea, and heat stress. The additional health costs by 2030 are estimated to project USD 2–4 billion/year. Climate change affects health through polluted air, unsafe drinking water, insufficient food, and shelter safety. Extreme high air temperatures directly affect cardiovascular and respiratory systems, particularly to older adults. In Europe, more than 70 000 deaths were recorded under the influence of a summer heatwave during 2003 (Robine et al. 2008). High temperature also increases ozone levels and other pollutants in the air, leading to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. The levels of pollen and other aerial allergens are high in extreme temperature/heat. This can trigger asthma, which affects nearly 300 million people in the world (WHO 2018). Apart from this, climate change has a high impact on water‐related diseases. The nonuniform rainfall patterns are likely to affect freshwater and make it unsafe for humans. This water can compromise hygiene and increase the risk of diarrheal disease, which kills over 500 000 children aged under five years, every year (IPCC 2014).
India is one of the major countries that suffers from water‐related diseases. The security of drinking water ensures the prevention and control of water‐borne diseases. As per the WHO assessment, around 37.7 million people in India are affected by water‐borne diseases every year, and among them, 75% are children (Khurana and Sen 2009). The World Bank has also estimated that 21% of communicable diseases in India are related to unsafe water. The impact of climate change increases the risks of water‐borne diseases like cholera, malaria, and dengue by warming of the climate and intense rainfall. A UN report stated that more than one lakh people die annually from water‐borne diseases and 73 working days are lost due to water‐borne diseases. Another report stated that 1.5 million children die annually from diarrhea (Khurana and Sen 2009). Apart from water‐borne diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, mental disorders, and other diseases are reported due to probable contaminants found in water (Kaur et al. 2019). A resulting economic burden of $600 million has been estimated per year due to water‐borne diseases. Further, climate change makes the situation more critical. Rising temperatures often bring negative impacts to human health and life. The incidences of water‐borne diseases like cholera, diarrhea, and so on,. become more prevalent in warmer climates (Figure 1.4). Vector‐borne diseases like malaria can thrive when the temperature increases as a result of global warming. It is also estimated that up to 2050, the malaria vector will shift away from central regions towards southwestern and northern states due to the variation of rainfall (Kiszewski et al. 2004). Malaria kills over 400 000 people every year on the global level.
Vector‐borne diseases like dengue also increase in warm and rainy climate due to the increasing mosquito population. The Aedes mosquito vector of dengue is also highly sensitive to climate conditions, and studies suggest that climate change is likely to increase exposure to dengue. Apart from the risks caused by increased temperature, intense rainfall could result in floods and waterlogging in several places. Waterlogged areas will then become the potential grounds for mosquitoes breeding. In India, especially in the Ganges basin, poor habitats have no choice for drinking and cooking other than using the polluted water of rivers. This results in numerous diseases. Among these diseases, stomach infections like diarrhea and dysentery are common. People living in rural areas and urban slums will be more vulnerable to diseases and infections because they do not have access to piped water and cannot afford to buy clean water. Water shortages have an enormously devastating impact on human health, including malnutrition, pathogen or chemical loading, and infectious diseases from water contamination. In the future, this cycle of diseases will place an enormous burden on the government, who will have to scramble to provide health care for all those affected and have to take preventive measures to control the situation from worsening.
Climate change affects health through polluted air, unsafe drinking water, insufficient food, and shelter safety. The nonuniform rainfall patterns are likely to affect freshwater in India and make it unsafe for humans. This water can compromise hygiene and increase the risk of diarrheal disease, in these cases, children are the main sufferers. Further, the impact of climate change also increases the risks of water and vector‐borne diseases like cholera, malaria, and dengue by warming of the climate and intense rainfall.
1.7 Major Challenges to Water Security
1.7.1 Water Demand for the Future
There are several reports published by national and international agencies on the current and future demand of water (Tables 1.1 and 1.5) for India. Based on these reports, it can be analyzed that meeting the water supply‐demand of India will be a serious challenge. The most serious concern is the growing population, which is likely to increase to 1.4 billion by 2050. To meet food security, the agricultural sector also needs a huge amount of water.
1.7.2 Overexploitation of Groundwater
The water table in India is depleting at a rate of 0.4–0.6 m per year. Out of the total assessment units (blocks/taluks/mandals/districts/firkas/valleys), nearly 17.5, 4.5, 14, and 64% units have been categorized as overexploited, critical, semi‐critical, and safe, respectively (CGWB 2017). So, preventing the overexploitation of groundwater will be another challenge.
1.7.3 Management of Water Resources
Water availability:
The water resources of India have a large gap between potential and availability. The potential of water resources has been estimated at 1869 BCM and annual precipitation is 4000 BCM. Out of a total potential 1869 BCM, India uses 1123 BCM of water. The topographical and large temporal variability and regional mismatch between water availability and demands are the major reasons for the difference between potential and availability (Jain
2019
).
Flood management:
The large variability of rainfall in space and time in India causes flooding in different parts of the country. Indian rivers carry more than 70% of their annual flow in four months during the monsoon period. There is an essential need to conserve flood water and flows for the growing demands of water in the country. Flood management can also play a key role in groundwater recharge and drought management. Nearly 500 BCM of water has been estimated through flood flows in Indian rivers (Jain
2019
). In the current scenario, the management of storage flood water is not sufficient. The management of storage flood water can be used to meet growing demands throughout the year. It will also help in water‐related disasters like floods and droughts.
Table 1.5 International reports on current and future demands of water of India.
Source: IDSA (2010).
World Bank Report 1999
Year
Expected demand
Year
Per capita water availability
1997
552 BCM
1947
5000 m
3
per year
2025
1050 BCM
1997
2000 m
3
per year
2025
1500 m
3
per year
The Mckinsey Report 2009
2009
740 billion m
3
2030
1.5 trillion m
3
Water transfer between water enriched and water‐stressed regions:
India has large temporal and geographical variability about water availability. The transfer of water between water surplus regions to deficit regions could be a very effective approach in meeting the demand of the entire country.
Recycle and reuse:
In the current scenario, less of the urban water supply is recycled and reused, and a large quantity of water is wasted. Around 40% of the water in some cities in India is wasted due to leakage or theft. For instance, the Arab states treat 55% of wastewater, and 15% is reused, which is used in farm irrigation, environmental protection, and industrial cooling (Jain
2019
).
Impact of climate change:
Warming of the lower atmosphere affects rainfall, snowfall, and glaciers, and raises sea levels, which all interfere with the quantity of water resources. Rising sea levels increase flooding in coastal areas and the intrusion of seawater alters water quality in rivers, lakes, and groundwater.
Maintain water quality of resources and provide safe drinking water for rural areas.
Hydro‐diplomacy with neighboring countries to solve water conflicts.
1.7.4 Health Prospective
The prevention and control of water‐ and vector‐borne diseases can be a difficult task due to the association with poor water quality and warming of the climate. Apart from that, the presence of arsenic, uranium, lead, cadmium, etc. leads to an increase in health problems due to their probable correlation with cancer and cardiovascular, neurological, and skin diseases.
Projected water demand is continuously increasing day by day due to the rising demand for water by agriculture, industry, and households, as well as the growing population. Groundwater resources are under tremendous pressure and the water table in India is depleting at the rate of 0.4–0.6 m per year. India is not using the full potential of river water, precipitation, and floodwater.
