Positioning in Wireless Communications Systems E-Book

Stephan Sand

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 430

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

Positioning in Wireless Communications Systems explains the principal differences and similarities of wireless communications systems and navigation systems. It discusses scenarios which are critical for dedicated navigation systems such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) and which motivate the use of positioning based on terrestrial wireless communication systems.

The book introduces approaches for determination of parameters which are dependent on the position of the mobile terminal  and also discusses iterative algorithms to estimate and track the position of the mobile terminal. Models for radio propagation and user mobility are important for performance investigations and assessments using computer simulations. Thus, channel and mobility models are explored, especially focussing on critical navigation environments like urban or indoor scenarios.

Positioning in Wireless Communications Systems examines advanced algorithms such as hybrid data fusion of satellite navigation and positioning with wireless communications and cooperative positioning among mobile terminals.. The performance of the discussed positioning techniques are explored on the basis of already existing and operable terrestrial wireless communication systems such as GSM, UMTS, or LTE and it is shown how positioning issues are fixed in respective standards.

Written by industry experts working at the cutting edge of technological development, the authors are well placed to give an excellent view on this topic, enabling in-depth coverage of current developments.

Key features
• Unique in its approach to dealing with a heterogeneous system approach, different cell structures and signal proposals for future communications systems
• Covers hybrid positioning investigating how GNSS and wireless communications positioning complement each other
• Applications and exploitation of positioning information are discussed to show the benefits of including this information in several parts of a wireless communications system

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

About the Authors

Preface

Acknowledgements

List of Abbreviations

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Ground Based Positioning Systems

1.2 Satellite Based Positioning Systems

1.3 GNSS Augmentation Systems

1.4 Critical Environments

Chapter 2: Positioning Principles

2.1 Propagation Time

2.2 Angle of Arrival–AOA

2.3 Fingerprinting

Chapter 3: Measurements and Parameter Extraction

3.1 Parameter Estimation

3.2 Propagation Time

3.3 Angle of Arrival–AOA

Chapter 4: Position Estimation

4.1 Triangulation

4.2 Trilateration

4.3 Multilateration

4.4 Fingerprinting

4.5 Performance Bounds and Measures

Chapter 5: Position Tracking

5.1 Kalman Filter

5.2 Extended Kalman Filter

5.3 Particle Filter

5.4 Further Approaches

Chapter 6: Scenarios and Models

6.1 Scenarios

6.2 Channel Characterization

6.3 Channel Models

6.4 Mobility Models

Chapter 7: Advanced Positioning Algorithms

7.1 Hybrid Data Fusion

7.2 Cooperative Positioning

7.3 Multipath and Non-Line-of-Sight Mitigation

Chapter 8: Systems

8.1 GSM

8.2 UMTS

8.3 3GPP-LTE

8.4 Other Wide and Medium Range Systems

8.5 Short Range

8.6 Standardization

Chapter 9: Applications

9.1 Macro Diversity

9.2 Radio Resource Management–RRM

9.3 Mobility Management

3

9.4 Emergency Calls

9.5 Location-Based Services–LBS

References

Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Table of Contents

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

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List of Tables

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

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Table 8.1

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Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Positioning in Wireless Communications Systems

Stephan Sand, Armin Dammann and Christian Mensing

German Aerospace Center (DLR), Germany

This edition first published 2014

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About the Authors

Stephan Sand (MSc EE 2001, Dipl-Ing 2002, Dr ETH Zurich 2010) studied electrical engineering with focus on communications technology, digital signal processing, and wireless communications at the University of Ulm, Germany (1996–2002), the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, MA, USA (1999–2001), and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Switzerland (2005–2009). In 2002, he joined the Institute of Communications and Navigation, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany. Currently, he is managing and working on cooperative positioning and swarm navigation research projects at DLR. He was visiting researcher at NTT DoCoMo R&D Yokosuka, Japan in 2004 and at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Switzerland in 2007 working in the area of wireless communications. Stephan was actively involved in several research projects on mobile radio funded by the European Commission (4MORE, NEWCOM, COST289, PLUTO) and by international industry cooperation. In the GJU/GSA project GREAT and the EU FP7-ICT collaborative project WHERE, he lead the work on hybrid location determination. He was the coordinator of the recent EU FP7 project GRAMMAR on Galileo mass-market receivers. Currently, he leads the work on cooperative swarm navigation in the Valles Marineris Explorer Project. Stephan is a founding member of the International Conference on Localization and GNSS (ICL-GNSS) steering committee and was program committee co-chair of ICL-GNSS 2011 and general chair of ICL-GNSS 2012. His research interests and activities include wireless communications, multi-sensor navigation, cooperative positioning, and swarm navigation. Stephan has authored and coauthored more than 90 technical and scientific publications in conferences and journals, and obtained several patents on his inventions.

Armin Dammann (Dipl-Ing 1997, Dr-Ing 2005) studied electrical engineering with the main topic information- and microwave-technology at the University of Ulm, Germany from 1991–1997. In 1997, Armin joined the Institute of Communications and Navigation of the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Since 2005 he has been head of the Mobile Radio Transmission Research Group. His research interests and activities include navigation signal design for the European satellite navigation system Galileo, PHY/MAC layer design for terrestrial communications systems based on OFDM, antenna diversity techniques for wireless communications/broadcast systems and synchronization/positioning in wireless communications. Armin has authored and co-authored more than 120 technical and scientific publications in conference proceedings and journals in the fields of wireless communications and (cooperative) positioning. In these areas, he additionally holds several international patents. He has coorganized and cochaired the MC-SS workshop series on multi-carrier systems and solutions. Armin has been active in several EU research projects, for example, MCP, 4MORE, WINNER, NEWCOM, PLUTO, GREAT, GRAMMAR, and WHERE/WHERE2. For the latter, he has also been involved in management and coordination.

Christian Mensing (BSc 2002, Dipl-Ing 2004, MSc 2005 and Dr-Ing 2013) studied electrical engineering and information technology focusing on signal processing and high frequency technology at the Munich University of Technology (TUM), Germany. He received the BSc, Dipl-Ing, MSc, and Dr-Ing degree from TUM in 2002, 2004, 2005, and 2013, respectively. In 2005, he joined the Institute of Communications and Navigation of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) as a research engineer. His main interests included location estimation strategies for cellular networks and satellite based navigation systems, and detection techniques for communications. He has authored and co-authored more than 40 publications in conference proceedings and journals, and holds several patents. Christian has been involved in various European research projects on positioning and communications, for example, GREAT, WINNER, GRAMMAR, and WHERE. Since 2011, he has been working as development engineer at Rohde & Schwarz, Germany.

Preface

Since the advent of smartphones and tablet computers, such as Apple's iPhone and iPad or Google's Android devices, location based services have been widely used. Currently, the Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers in smartphones primarily provide the location information for these services. Usually, GPS only works well if the smartphone has an unobstructed clear sky view. Besides GPS, smartphones support many additional communications systems such as GSM, UMTS, LTE, WiFi, Bluetooth, and NFC. These communications technologies complement GPS for location based services, especially in urban and indoor environments. Hence, companies like Apple or Google already exploit the identity of WiFi hotspots and cellular base stations for a fast, sometimes crude, first position fix. Besides that, regulatory bodies such as US Federal Communications Commission require operators of cellular communications networks to guarantee, for emergency calls, a service quality of the measured location (FCC 1999). Hence, there exists a strong market and regulation driven development of positioning with current and future wireless communications technologies.

Personally, we started working on localization as early as 1997 with some early signal design studies on Galileo at the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Then, positioning with wireless communications, in particular with cellular communications technologies complementing GPS and the future Galileo system, became our focus from 2005. As our backgrounds are in information and communication theory as well as signal processing, we were not familiar with the specific challenges and requirements of positioning and corresponding signal processing. For example, communications engineers often model the wireless channel by a tapped delay line starting with delay zero. However, they do not take into account the delay of the first arriving path. This path is proportional to the distance between transmitter and receiver. Thus, it is essential to determine the location of a mobile terminal. Hence, this book reflects our learning process on positioning with wireless communications. It also shows our work experience through several projects on positioning.

The content of this book is organized into nine chapters. Through Chapters 1 and 2, the reader will quickly get acquainted with the topic of positioning with wireless communications. Chapter 1 introduces past, current, and future satellite and ground based radio positioning systems as well as critical environments for satellite based positioning systems. Next, Chapter 2 discusses the fundamental positioning principles. These principles are the basis for positioning in today's wireless radio systems.

Then, Chapters 3, 4, and 5 will enable the reader familiar with communication technology or signal processing to achieve a deep technical understanding of the basic positioning technology. Chapter 3 formulates the parameter estimation problem for obtaining position dependent measurements from wireless communications systems. In Chapter 4, positioning algorithms use these measurements to estimate a mobile terminal's location assuming the mobile terminal does not move during the positioning process. Chapter 5 extends the previously static positioning process to dynamic position tracking of moving mobile terminals.

More advanced topics on positioning with wireless communications are addressed in Chapters 6–9. First, Chapter 6 discusses in detail the scenarios and environments in which positioning with satellite and wireless communications systems takes place. It also presents corresponding propagation models for the radio signals and movement models for the mobile user. Second, Chapter 7 presents advanced positioning algorithms such as hybrid data fusion of satellite navigation and positioning with wireless communications, cooperative positioning among mobile terminals, and multipath and non-line-of-sight mitigation concepts. Subsequently, Chapter 8 surveys positioning with various wireless communications systems that are currently widely deployed and in use, or will be in the near future. The book concludes with an introduction to applications of positioning with wireless communications in Chapter 9.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the many direct and indirect contributors to this book. Many thanks go to Helena Leppäkoski from Tampere University of Technology for allowing us to reproduce her work on WLANs from the Galileo Ready Advanced Mass Market Receiver (GRAMMAR) project. Many thanks also go to Jimmy J. Nielsen from Aalborg University for permitting us to replicate his work on location-aided relay selection and location assisted handover prediction from the Wireless Hybrid Enhanced Mobile Radio Estimators (WHERE) project. Further, we would like to express our sincere thanks to Loïc Brunel, Nicolas Gresset, and Mélanie Plainchault from Mitsubishi Electric R&D Centre Europe, who granted us their permission to reproduce their work on location based inter-cell interference coordination from the WHERE project.

Many thanks to our colleagues from the Mobile Radio Transmission Group, the Department of Communications Systems, and the Institute of Communications and Navigation of DLR for helpful technical discussions. In particular, we thank Simon Plass for helping us on the application of position information for cellular diversity and Wei Wang on positioning with triangulation. Further, we would like to thank the members of the GREAT (Galileo REceiver for mAss markeT), GRAMMAR, WHERE, and WHERE2 project teams, whose work we have cited in this book.

Finally, many thanks to the Wiley team who made this book possible.

List of Abbreviations

2G

Second Generation

3GPP

3rd Generation Partnership Project

3GPP2

3rd Generation Partnership Project 2

A-FLT

Advanced Forward Link Trilateration

AGNSS

Assisted GNSS

AltBOC

Alternative Binary Offset Carrier modulation

AMC

Adaptive Modulation and Coding

AOA

Angle of Arrival

AOAD

AOA Difference

AP

Access Point

API

Application Programming Interface

ASF

Additional Secondary Factors

ASIR-PF

Auxiliary SIR-PF

ATIS

Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions

AWGN

Additive White Gaussian Noise

BCCH

Broadcast Control CHannel

BER

Bit Error Rate

BPSK

Binary Phase Shift Keying

BR

Basic Rate

BS

Base Station

C-CDD

Cellular CDD

C/A

Coarse/Acquisition

CAT

Cellular Alamouti Technique

CBOC

Composite Binary Offset Carrier modulation

CC

Cross-Correlation

CCK

Complementary Code Keying

CDD

Cyclic Delay Diversity

CDF

Cumulative Distribution Function

CDM

Code Division Multiplexing

CEP

Circular Error Probability

CGALIES

Coordination Group on Access to Location Information for Emergency Services

CIR

Channel Impulse Response

CoMP

COordinated Multi-Point

CP

Cooperative Positioning

CPF

Cumulative Probability Function

CPICH

Common Pilot CHannel

CRLB

Cramér–Rao Lower Bound

CRS

Cell-specific Reference Signal

CSI

Channel State Information

CSIT

CSI at the Transmitter

CSMA/CA

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

DAB

Digital Audio Broadcasting

dB

Decibel

DC

Direct Current

DFT

Discrete Fourier Transform

DFTS-OFDM

DFT-Spread OFDM

DGNSS

Differential GNSS

DLL

Delay Locked Loop

DMRS

DeModulation Reference Signal

DOP

Dilution of Precision

DPCCH

Dedicated Physical Control CHannel

DPCH

Dedicated Physical CHannel

DPDCH

Dedicated Physical Data CHannel

DPSK

Differential PSK

DSL

Digital Subscriber Line

DSSS

Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum

DVB-T

Digital Video Broadcasting–Terrestrial

E-CID

Enhanced Cell-ID

E-IPDL

Enhanced IPDL

E-SMLC

Enhanced Serving Mobile Location Center

E-UTRA

Evolved UTRA

E-UTRAN

Evolved UTRAN

EDAS

EGNOS Data Access Service

EDOP

East DOP

EDR

Enhanced Data Rate

EGC

Equal Gain Combining

EGNOS

European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service

EKF

Extended KF

EMS

EGNOS Message Server

eNB

Evolved Node B

EOTD

Enhanced Observed Time Difference

EPC

Electronic Product Code

ERP

Extended Rate PHY

ESA

European Space Agency

ETSI

European Telecommunications Standards Institute

FAA

Federal Aviation Administration

FCC

Federal Communications Commission

FDD

Frequency Division Duplex

FDM

Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDOA

Frequency Difference of Arrival

FIM

Fisher Information Matrix

FMC

Fixed Modulation and Coding

GAGAN

GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation

GANSS

Galileo and Additional Navigation Satellite Systems

GDOP

Geometric DOP

GEO

Geostationary Orbit

GFSK

Gaussian Frequency-Shift Keying

GLONASS

Global Navigation Satellite System

GLOS

Geometric LOS

GMSK

Gaussian Minimum-Shift Keying

GNSS

Global Navigation Satellite System

GP

Guard Period

GPS

Global Positioning System

GRPR

Golden Received Power Range

GSM

Global System for Mobile Communications

GSO

Geosynchronous Orbit

GTD

Geometric Time Difference

HR/DSSS

High Rate DSSS

HS

HotSpot

HSDPA

High Speed Downlink Packet Access

HSPA+

Evolved High Speed Packet Access

HT

High Throughput

I-WiMAX

3GPP/3GPP2-WiMAX Interworking

I-WLAN

3GPP/3GPP2-WLAN Interworking

i.i.d.

Independent and Identically Distributed

ICIC

Inter-Cell Interference Coordination

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IFFT

Inverse Fast Fourier Transform

ILS

Instrument Landing System

IP

Internet Protocol

IPDL

Idle Period DownLink

IR

Impulse Radio

IRNSS

Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System

KF

Kalman Filter

LAN

Local Area Network

LBS

Location Based Services

LCS

LoCation Services

LE

Low Energy

LEO

Low Earth Orbit

LFSR

Linear Feedback Shift Register

LMU

Location Measurement Unit

LORAN

LOng Range Aid to Navigation

LOS

Line Of Sight

LPP

LTE Positioning Protocol

LPPa

LTE Positioning Protocol A

LQ

Link Quality

LTE

Long Term Evolution

LTE-A

LTE-Advanced

MAC

Media Access Control

MAI

Multiple Access Interference

MAP

Maximum A Posteriori

MB

MultiBand

MCC

Master Control Center

MCS

Master Control Station

MEO

Medium Earth Orbit

ML

Maximum Likelihood

MMSE

Minimum Mean Square Error

MRC

Maximum Ratio Combining

MSAS

Multifunctional Satellite Augmentation System

MSE

Mean Squared Error

MT

Mobile Terminal

MTCB

MT Clock Bias

NAVSTAR-GPS

Navigational Satellite Timing and Ranging–GPS

NDOP

North DOP

NFC

Near Field Communication

NLES

Navigation Land Earth Station

NLOS

Non-LOS

nm

Nautical Mile

OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

OFDMA

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access

OTD

Observed Time Difference

OTDOA

Observed TDOA

P-CCPCH

Primary Common Control Physical CHannel

P/Y

Precision/encrYption

P2P

Peer-to-Peer

PBCH

Physical Broadcast CHannel

PDF

Probability Density Function

PDOP

Position DOP

PDP

Power Delay Profile

PF

Particle Filter

PHY

PHYsical layer

PRACH

Physical Random Access CHannel

PRN

Pseudo Random Noise

PRS

Positioning Reference Signal

PSK

Phase-Shift-Keying modulation

PSS

Primary Synchronization Sequence

PUCCH

Physical Uplink Control CHannel

PUSCH

Physical Uplink Shared CHannel

QAM

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

QPSK

Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying

QZSS

Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

R-PF

Regularized PF

RAIM

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

RAN

Radio Access Network

RDC

Reverse Differential Correlation

RF

Radio-Frequency

RFID

Radio-Frequency IDentification

RFPM

RF Patter Matching

RIMS

Ranging and Integrity Monitoring Station

RMS-RX

Root-Mean-Square Received Signal

RMSE

Root Mean Square Error

RRM

Radio Resource Management

RSCP

Received Signal Code Power

RSRP

Reference Signal Received Power

RSRQ

Reference Signal Received Quality

RSS

Received Signal Strength

RSSI

Received Signal Strength Indicator

RSTD

Reference Signal Time Difference

RTD

Real Time Difference

RTTOA

Round-Trip Time Of Arrival

RX

Receiver

SA

Selective Availability

SC-FDMA

Single-Carrier FDMA

SDS-TWR

Symmetric Double Sided Two Way Ranging

SET

SUPL Enabled Terminal

SFN

System Frame Number

SINR

Signal-to-Interference-and-Noise Ratio

SIR-PF

Sampling Importance Resampling PF

SISNeT

Signal-In-Space through the interNET

SLC

SUPL Location Center

SLmAP

SLM Application Protocol

SLP

SUPL Location Platform

SNR

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

SPC

SUPL Positioning Center

SRS

Sounding Reference Signal

SSS

Secondary Synchronization Sequence

STBC

Space-Time Block Code

SUPL

Secure User Plane Localization

TA

Timing Advance

TB

Tail Bit

TDD

Time-Division Duplex

TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access

TDOA

Time Difference of Arrival

TDOP

Time DOP

TIA

Telecommunications Industry Association

TOA

Time Of Arrival

TX

Transmitter

UE

User Equipment

UKF

Unscented KF

UL-RTOA

UpLink Relative Time of Arrival

UMTS

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

UTC

Coordinated Universal Time

UTDOA

Uplink TDOA

UTOA

Uplink TOA

UTRA

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access

UTRAN

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network

UWB

Ultra-WideBand

VDOP

Vertical DOP

VLF

Very Low Frequency

W-CDMA

Wideband CDMA

WAAS

Wide Area Augmentation System

WiMAX

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access

WLAN

Wireless LAN

WPAN

Wireless Personal Area Network

WSN

Wireless Sensor Network

Chapter 1Introduction

The determination of position is an art that has fascinated scientists for centuries. First positioning methods were probably developed several millennia ago when people realized the necessity of knowing their position for systematic travel. Orientation at natural landmarks such as mountains, rivers, or coastlines are straightforward methods for that purpose. Early man made landmarks were trails and ways that were often built for trading, for example, the famous Silk Road, which has its origins around 500 B.C., and connected Europe and Eastern Asia. Other man made landmarks are lighthouses. They provide orientation in monotonous environments even at night, for example, for ships relatively close to the coastline. On the high seas, however, landmarks are missing. Keeping track of a journey by measuring direction and velocity, called the dead reckoning method, was the straightforward approach used by early ocean navigators. Celestial navigation is another method that utilizes well-known objects as position references. Measuring the angle of the pole star above the horizon directly provides the latitude. The major problem for a long time has been the determination of the longitude directly related to the exact measurement of time due to the Earth's rotation. As the Earth rotates around each day, a deviation of 4 s in time keeping results in a position error of that is 1 nautical mile or 1.852 km at the equator. At that time, the longitude problem was so severe that several prizes were offered for the development of more precise longitude determination methods. In 1714 the British government rewarded £10 000 for a method capable of determining the longitude within a range of 60 nm (nautical miles), £15 000 for a deviation of 40 nm and £20 000 for 30 nm during a six week journey to the West Indies. Famous scientists like Isaac Newton and Edmond Halley proposed and promoted the use of astronomic methods, that is, predictable astronomic occurrences, for time determination. The ‘lunar distance’ relative to a fixed star or the ecliptic of Jupiter's moons are such ideas. The invention of chronometers with sufficient accuracy solved the problem and made astronomical methods needless. In 1761 John Harrison's H.4 marine chronometer, constructed in 1759, showed a time deviation of 5 s during a five-week journey to Jamaica. All methods that at least partially rely on visual observations require clear sight. This limits the usability of these methods to certain times of a day or to good weather conditions. The discovery of radio waves in the late nineteenth century opened the door for the field of . Radio beacons take the role of man made landmarks. Radio frequency bands provide a propagation range exceeding that of visible light. Dependent on the frequency band, radio waves are able to travel through clouds or fog, or even propagate as ground waves over a long distance. This solved the range problem even for ground based radio navigation systems. Nowadays, satellite navigation systems provide global coverage with accuracy in the range of meters. Some of the positioning principles, however, remain the same as for traditional or celestial navigation. In particular these are angular methods, where the angle of arrival of radio waves are determined. Today, radio navigation is mainly based on radio propagation time measurements, by which the knowledge of propagation speed (speed of light) provides distance measures related to the radio beacons.