Positive Psychology E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Bringing together today’s most prominent positive psychology researchers to discuss current themes and issues in the field
Positive psychology is the scientific study of the strengths, rather than the weaknesses, in human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. For much of its history, psychology has focused on the negative, completely overlooking the positive attributes that allow individuals and communities to thrive. Positive Psychology is a collection of essays that together constitutes a much-needed theoretical rationale and critical assessment of the field. This book reassesses what we already know and provides directions for the future. Contributors are leading international authors, including Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Robert Sternberg, Vittorio Caprara, C. Daniel Batson, and Illona Boniwell, among others. These luminaries write in a way that is rigorous enough for academic use but accessible to professionals, policymakers, and lay audiences as well.
The content of Positive Psychology include both theoretical applied contributions focusing on a range of areas including altruism, positive creativity, science of well-being, forgiveness, coaching for leadership, cyberpsychology, intelligence, responding to catastrophes like COVID-19, time perspective, physiological and epigenetic, youth civic engagement, ups and downs of love, flow and good life, global perspectives on positive psychology, self and collective efficacy, positive psychology interventions and positive orientation. The book is pitched to senior undergraduates, graduates, academics and researchers and provides insights and perspectives into neglected and unresolved questions.
- Brings together the latest viewpoints and research findings on positive psychology, from the leading thinkers in the field
- Offers both theoretical and applied insights, for a well-rounded reference on this new and fast growing field
- Contains contributions from well known authors like Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Robert Sternberg, and Vittorio Caprara
- Appeals to academic, professional, and lay audiences with an interest in acquiring a profound knowledge of positive psychology
No other book currently on the market addresses such a breadth of issues in positive psychology. Positive Psychology represents a significant theoretical boost to this exciting field.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Contributors
Acknowledgment
1 Embracing Psychology Positively
References
2 The Empathy‐Altruism Hypothesis
Empathy‐Altruism Hypothesis
Conclusion
References
3 Positive Creativity
Positive Creativity and Negative Creativity
Causes of Negative Creativity
References
4 Science of Well‐Being
Relative Independence of Positive Affect, Negative Affect, and Life Satisfaction
Subjective Well‐Being Measurement
Set Point and Adaptation
Causes of Well‐Being
Outcomes of Well‐Being
Conclusion
References
5 Positive Psychology: Coaching Leadership Tensions
Introduction
Workplace Coaching
Leadership Tensions
(1) Coaching for Happiness at Work: Well‐Being and Performance
(2) Coaching for Emotions at Work: Going to, Going through
(3) Coaching for Vision at Work: Clarifying and Aligning
(4) Coaching the Self at Work: Humility and Audacity
Conclusion
References
6 Positive Cyberpsychology
Technology in Experiencing Well‐being and Optimal Human Functioning
Impact of Technology on Well‐Being
Impact of Online Content on Well‐Being
Positive versus Negative Cyberpsychology
References
7 Earth to Humans
Social Psychology and Intelligence
Role of Rational Thinking
Role of Personality
The Role of Positive Psychology
References
Note
8 Time Perspective and Good Feelings
Introduction
Time Perspective
Positive Affective Experiences
Time Perspective and Subjective Positive Affects
References
9 Physiological and Epigenetic
Introduction
Dopaminergic Neural Pathway
Cholinergic Anti‐Inflamatory Pathway
Interoception Information
Conclusion
References
10 Youth Civic Engagement
Conceptualizing Youth Civic Engagement
Role of Microsocial Processes
Role of Macro‐Societal Contexts
Future Directions
References
11 The Ups and Downs of Love
Love is Not a Single Thing: Analyze What Is Going Right or Wrong
The Role of Ideals
Triangulating Love
Love as a Story
The Role of Jealousy
Conclusion
References
12 Flow
Flow and Measuring Experience
Flow in Leisure and Work
Flow in the Good Life
References
13 Global Perspectives on Positive Psychology
Call for More Positive Psychological Science
Globalization of Positive Psychological Science
Scientific Foundation of Positive Psychological Science
Workings of Positive Psychology Interventions
New Directions in Positive Psychological Science
Conclusion
References
14 Self‐Efficacy, Collective Efficacy and Positive Psychology
Bandura’s Theories
Self and the Collective
Surviving Impossible Odds of Infancy
Hope and Caring for Others
Connection between Caring and Competence
Positive Psychology and Efficacy Beyond Self
Recognizing Challenges and Working for the Good
References
15 Positive Psychology Interventions
Creating Your Intervention
Where Do Ideas for Interventions Come From?
Turn Your Idea into an Actual Intervention
Systematic Efficacy Trials for REACH Forgiveness
Disseminating Your Intervention
Going Viral
Stay Vital
Conclusion
References
16 From Serbia with Positive Orientation
Introduction
Study 1: Positivity Underlying the Constructs of Self‐Esteem, Life Satisfaction, and Optimism
Study 2: Positivity Scale – Psychometric Properties of Serbian Translation
Study 3: Composite Positivity Measure Versus the Positivity Scale: Comparing the Potential to Predict Depression and Self‐Efficacy
Study 4: Positivity and Personality Traits
Study 5: Positivity, Early Family Traumatization, and Subjective Well‐Being
Toward Positivity
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Smartphone well‐being scale.
Table 6.2 Descriptive results for each item of the questionnaire.
Table 6.3 Frequency of agreement with each statement.
Table 6.4 Standard multiple regression for predicting smartphone well‐being, ...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Taxonomy of kinds of triangles of love (based on Sternberg, 1986).
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Illustrative sample of associations and degree programs by contine...
Table 13.2 Number of publications by country.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Marketing resources for the positive psychology interventionist.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Study 1 sample description.
Table 16.2 Study 2 sample description.
Table 16.3 Descriptives of the positivity scale score distribution.
Table 16.4 Item descriptives.
Table 16.5 Fit indices for tested models.
Table 16.6 Multivariate Lagrange multiplier test results.
Table 16.7 Fit indices for models in multigroup analyses.
Table 16.8 The mean differences between subsamples divided by education.
Table 16.9 Hierarchical regression analyses predicting depression and self‐ef...
Table 16.10 Hierarchical regression analyses predicting depression and self‐e...
Table 16.11 Study 4 sample description.
Table 16.12 Descriptive statistics and correlations between variables in Stud...
Table 16.13 Hierarchical regression analyses of personality traits predicting...
Table 16.14 Hierarchical regression analyses of personality traits and positi...
Table 16.15 Study 5 sample description.
Table 16.16 Hierarchical regression analyses of unresolved family traumatizat...
Table 16.17 Hierarchical regression analyses of unresolved family traumatizat...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Varying attitudes toward mistakes.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 The number of articles published outside the United States versu...
Figure 13.2 Proposed positive factors, drivers, and sociocultural factors an...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 The measurement model of positive orientation with standardized ...
Figure 16.2 The latent structure model of the positivity scale.
Guide
1 Embracing Psychology Positively
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Contributors
Acknowledgment
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Positive Psychology
An International Perspective
Edited by
Aleksandra KostićDerek Chadee
This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Kostić, Aleksandra, editor. | Chadee, Derek, editor.Title: Positive psychology : an international perspective / edited by Aleksandra Kostić, Derek Chadee.Description: First edition. | Hoboken : Wiley, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020048416 (print) | LCCN 2020048417 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119666448 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119666431 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119666363 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Positive psychology.Classification: LCC BF204.6 .P65857 2021 (print) | LCC BF204.6 (ebook) | DDC 150.19/88–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020048416LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020048417
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: “Happy Windows” by Aleksandra Kostić
We dedicate this book to two outstanding persons in their own right, a successful Caribbean entrepreneur and founder of the ANSA McAL Group of Companies, and an academic and founding member of positive psychology, both of whom have uniquely and positively contributed to the development of the field of psychology.
To Dr. Anthony N. Sabga for his philanthropic contribution towards the establishment of the ANSA McAL Psychological Research Centre at The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus and by extension to the development of psychology within the Caribbean – DC
To Professor Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi for his early and lasting contributions to the development of positive psychology – AK
List of Contributors
Aleksandra Kostić is a Professor of Social Psychology at the Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Psychology at the University of Niš, Serbia. She teaches courses on Introduction to Social Psychology, Social Perception, Nonverbal Behavior, and Psychology of Interpersonal Behavior. Her research interests include nonverbal communication, emotional experience, time perspective, ethnic identity, and similarities and differences between cultures in perception of category, intensity and antecedents of emotion. She has published four books in Serbian including Facetalk: Signs and Meanings and Studies of Time Perspective in Serbia, Talk Without Words, and coedited four international books in the area of social psychology – Social Psychological Dynamics (2011); Time Perspective: Theory and Practice (2017); The Social Psychology of Nonverbal Communication (2014); and Social Intelligence and Nonverbal Communication (2020).
Derek Chadee is a Professor of Social Psychology and Director of ANSA McAL Psychological Research Centre at The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus. His current research interests include the social psychology of fear of crime and general fear, antecedents of emotions, copycat behavior, and media influence on perception. He has published with the British Journal of Criminology, International Review of Victimology, Crime Media and Culture, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Journal of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, and Psychology of Popular Media Culture. He has a strong interest in social psychological theories and his second edition of Theories in Social Psychology,Wiley, is forthcoming in 2021.
Massimo Agnoletti graduated in general and experimental psychology at the University of Padua (Italy) and received his PhD at the University of Verona (Italy) where he is a research assistant. His experience is internationally based (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of California, Berkeley, Massachusetts General Hospital, Osaka University, University College of London, etc.) and his main scientific focus is on flow experiences, time perspective, psychological aspects in telomeres, and vagus nerve activation.
C. Daniel Batson is an experimental social psychologist. He is currently a Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Kansas. His extensive research on the empathy‐altruism hypothesis is reviewed in Altruism in Humans (2011) and A Scientific Search for Altruism (2019). He is also the author of What’s Wrong with Morality? A Social‐Psychological Perspective (2016).
Celina Benavides, is an Assistant Professor in the Child & Family Studies Department at California State University, Los Angeles. She earned a PhD in developmental psychology at Claremont Graduate University, an MA in human development and psychology at Harvard, and an MA in education and mathematics credential at Whittier College. She conducts research in two related topic areas: the educational experiences and outcomes of students of color, and the role of schools and communities in supporting the positive development of adolescents and young adults, namely through civic engagement initiatives and fostering purpose.
Ilona Boniwell is one of the European leaders in positive psychology, having founded and headed the first master’s degree in applied positive psychology (MAPP) in Europe at the University of East London. She heads the International MSc in Applied Positive Psychology (I‐MAPP) at Anglia Ruskin University, teaches positive management at l’Ecole Centrale Paris and HEC, and consults around the world as a director of Positran. She founded and was the first chair of the European Network of Positive Psychology (ENPP), organized the first European Congress of Positive Psychology in June 2002 (Winchester), and was the first vice‐chair of the International Positive Psychology Association (IPPA). She is now the vice‐president for the Francophone Association of Positive Psychology, serves on the board of directors of the International Positive Education Network (IPEN) and is a coeditor of the Applied Positive Psychology Journal. She is well‐published and author of Positive Psychology in a Nutshell (2006, 2016); coauthor of The Happiness Equation (2008), Positive Psychology: Theory, Research and Applications (2011, 2019), Well‐Being Lessons for Secondary Schools (2012); coeditor of The Oxford Handbook of Happiness (2013); and coauthor of Motivated Adolescents (2015) and PEPS: Positive Education for Parents and Schools (2018).
Jolanta Burke is a chartered psychologist (British Psychological Society) and an assistant professor at Maynooth University, Ireland, where she teaches well‐being. Prior to that, she was a master’s program leader in applied positive psychology at the University of East London, and lectured at Trinity Business School, where she developed a series of highly popular lectures about positive cyber psychology. Her latest books are The Ultimate Guide to Implementing Wellbeing Programmes for School and Positive Psychology and School Leadership: The New Science of Positive Educational Leadership. For her work on well‐being, she was acknowledged by the Irish Times as one of 30 people in Ireland who make it a better place.
Gian Vittorio Caprara is Professor Emeritus at Sapienza University of Rome where he served as chair of the Department of Psychology and dean of the Psychology Faculty. He has been president of the European Association of Personality and is a member of the Academia Europaea. He is author and coauthor of over 500 scientific publications, including several volumes, among which: Personality: Determinants, Dynamics and Potentials (with D. Cervone, 2000); Personalizing Politics and Realizing Democracy (with M. Vecchione, 2017). His research has addressed several topics across personality psychology, social psychology and political psychology.
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi received his PhD in psychology from the University of Chicago, where he taught for 30 years and served as chair of the Department of Psychology. He is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Claremont Graduate University, where he founded and codirected the Quality of Life Research Center (QLRC). He is the author of Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: Experiencing Flow in Work and Play (1975), Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (1990), and Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention (1996). A wide range of his work was reprinted in the 2014 three‐volume set, The Collected Works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.
Ed Diener is a Professor at the University of Utah and the University of Virginia, a distinguished emeritus professor at the University of Illinois, and senior scientist for the Gallup Organization. He is one of the most eminent research psychologists in the world. With over 400 publications and a citation count over 230,000, he is one of the most highly cited scientists in the world. He has been the president of three scientific societies and the editor of three scientific journals, including being a cofounder of the Journal of Happiness Studies. He was the founding president of the International Positive Psychology Association. He has received major awards in psychology including the Distinguished Scientific Achievement Awards from the American Psychological Association.
Scott I. Donaldson is a postdoctoral scholar in evaluation, statistics, and measurement at the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, Moores Cancer Center. Scott received his PhD in psychology with a concentration in evaluation and applied research methods and a co‐concentration in positive organizational psychology from Claremont Graduate University. He received his BA in psychology from the University of California, Los Angeles, and his MS in organizational psychology from the University of Southern California. His research focuses on the design and evaluation of behavioral health interventions at work.
Stewart I. Donaldson is Dstinguished University Professor and executive director of the Claremont Evaluation Center at Claremont Graduate University. He is a cofounder of the first PhD and research‐focused master’s programs in positive psychology at Claremont Graduate University. He currently teaches, mentors, and employs numerous students specializing in positive organizational psychology, positive health and sports psychology, and evaluation science. He serves on the Council of Advisors for the International Positive Psychology Association (IPPA) and was chair of IPPA’s World Congress of Positive Psychology in Los Angeles (2013). He has published numerous articles, chapters, and books on the science of positive psychology, including his latest book Positive Psychological Science: Improving Everyday Life, Well‐Being, Work, Education, and Societies Across the Globe (2020).
Sandro Formica teaches Managing Self, Others and Positive Organizations in Hospitality at Florida International University and The Economics of Happiness in selected European universities. His book, “Personal Empowerment: Empower the Leader within You,” is highly experiential and contains over 200 self‐awareness practices and exercises. He is the academic director of the Chief Happiness Officer in the Hospitality and Services Industries certificate program, granted by WOHASU (World Happiness Summit) and Florida International University. As an academic, he published in international peer‐reviewed journals on human motivational factors and behavioral decision‐making, executive education needs, United States versus Europe training systems, and predictability of human preferences in future global business.
Burkhard Gniewosz received his diploma in psychology from the University of Jena, Germany, in 2002. He is currently Professor of Quantitative Research Methods in educational science at the Paris‐Lodron‐University in Salzburg, Austria. His major field of research concerns socialization processes during adolescence. He mostly focuses on contextual (family and school) influences on adolescents’ political and academic development. In recent years, his research interest centered on students’ motivation within a developmental context.
Saida Heshmati is an Assistant Professor of psychology at Claremont Graduate University. She is a positive developmental psychologist interested in how optimal development unfolds over time in diverse samples, especially in at‐risk adults. Using her expertise in positive relationships and love, human development, and state‐of‐the‐art analytical methods, she examines authentic or embedded assessments of large datasets related to individual and group characteristics that influence everyday well‐being and positive development. Her work has brought together a suite of measurement tools such as experience sampling methods, observational analysis, cognitive psychometric modeling, and wearable physiology monitors in the service of understanding how individuals’ sense of well‐being – and love as one component of well‐being – unfolds moment‐to‐moment in their everyday lives.
Jessica Kansky is a sixth‐year graduate student in clinical psychology at the University of Virginia and graduated summa cum laude with a BA in psychology from the University of Pennsylvania. She will be completing her doctoral internship at the Charleston Consortium this year. Her research focuses on psychosocial predictors and outcomes of romantic experiences from adolescence through adulthood. Her interest is in the role of romantic relationships in optimal interpersonal and individual development and well‐being and she has recently published several reviews of romantic development across the lifespan. She has received numerous accolades for her teaching, receiving the University’s only Distinguished Teaching Award for Social Sciences in 2019 and the Society for a Science of Clinical Psychology Outstanding Student Teacher Award in 2020.
Shari Young Kuchenbecker is Associate Director and cofounder of the Western Positive Psychology Association (WPPA), Claremont, California. Her BA is from Stanford and PhD is from UCLA. She chose to tenure‐retire at the age of 32 to raise three kind efficacious children – one DVM and two PhDs. She continues to write, teach/do research at SoCal universities, presenting at conferences with colleagues and students, many now PhDs, EdDs, MAs, and parents. Her Stanford role model and lifelong mentor was Dorothea Ross. Albert Bandura, her academic grandfather, and she began regular “Salons” across the last two decades. Collaborating with Phil Zimbardo, Al’s and Phil’s positive educational role models, theories, research legacies, and their social activism inspired the chapter included here.
Marija Pejičić is a PhD student and teaching assistant in the Department of Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy, at the University of Niš. Her teaching and research areas focus mainly in the area of interpersonal relations, specifically, communication and emotional experience.
Vesna Petrović is a Professor of Psychology at the Union University of Belgrade, where she has served as head of the master’s program in psychotherapy. She is an integrative psychotherapist, founder and director of the Serbian Association for Integrative Psychotherapy, and national representative of Serbia in the European Association for Psychotherapy. Her research has addressed issues in mental health, positive psychology, trauma psychology, integrative psychotherapy, and systemic family psychotherapy.
Wendy‐Ann Smith is a registered psychologist in her native country Australia and her current home France. She is the co‐editor of Positive Psychology Coaching in the Workplace (in press) and author in the domains of positive and coaching psychology, specifically in the domains of positive leadership, strengths and emotions coaching, and coaching for high quality relationships. She is a reviewer for the European Journal of Applied Positive Psychology and co‐leads the French chapter for the International Society for Coaching Psychology. She is an executive coach at high ranking international and French business schools and teaches in the domains of positive and coaching psychology at both French and UK academic institutions. She founded her first coaching psychology practice in Australia, Inspirations Coaching and Development and has translated that to France with her positive psychology business Eclorev Coaching.
Robert J. Sternberg is a Professor of Human Development at Cornell University and honorary professor of psychology at the University of Heidelberg, Germany. His BA is from Yale, his PhD from Stanford, and he holds 13 honorary doctorates. He is a past winner of the Grawemeyer Award in Psychology and the William James and James McKeen Cattell Awards from the Association for Psychological Science. He is past‐president of the American Psychological Association and the Federation of Associations in Behavioral and Brain Sciences. He has been cited over 184,000 times in the professional literature, with an h index of 207. He is the author of Adaptive Intelligence (in press).
Sara Wilf is a doctoral student in the Department of Social Welfare at the University of California, Los Angeles. She researches the development and practice of youth civic engagement with a focus on youth activism on social media. She received her BA from Brown University and her MPA from Columbia University.
Everett L. Worthington Jr. is Commonwealth Professor Emeritus at Virginia Commonwealth University. He continues an active research, writing, and speaking career studying forgiveness, humility, hope, gratitude, patience, and other positive psychology topics. He originated the REACH Forgiveness intervention, which has been investigated in over 30 randomized control trials and continues to be studied and used around the globe. He also continues to do research in the hope‐focused approach to couple enrichment and therapy.
Laura Wray‐Lake is an Associate Professor of social welfare in the Luskin School of Public Affairs at University of California, Los Angeles. She received her PhD in human development and family studies from Penn State University. Her research focuses on how and why young people become civically engaged. She has published over 60 research articles and book chapters, including a 2020 SRCD Monograph on pathways to civic engagement among urban youth of color. Her work uses multiple methodologies and takes developmental, cultural, and contextual perspectives in studying youth civic engagement.
Dragan Žuljević, PhD, is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Law and Business Studies, Dr Lazar Vrkatić, Novi Sad, Serbia. He received his PhD in psychology with a concentration in psychotherapy treatment evaluation. He authored over 100 research reports and publications focused on psychological treatment evaluation, resilience, mental health, and positive psychology. His current research is focused on practice and evaluation of acceptance and commitment therapy and contextual behavioral science.
Acknowledgment
This book would not have been possible if not for the contributions and dedicated commitment from a number of persons. We express our deepest and sincerest thanks to the following individuals for their invaluable contributions toward the successful completion of this volume. First, we say thanks to all of our diligent contributors: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Daniel Batson, Robert J. Sternberg, Massimo Agnoletti, Celina Benavides, Ilona Boniwell, Jolanta Burke, Gian Vittorio Caprara, Ed Diener, Stewart I. Donaldson, Scott I. Donaldson, Sandro Formica, Burkhard Gniewosz, Saida Heshmati, Jessica Kansky, Shari Young Kuchenbecker, Marija Pejičić, Vesna Petrović, Wendy‐Ann Smith, Sara Wilf, Everett L Worthington Jr., Laura Wray‐Lake, and Dragan Žuljević. A special thanks to Steve Dwarika, Mala Ramesar, and Shenelle Matadeen for their administrative assistance.
This book is an output of the ANSA McAL Psychological Research Centre of the University of the West Indies. Our sincerest thanks to The University of the West Indies and the ANSA McAL Psychological Research Centre and the Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Psychology, at the University of Niš (Serbia) for their support. Our earnest gratefulness to the staff at Wiley Publishers. To all those who provided technical and other kinds of support resulting in this publication, we would like to indicate our deepest appreciation. And to those we may have inadvertently overlooked in this acknowledgment, we say thank you for all the encouragement and assistance that you have rendered.
1Embracing Psychology Positively
Derek Chadee and Aleksandra Kostić
Positive psychology conjures the notion of a soft approach to addressing hard psychological issues. Though this is far from the truth, academia quite often focuses on removing of the negative and thinking critically of issues that adversely impact on our lives. Focusing on the other side, the positive, somehow implicitly summons the notion of not assessing the core of a problem. Martin Seligman in 1998, recognizing the usefulness of critically assessing the cause and impact of the negative, also saw the need to focus theorization, research, policy, and a paradigm toward the other side of the coin – the positive. In fact, positive psychologists go even further to emphasize that by encouraging the development of positive attributes many of the negative issues may be systemically addressed.
Martin Seligman the father of positive psychology defined this area of psychology as “a scientific and professional movement with a new goal to build the enabling conditions of a life worth living” (2011) and studied not only the frailties and problems but the strengths and virtues of the human being (Seligman, 2002, p. 630). Later, Duckworth, Steen, and Seligman (2005) clarified positive psychology from clinical psychology noting that as a “scientific study of positive experiences and positive individual traits and the institutions that facilitate their development, a field concerned with well‐being and optimal functioning, positive psychology at first glance seem peripheral to mainstream clinical psychology. We believe otherwise.” In fact, they noted that positive psychology expands the emphasis of clinical psychology from distress and interventions for improvement and moving the discourse to continuance of well‐being. Taking this principle of positive psychology, its contributions toward well‐being expands beyond that of the clinical branch of the discipline of psychology. Gable and Haidt (2005) argued that the prominence of the negative in psychology may be a result of prioritizing of compassion, the history and pragmatism of focusing on distress and disease, the nature and theorization of psychology. But they also posited that a positive psychology in no way implies a negative psychology, nor prior or future theorization, and research outside of this emerging branch are not in any way inferior.
Core to the discipline is the fact that positive psychology has the characteristics of a scientific intellectual movement and has over a short period develop a paradigm of a mature science (Simmons, 2013). Seligman, Gillham, Reivich, Linkins, and Ernst (2009) acknowledged the growth of positive psychology as a scientific paradigm to study positive emotions, engagement, and meaning and the importance of these characteristics in the development of life satisfaction. But one may ask why the ease in which this discipline has so quickly navigated toward respectability. The answer obviously lies in the content of positive psychology and the simplicity of the assumptions and premises on which, over a hundred years prior, the discipline of psychology studied with interventions. However, psychology fell short of ensuring the continuance of the well‐being of the inner being (Duckworth et al., 2005). Simmons (2013) referred to an interesting quotation from Abraham Maslow’s classic book, Motivation and Personality, in a chapter titled “Toward a Positive Psychology”:
The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, and that, the darker, meaner half.
(Maslow, 1954, p. 354)
The genesis of positive psychology has been attributed to the works of humanistic psychologists such as Carl Rogers, Rollo May, Abraham Maslow, Gordon Allport, and Marie Jahoda, who in 1958 wrote on the continuance of well‐being in patients (Duckworth et al., 2005). One can possibly say that the spirit of humanistic psychology manifested in positive psychology, one discipline in its evolution. However, Peterson and Seligman (2004, see also Simons, 2013) noted the reluctance of the humanistic school to emphasize scientific rigor.
Happiness and well‐being are partly influenced by positive emotions, engagement, and purpose (Seligman, 2008). Concerns about the past, present, and future influence our levels of contentment, serenity, somatic and complex pleasures, optimism, and hope (Duckworth et al., 2005; Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, 2006). Our engagement is reciprocally conditional to strengths which are constructed on core virtues such as wisdom, integrity, and honesty. Purpose and life meaning are derived from interaction within the institutional core to our self. These three domains are not mutually exclusive but the ideal is a harmonious balance. The interplay of the three domains provide hedonic, emphasis on happiness and pleasure, and eudaimonic emphasis on life’s meaning, purpose, and satisfactions. Both hedonic and eudaimonic models were synergized by Seligman and Adler (2018; see also Altmaier, 2019) to understand a blended engagement in the derivation of happiness and life satisfaction. Seligman articulated this blend in the PERMA model which is an acronym for positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment.
Positive psychology has distinguished between the absence of the negative and the presence of the positive. Consider, cold is the absence of heat or poverty the absence of wealth, though debatable, these analogies have their insights but also their limits. Similarly, consider the issue of delinquency. The resolution of this issue by addressing the core causes of the problem means that the issue has been addressed with temporal and spatial specificity. But has the well‐being of persons involved with or affected by delinquency been addressed or sustained? Has the social environment and parties feel engaged, or have a greater sense of well‐being, or have more positive emotions? The positive psychology emphasis of beyond time and space limitations is a core distinguishing factor. Duckworth et al. (2005) observing that the positive is not simply the absence of the negative, noted with an example that the removal of incivility, revenge, and anger, does not necessarily lead to the presence of civility, cooperation, and loyalty. Both the former, removal of the negative, and the latter, creation and sustenance of the the positive, require different interventions.
Within this context and sharing the assumptions and theorization of positive psychology, the contributors to this book are from a wide range of cultures and have diligently articulated significant issues of interest on positive psychology to an international audience. Their contributions include the areas of altruism, positive creativity, science of well‐being, forgiveness, coaching for leadership, cyberpsychology, intelligence, responding to catastrophes like COVID‐19, time perspective, physiological and epigenetic, youth civic engagement, ups and downs of love, flow and good life, global perspectives on positive psychology, self and collective efficacy, positive psychology interventions, and positive orientation.
Do we humans ever, in any degree, care for others for their sakes and not simply for our own? Daniel Batson, renowned for his research on empathy and altruism, in his chapter utilizes the empathy‐altruism hypothesis to address this question. The egoism–altruism debate is briefly discussed, touching on the egoism trend that prevails in Western societies. The empathy‐altruism hypothesis, which states that altruistic motivation is produced by empathetic concern is discussed distinguishing empathetic concern (the perceived welfare of a person in need elicits and is congruent with other‐oriented emotion) and altruistic motivation (increasing another’s welfare in the main goal). Other aspects of empathy‐altruism are articulated such as self‐benefits falling within the realm of the goal of egoism as opposed to the consequence of altruism. The author notes that empathy‐induced altruistic motivation is within the human repertoire and the biological roots of such motivation may lie in generalized parental nurturance. Practical implications of the empathy‐altruism hypothesis are then discussed in relation to its benefits and liabilities. Some benefits include the inhibition of aggression, the increase of collaboration in conflicts, and improved attitudes toward stigmatized groups. Some liabilities include the potential risk of harm (e.g., through time, money, and physical injury) by performing some altruistic acts and some needs may not necessarily arouse empathetic concern.
Distinguished psychologist, Robert J. Sternberg, differentiates between positive and negative creativity, highlighting that while fundamentally being the same, the distinguishing factor is the function they serve. The author contends that creators need to think beyond the short‐term requirements of creative solutions since solutions which have outlived their purpose may become negative in the wrong hands, for example, nuclear weapons and carbon‐based fuels. Acknowledging the prevalence and impact of negative creativity globally, the article outlines some of the fundamental reasons for negative creativity. These include enhancing reputation, responding in anger, responding to fear, and revenge.
Creators need to also pay attention to whether creativity is adding value both in the short and long term, that is whether it is positive, negative, or neutral. Citing social media and a form of creativity once intended to be positive, it has evolved into a medium which has been used to distort elections and spread hateful propaganda. One of the many conclusions from this chapter is a discussion on how creativity can be uncomfortable and potentially dangerous, but, despite this, there is a need for more positive creativity, decency in discourse, reflection, and civility.
In their chapter Jessica Kansky and Ed Diener extend theconcept of subjective well‐being (SWB) beyond happiness. The primary causes ofwell‐being (e.g., income, social relationships, genetics, strengths andpositive behaviors, and health) were discussed as well as its criticaloutcomes. SWB consists of three independently related facets: positive,negative, and life satisfaction. The dynamic nature of SWB has seen a growinginterest in the field which has been matched by evolving methods of measurementwhich range from self‐report methods to physiological and neuroimaging methods.These methods, however, are constrained by their inability to provide causal conclusions. To address this limitation, experimental methods and long‐termfollow‐up assessments were viewed as a way forward allowing researchers tounderstand the causal relationship between moods and affect. The influence ofprograms such as ENHANCE strongly suggest the malleability of happiness. As the authors pointed, “an individual may have multiplehappiness set points, rather than one global point and that different aspectsof well‐being can move in different directions independently”. Inclosing an emphasis is given to the strong need for further research on theconceptual and theoretical foundations of SWB and its globalization.
How can positive psychology be applied to leadership styles not only for the direct benefit of organizations but for overall human development? Ilona Boniwell and Wendy‐Ann Smith discuss the merit of positive leadership for organizations challenged by global competition. Employees who belong to teams which are guided by greater opportunities for recognition, whose leaders are seen as more ethical, authentic, and charismatic, tend to demonstrate greater engagement at the individual level, and those organizations are better able to achieve their corporate goals. Positive leadership is an umbrella term encompassing several leadership styles which places the human at the center of the value creation process. The authors distinguish among positive organizational scholarship, positive organizational behavior, and positive leadership as critical tools of positive psychology within the workplace. Guided by the competing values framework, which posits that leadership has the capacity to hold and integrate contrasting tensions, the chapter discusses the major theoretical underpinnings of leadership.
Some of the major tools in coaching of employees are articulated and include perceiving emotions, understanding emotions, using emotions to facilitate thinking, and managing emotions. Perceiving emotions extends beyond just that of the individual leader but also of members of the team since this directly impacts leadership thought and behaviors. Understanding emotional reactions provides a greater awareness of the causes of certain emotions and some predictability to the consequences of such emotional responses. Using emotions, both positive and negative, to facilitate thinking can have beneficial outcomes. Positive emotions make one more receptive and creative while negative emotions, guided by support have the potential for creative problem solving. Finally, the authors insightfully discuss that the managing of emotions as a coaching tool is critical since emotions can be contagious and can impact the mood and morale of work teams. Leadership is an integration between positive opposites, which can become negative when viewed in isolation, and that effective coaching supports and challenges employees to go beyond the either/or choices presented by these positive opposites.
Jolanta Burke integrates positive psychology and cyberpsychology into the new and novel field of positive technology. Merging cyberpsychology and positive psychology draws attention to the use of technology in addressing human needs and the development of well‐being programs which are delivered using technology. Positive cyberpsychology aims to study three broad areas: the positive impact of technology in directly improving individual and group level well‐being, the positive subjective experience of technology, and the positive subjective impact of online content at the individual and group level.
With respect to the positive impact of technology in directly improving individual and group level well‐being, there are currently available interventions used in the medical field which serve as a stepping stone since they primarily focus on health rather than well‐being. The author contends that cyberpsychology can inform positive psychology in this regard by focusing researchers on the effectiveness of and optimal use of cyberpsychology. To understand the impact of technology on well‐being requires further research attention to ensure end‐users’ positive experiences with technology. Specifically, there is a paucity of research on the positive impact of technology with much greater attention being given to the negative physical and mental outcome of technology. Initial studies have demonstrated how technology can improve lives and this should serve as a guide to developing positive cyberpsychology interventions.
Robert J. Sternberg, in another contribution, is empathetic and expresses his concern as an academic and a world citizen on how pandemics and issues such as COVID‐19 are addressed. Guided by relevant research he notes the failure of human beings to truly adapt to catastrophes highlighting several ways in which human beings have failed to adapt to changes. Citing the mismanagement of the Spanish flu pandemic as the perfect example of what world leaders should avoid, he posits that twenty‐first‐century world leaders instead choose to either ignore those events or implement decisions which arguably have made the current COVID‐19 pandemic worse. The chapter challenges the traditional notions of intelligence, drawing a comparison between competence, which refers to our capabilities, and performance which refers to what we do. Applying academic definitions of intelligence may be flawed in real‐world settings since pandemics, catastrophes, and climate change oftentimes require practical solutions for which there is no predefined right or wrong answer.
Sternberg argues for the need to incorporate social psychology in the study of intelligence since real‐world problem solving and decision making occur within a sociocultural context. Cognitive dissonance theory was used to succinctly explain changes in behaviors and decisions and to demonstrate the utility of incorporating social psychology in the study of intelligence. The role of rational thinking and personality traits are important consideration for realization of the fruits of social intelligence. The chapter outlines the use of positive psychology in helping individuals make important decisions which have health and well‐being implications.
What is the relationship between time perspective and feeling good? Aleksandra Kostić, Derek Chadee, and Marija Pejičić’s chapter addresses this issue. Psychological research on time indicates that the attitude toward time has a strong and even powerful influence on how we live. The way we relate to different time intervals and the way in which we separate and connect them, and then separate again, influence our perception of the world and sense of well‐being. The authors’ interest is directed toward the analysis of the connection between the subjective experience of time and an individual’s positive affective experience, which implies finding answers to some unresolved questions. Therefore, an important question to ask is whether a certain preferred temporal orientation implies a higher number of positive effects, and another one implies a higher number of negative effects. Core to this chapter is understanding how our motivation, activities, achievements, and transformations are influenced by our time perspective and in turn influence our well‐being.
Massimo Agnoletti and Sandro Formica’s chapter on physiological and epigenetics builds on research which explored emotions and physiology to demonstrate the deeper impact that emotions, both positive and negative, can have on physical health and well‐being. The authors acknowledge the gap between medically researched interventions, which focus on physical and chemical processes of acute illness and trauma, and the psychological impact of illnesses and progressive treatments on humans. Progressive treatment of patients has sought to narrow the mind–body gap since there is new and compelling empirical support for the integration of both methods of treatment. This integration of biomedical and psychological knowledge brings a new and valuable understanding of the physiological and cellular dynamics of positive emotions.
To demonstrate adequately the benefits of physiological and epigenetic effects of positive emotions, the authors use three elements: the dopaminergic neural pathway, the cholinergic anti‐inflammatory pathway (CAP), and the interoceptive information. The dopaminergic pathway provides an understanding of the motivational influences governing repeating of behaviors which have positive emotional experiences and promotes better health. The CAP mediates the relation between life experiences and cellular information of the immune system which means that both the quality and quantity of life experiences can trigger epigenetic changes which can affect the quality of life and perception of personal identity. Finally, the interoception information is a continuous bidirectional communication between emotions and external sensory exchanges. The quality of life will be improved when human beings become aware of their thoughts, deeds, and lifestyle and advocate for the further narrowing of the mind–body gap and a move toward developing a platform for a holistic approach to the well‐being of individuals and society.
Youth civic engagement is multidimensional with a synergy among individuals, institutions, cultures, and subcultures with a social and economic, among others, context. Laura Wray‐Lake, Burkhard Gniewosz, Celina Benavides, and Sara Wilf adopting a developmental and cultural perspective, provide a micro–macro understanding of factors contributing to youth civic engagement and how these levels and their interaction influence engagement. The authors distinguish civic engagement from citizenship noting that the latter is a formal and legal status of being a member of a society while the former is the subjective representation of citizenship with psychological or tangible interactions with others where individuals express rights and acts on responsibilities without the requirement of citizenship. For engagement to take place there must be interaction between the individual and community. An emphasis of this chapter is the importance of socialization in civic development in both childhood and adolescence allowing for a sense of purpose in connection to their social world. The authors embolden discourses to build a consensus across cultures and disciplines on the understanding of youth civic engagement.
In his third contribution, Robert J. Sternberg focuses on the several elements of love and the contribution of these elements to the satisfaction and maintenance of a relationship including elements of trust, compassion, and communication. These core elements are utilized in a holistic analysis and identification of malfunctions within the relationship, and perception of the degree to which the relationship helps the individual to self‐actualize. Crucial to an understanding of love are intimacy, passion, and commitment. These form the author’s triangular theory of love, the understanding of which is posited to be essential for a successful relationship. The theory of love as a story is discussed, along with the formulation and functions of the stories of love. The roles of jealousy and envy within current and future relationships are also considered, with situational and personal jealousy and envy being the focus. These constructs were noted as being either harmful or beneficial to a relationship. The chapter provides an angle into the meaningfulness, the eudaimonic, of love and positive relational development.
The celebrated and one of the major contributors to the genesis of positive psychology, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi writes on the flow concept, a major contribution he has made to positive psychology. He notes that this concept arose out of research on low to nonextrinsic rewarding activities. Csikszentmihalyi provides an understanding of the development of the flow concept. He describes the state of flow as an intense concentration in which we tend to lose self‐consciousness, though being in control of actions and sensations, but the experience being its own reward. The concept of flow remains an important concept in positive psychology. The eudaimonic relationship between flow and realization of intrinsic motivation is core to the distinction of positive psychology from main stream psychology. And this point is clearly articulated in Csikszentmihalyi’s chapter.
In the rebalancing of the field of psychology, a call for an increase in positive psychological science was made. Positive psychological science’s aim is to increase the understanding of how to build the factors for the prevention of pathologies that result from purposelessness. Stewart I. Donaldson, Saida Heshmati, and Scott I. Donaldson’s chapter starts with a brief history of the impact and development within positive psychology. Positive psychology has seen a tremendous increase in peer‐reviewed positive psychological scientific studies and research and many of the critiques of positive psychology as nonscientific result from reviewing of some literature that has not passed the examination of scientific peer review. Fundamental to the global development of a scientific psychology is the establishment of reliable and valid measures. The several meta‐analyses strongly reaffirm the empirical validity of positive psychological interventions. The chapter deliberates on potential new directions and includes areas of cultural context and relationships and their related issues. The purpose of positive psychology as a new science is to develop and utilize knowledge to address pathologies that arise when life is barren and meaningless. The authors conclude by asserting that “the global perspective on positive psychological science will inspire much more sound peer‐reviewed research, and facilitate the design and evaluation of many more evidence‐based positive psychology interventions across the world.”
Shari Young Kuchenbecker expands on Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT) utilizing self‐efficacy at the center of human agency. Her chapter provides a brief history of Albert Bandura’s concept contextualizing them within a positive psychological perspective. The widespread usefulness of his theories and experiments are emphasized, this includes the concept of self‐efficacy. Of import is the ability to connect with others and the role of self‐efficacy in interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships. The essentiality of the interaction between an infant and the caregiver to the social development of the child is emphasized. The link between the care of a child and the healthy development of self‐efficacy and other social competencies such as emotional regulation, communication skills, and the ability to form positive functioning social relationships are contextualized in the development of a psychologically healthy person. Self‐efficacy and collective efficacy are core to our holistic development and the chapter differentiates these concepts. The relationship between self‐efficacy and well‐being is considered with an emphasis on the concept of moral disengagement, first introduced by Bandura. Moral disengagement is designed to justify an individual’s actions. If moral disengagement exists then so too does moral engagement, which, the author postulates, is the key to the success of the collective efficacy. The chapter acknowledges the contribution of Albert Bandura in creating a map to understand the relationship between community and positive psychology.
As the name suggests, REACH Forgiveness is an intervention with the purpose of assisting persons in the forgiveness of others and becoming more forgiving generally. Everett L. Worthington Jr. begins his chapters by giving a brief history of the development of the intervention as well as some research conducted in efforts to inspire the audience with potential ideas for possible future positive psychological interventions. Taking the REACH Forgiveness intervention as a case study, the author describes the use of scientific principles to create quality psychological interventions, to conduct research on their efficacy, effectiveness, and dissemination. Some origins of ideas for new interventions are discussed, identifying some sources including clients, teachers, and real‐life experiences. Interestingly, the author also focuses on how to create an intervention from an idea. Populations in need of assistance that can potentially be provided through intervention are proposed as a key sample for ethically testing of ideas. Intervention go through multiple testing before the results are published and the intervention is used. An example of the development of an intervention is provided through a case study of the REACH Forgiveness intervention. Methods of disseminating an intervention are outlined, these include dissemination through speeches, scientific publications, and presentations and books. An important take home is that interventions must have relevance and utility.
Vesna Petrović, Dragan Žuljević, and Gian Vittorio Caprara present a series of studies in their chapter that demonstrate the relationships among positive evaluations about oneself, life, and future and these relationships can be traced to a common latent dimension of “positive orientation” and positivity. Their review of findings validates the relationship between positivity and being well adjusted. Positive orientation is a stable evaluative disposition that assists in coping with adversities and has been identified as a latent factor in self‐esteem, life satisfaction, and dispositional optimism with evidence of positivity having a genetic influence. The first two studies demonstrated the universality of the positivity scale by testing variance levels across age, gender, and different languages. Positivity should be considered a superordinate variable to self‐esteem, life satisfaction, and dispositional optimism. The fourth study highlighted the moderate relation between positivity and the Big Five personality traits which has direct implications for techniques used to improve positivity and general well‐being. The fifth study investigated the potential mediating role of positivity in the relation between unresolved family traumatization and variables of subjective well‐being. Unresolved family traumatization significantly affects well‐being as it predicted higher scores of general distress and negative affect, as well as lower scores of satisfaction with life and positive affect. The same can also be said for positivity, but in the opposite direction.
Based on the arguments made within this article, several areas of future research were noted which include the impact of positivity on different spheres of life and domains of functioning, such as physical health, family, job, coping, and other domains. The authors advocate for research which provides an understanding of the biological correlates of positivity and the ways positivity may moderate stress, illness, and pain to promote overall health and well‐being. Research of this nature is essential for designing interventions based on practices that promote and sustain individuals’ positivity.
Lopez and Snyder (2009; also quoted in Almaier, 2019, p. 21), succinctly expressed the essence and emphasis of positive psychology as:
Positive psychology is the “scientific study” of what makes life most worth living. It is a call for psychological science and practice to be as concerned with strength as with weakness; as interested in building the best things in life as in repairing the worst; and as concerned with making the lives of normal people fulfilling as with healing pathology.
(Lopez & Snyder, 2009, p. xxiii)
The engagements in this volume provide multidimensional perspectives consistent with the emphasis of positive psychology.
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2The Empathy‐Altruism Hypothesis
C. Daniel Batson
Think of all the time and energy we spend helping others. In addition to daily courtesies and kindnesses, we send money to aid disaster victims halfway around the world – and to save whales. We stay up all night with a friend who just suffered a broken relationship. We stop to comfort a lost and frightened child until his or her parent appears. Sometimes, the help is truly spectacular – as when Wesley Autrey jumped onto a subway track with the train bearing down in order to save a young man who fell while having a seizure. Or when rescuers in Nazi Europe risked their own lives and the lives of family members to shelter Jews.
Why do we do these things? What motivates such behavior? Is it true that “the most disinterested love is, after all, but a kind of bargain, in which the dear love of our own selves always proposes to be the gainer some way or other” (La Rochefoucauld, 1691, Maxim 82)? Or are we also capable of caring for others for their sakes, not just ours? That is, is altruism within the human motivational repertoire?
The significance of the latter possibility depends on what you think altruism is. If, like most behavioral and social scientists, you think of it as personally costly helping – or as helping to gain self‐administered rewards (e.g., a warm glow or avoidance of guilt) rather than to gain material and social rewards – the existence of altruism can’t be doubted. But to say we’re capable of such altruism tells us nothing we didn’t already know. These conceptions trivialize the centuries old egoism–altruism debate. In that debate, altruism refers to a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another’s welfare; egoism refers to a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing our own welfare. The dominant view in Western thought has long been that our motivation is always exclusively egoistic – as La Rochefoucauld said.
Empathy‐Altruism Hypothesis
The empathy‐altruism hypothesis takes the motivational conceptions of altruism and egoism seriously. And, importantly, it challenges the dominant exclusive egoism view by proposing that empathic concern produces altruistic motivation. To understand this deceptively simple hypothesis, we need to be clear about what is meant both by empathic concern and by altruistic motivation.
