50,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
This text offers an open-learning approach to Raman spectroscopy providing detail on instrumentation, applications and discussions questions throughout the book. It provides a valuable guide to assist with teaching Raman spectroscopy which is gaining attention in (analytical) chemistry, and as a consequence, teaching programs have followed. Today, education in Raman spectroscopy is often limited to theoretical aspects (e.g. selection rules), but practical aspects are usually disregarded. With these course notes, the author hopes to fill this gap and include information about Raman instrumentation and how it is interpreted. * Provides a user-friendly text that tackles the theoretical background, and offers everyday tips for common practice * Raman instrumentation and practical aspects, which are sometimes overlooked, are covered * Appropriate for students, and includes summaries, text boxes, illustrating the ideas with examples from research literature or providing background information or links with other courses * Written with an open-learning approach, this book will be ideal for use as a self-study guide or as the basis of a taught course with discussion and self-assessment questions throughout the text * Includes a comprehensive bibliography to guide the reader to more specialized texts and sources.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 184
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
About the Author
Preface
Acknowledgements
Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols
Introduction to Raman Spectroscopy
Summary
Further Reading
Chapter 1: Theoretical Aspects
1.1 Classical Approach
1.2 Selection Rule
1.3 Energy Levels and Group Frequencies
1.4 Raman Intensity
1.5 Raman Bandwidth
1.6 The General Appearance of a Raman Spectrum
1.7 Summary
Further Reading
Chapter 2: Interferences and Side-effects
2.1 Absorption
2.2 Fluorescence
2.3 Thermal Effects, Photodecomposition and Laser Ablation
2.4 Ambient Light and Background Radiation
2.5 Summary
Further Reading
Chapter 3: Enhancement of the Raman Signal
3.1 Resonance Raman (RR) Spectroscopy
3.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)
3.3 Summary
Further Reading
Chapter 4: Raman Instrumentation
4.1 Lasers
4.2 Detectors
4.3 Filters
4.4 Dispersion Systems
4.5 Components for Transportation of Light
4.6 Sample Chambers and Measurement Probes
4.7 Noise in Raman Spectroscopy
4.8 Summary
Further Reading
Chapter 5: Raman Spectroscopy in Daily Lab-life
5.1 Calibration of a Raman Spectrometer
5.2 Raman Spectral Post-processing
5.3 Interpretation of Raman Spectra of Organic Molecules
5.4 Interpretation of Raman Spectra of Inorganic Molecules
5.5 Quantitative Aspects of Raman Spectroscopy
5.6 Fingerprinting and Spectral Searching Algorithms
5.7 Raman Mapping and Imaging
5.8 Combination with Other Techniques
5.9 Summary
Further Reading
Responses to Questions
Bibliography
Glossary of Terms
Index
SI Units and Physical Constants
SI Units
Physical Constants
The Periodic Table
This edition first published 2013
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
Registered office
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com.
The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Vandenabeele, Peter.
Practical Raman spectroscopy : an introduction / Peter Vandenabeele, Ghent University, Belgium.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-68319-4 (hardback)—ISBN 978-0-470-68318-7 (paperback) 1. Raman spectroscopy–Study and teaching. I. Title.
QD96.R34V36 2013
543′.57–dc23
2013013049
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Print ISBN: Cloth 9780470683194
Paper 9780470683187
To my family—for all your support,
To my colleagues—that became friends,
About the Author
Peter Vandenabeele obtained his masters' degree in chemistry at Ghent University, where he made his masters' thesis on thermal analysis of precursors for the synthesis of superconductors. His PhD research was carried out at the same university, but in the department of analytical chemistry, under the supervision of Prof. Dr. L. Moens. This research was on the optimisation of micro-Raman spectroscopy and total-reflection X-ray fluorescence for art analysis (2000). During his post-doctoral period Peter further worked on novel applications of Raman spectroscopy, in art analysis as well as in pharmaceutics, microbiology and astrobiology. In 2007, the author was appointed as research professor in the department of archaeology of Ghent University, where he further can apply his analytical skills to study archaeological and artistic objects.
Peter Vandenabeele has authored almost 100 research papers on Raman spectroscopy and in archaeometry. He has given many presentations on international conferences, of which several invited or plenary oral presentations. On many occasions he has written book chapters on Raman spectroscopy in archaeometrical research. As research professor, he has limited time to teach, but nevertheless, he enjoys introducing students in archaeometry as well as in Raman spectroscopy.
Preface
Raman spectroscopy is a very versatile molecular spectroscopic technique, with many different applications in a range of research fields. Whereas in its early days using this technique was very time-consuming and complex—and only applied in a few very specialised laboratories—today the technique is becoming increasingly popular in fundamental research as well as in applied science. Indeed, due to many instrumental evolutions, Raman spectroscopy has become increasingly more accessible and affordable. As a consequence, the technique has moved from the specialised laboratories towards more generally oriented laboratories. However, along with this broadening of applications, there is an increasing chance for misinterpretations and good training in Raman spectroscopy can help in avoiding these pitfalls.
This handbook starts with an introduction, where the history of Raman spectroscopy is sketched. In Chapter 1, the theoretical background of the technique is described. This theory is used to understand possible interferences (Chapter 2) and to study possible techniques to enhance the Raman intensity (Chapter 3). Chapter 4 focuses on the technical aspects of Raman spectroscopy: general aspects of Raman spectrometer construction and the properties of the different components. Together with these aspects, some considerations about noise in Raman spectra are discussed. The final chapter in this book (Chapter 5) describes aspects from daily practices in a Raman spectroscopy laboratory. Common approaches are described, such as smoothing operations, baseline corrections, spectral searches, etc. This chapter tries to explain a little about what lies behind the buttons in your spectroscopy software package.
Throughout the book the readers are exposed to questions, where the answers are listed at the end of the book. We also provide discussion topics throughout the text, where the reader can evaluate whether he/she understood everything all right. In this book, we also provide some intermezzos—short texts illustrating or providing an illustration or background information on a topic that is discussed in the main text. In the end of the book we also give a short literature list for the interested reader.
I hope that this book can help people who are new in the field of Raman spectroscopy to understand the approach and to avoid some common pitfalls. May this encourage people to further explore and develop the broad range of possibilities that this technique offers!
Peter VandenabeeleGhent University, Belgium
Acknowledgements
It would not have been possible for me to perform and develop my research in Raman spectroscopy without continuous support from many colleagues and friends—too many to name them all so I'll just mention three: Professor Luc Moens gave me the opportunity, freedom and support to explore different aspects of this technique; Professor Bernard Gilbert always encouraged me to continue this research and patiently introduced me to many aspects of Raman spectroscopy; finally, Professor Howell Edwards has continued to inspire me in many discussions on all sorts of Raman spectroscopy applications.
Writing a book is a demanding job, that took much more time than initially expected. All people at John Wiley were, however, still supportive and understanding. Thanks to all, especially Jenny Cossham, Sarah Tilley, Zoë Mills, Jasmine Kao, Krupa Muthu and Martin Noble.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife Isabel and my daughters for their support and understanding, especially on the evenings when I was writing behind my computer.
I hope that you, dear reader, enjoy reading through this book.
Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols
Absolute wavenumber
Average polarisability
%T
Percentage of the transmitted light
μ
Reduced mass of a molecule
c
The speed of light
CCD
Charge coupled device
E
Electrical field
F
Force
h
Planck's constant (h = 6.6260755
40
· 10
−34
J · s)
I
Intensity
k
Boltzmann constant (k = 1.380658
12
· 10
−23
J · K
−1
)
n
Refractive index
N.A.
Numerical aperture
O.D.
Optical density
p
Dipole moment
p
0
Amplitude of the oscillating dipole moment
q
Displacement
Q
k
, Q
l
Normal coordinates, corresponding with the k
th
and l
th
normal vibration
Q
v0
Amplitude of the normal vibration
SD
Standard deviation of the signal
t
Time
U
Potential energy
v
Vibrational quantum number
α
Polarisability
α
aniso
Anisotropic polarisability tensor
α
iso
Isotropic polarisability tensor
β
Hyperpolarisability
γ
2nd hyperpolarisability
γ
Anisotropy factor
δ
Bending vibration
ϵ
0
Permittivity of vacuum (8.854187817 · 10
−12
C
2
· N
−1
· m
−2
)
κ
Force constant of a bond
ν
Stretching vibration
ρ
Degree of depolarisation
ρ
Rotation
σ
Noise
Φ
Electromagnetic flux
ϕ
v
Phase angle
Ω
Solid angle
ν
0
Frequency of incident radiation
ν
m
Frequency of measured radiation
ν
o
Vibrational frequency of the electromagnetic radiation
ν
v
Vibrational frequency of the molecule
ω
Raman wavenumber (in cm
−1
)
ψ
v
Vibrational wave function
Introduction to Raman Spectroscopy
I'm picking up good vibrations
She's giving me the excitations
Good, (bop bop) good vibrations
The Beach Boys, ‘Good Vibrations’, 1966
It was on 28 February 1928 that Sir C.V. Raman and K.S. Krishnan for the first time succeeded in demonstrating the inelastic scattering of light by a fluid. For this work, in 1930, Raman was honoured with the Nobel Prize. At the time, they used filtered sunlight to excite the molecules and photographic plates were used to record the spectrum. It took about 24 hours to record a spectrum of a beaker with ca. 600 ml of pure liquid. Knowing this, it is clear that Raman spectroscopy for a long time was only limited to specialised research laboratories and that the technique was considered as a curiosum. Today, Raman spectroscopy has moved out of the highly specialised laboratories and is available not only in many research institutions, but also as a reliable technique for quality control or even for sorting out plastics in the recycling industry.
Indeed, in today's research, Raman spectroscopy is appreciated for many different reasons. First, the technique is a relatively fast method and well-suited to investigating solids, liquids, solutions and even gases, depending on the experimental set-up used. For the analysis of solids often barely—if any—sample preparation is needed: just position it under the microscope and focus the laser beam. Liquids can be measured through glass vials and, as opposed to infrared spectroscopy, the presence of water does not hamper the measurements. Small portable spectrometers are now available and fibre optics probe heads allow us to record spectra from a distance, which is useful for analysis in harsh conditions or for the investigation of, for instance, explosives. Mobile analysis allows objects to be in situ and in a noninvasive way. Micro-Raman spectroscopy is one of the rare spectroscopic methods that enables us to obtain molecular information at the micrometer-scale. Chemometrics can be used during Raman spectroscopy studies, and molecules are easily interpreted by using automated algorithms for searching spectral libraries.
Current Raman spectroscopy research is very different from the approach adopted in the early days. Instrumentation has seriously evolved, and as a consequence sample sizes and measuring times are seriously reduced. Historically it has been seen that (r)evolutions in Raman spectroscopy research (e.g. new applications, access for a larger group of scientists, etc.) are often caused by the availability of new equipment or instrumental innovations. A first improvement since Raman's days was the introduction of mercury lamps as a source of excitation. However, measuring procedures and alignment remained quite complex and Raman spectroscopy was for a long period only used in restricted research areas, while infrared spectroscopy gained in importance. A big step forward in Raman research was in the 1960s, with the advent of the first lasers. The instrumentation was still quite expensive and aligning the sample and setting up of experiments was not straightforward. Often double or triple monochromators were used. At the end of the 1980s, new progress was caused by new instrumentation, such as the introduction of CCD (charge-coupled device) detectors, holographic filters, new optics (micro-Raman spectroscopy and fibre-optics) and the introduction of FT-Raman spectroscopy (Fourier-Transform Raman spectroscopy). Moreover, price reductions and the miniaturisation of instruments meant that Raman spectroscopy was no longer limited to a few specialised research laboratories, and the technique has become increasingly more common in fundamental research as well as in industry.
Throughout this book, several common applications of Raman spectroscopy are given. Many more can be found in the literature. In the following chapters we want to introduce you to this approach, firstly by introducing the fundamentals of the technique and thereafter by discussing some interferences and possibilities to enhance the Raman signal. In a later chapter we will discuss the main components of current Raman spectroscopy instrumentation, while in the final chapter we try indicate to the reader some of the common pitfalls and approaches when using this technique.
Summary
In this introductory chapter, the reader has been introduced to some historical aspects of Raman spectroscopy. By now, it should be clear that in the past, many advances and new applications were caused by improvements in Raman spectroscopy instrumentation, such as the introduction of lasers or sensitive detectors.
Further Reading
Lewis, I.R. and Edwards, H.H.M. (eds), Handbook of Raman Spectroscopy—From the Research Laboratory to the Process Line, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 2001.
McCreery, R.L., Raman Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis, John Wiley, New York, 2000.
Chapter 1
Theoretical Aspects
The theoretical background of the Raman effect is already extensively described in literature. The Raman effect can be considered as the inelastic scattering of electromagnetic radiation. During this interaction, energy is transferred between the photons and the molecular vibrations. Therefore, the scattered photons have a different energy to the incoming photons.
1.1 Classical Approach
When a molecule is positioned in an electrical field , an electrical dipole moment is induced. The relation between this induced dipole moment and the electrical field can be expressed as a power series:
1.1
In this equation, , and are tensors, which are named polarisability, hyperpolarisability and 2nd hyperpolarisability, respectively. Typically, they are in the range of ca. and . As these tensors each are a factor 10 billion less intense, the influence of these factors can in many cases be neglected.
The induced dipole moment can be thus considered as directly proportional to the electrical field and Equation (1.1) is reduced to:
1.2
When studying the Raman effect, the electrical field is caused by electromagnetic radiation. Indeed, light can be considered as an oscillating electrical field. The electrical field vector E on the moment t is described as:
1.3
with the vibrational frequency of the electromagnetic radiation.
In Equation (1.2) the polarisability is a tensor, which is dependent on the shape and dimensions of the chemical bond. As chemical bonds change during vibrations, the polarisability is dependent on the vibrations of the molecule. It can be said that the polarisability tensor is dependent on the normal coordinate Q of the molecule. This relationship can be expressed as a Taylor series:
1.4
and are the normal coordinates that correspond with the and normal vibration, corresponding with the vibrational frequencies and . In a first approximation, only the first two terms in this equation are maintained. This means that the different (normal) vibrations are considered as totally independent and no cross-terms are included in the equation. Thus, considering the normal vibration, Equation (1.4) is reduced to:
1.5
with the derivative of the polarisability tensor to the normal coordinate , under equilibrium conditions.
In a first approximation, the normal coordinate oscillates according to the harmonic oscillator (Intermezzo 1.1). The normal coordinate varies as a function of time according to:
1.6
with the amplitude of the normal vibration and a phase angle. Substitution of Equation (1.6) for Equation (1.5) gives:
1.7
When considering only the first two terms of the Taylor series (1.4), we assume that the polarisability tensor undergoes a harmonic oscillation, with a frequency , that equals the vibrational frequency of the normal coordinate of the molecule. By substituting Equations (1.7) and (1.3) in the (simplified) definition of the dipole moment (Equation (1.2)), we obtain:
1.8
By using the trigonometrical formula:
1.9
Equation (1.8) can be modified to:
1.10
Therefore, we can consider the induced dipole moment as a function of the vibrational frequencies of the molecule and of the incident radiation :
1.11
The induced dipole moment can be split into 3 components, each with a different frequency-dependence. The first term in Equation (1.11) corresponds to the elastic scattering of the electromagnetic radiation: the induced dipole moment has the same frequency (hence the same energy) as the incoming radiation. This type of scattering is called ‘Rayleigh scattering’, named after Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919), who used Rayleigh scattering to determine the size of a molecule. The 2nd and 3rd term in Equation (1.11) correspond to the inelastic scattering of light: Raman scattering. The 2nd term corresponds to a higher energy of the scattered radiation, compared to the incident beam (Anti-Stokes scattering), while the last term represents a lowering of the frequency (Stokes scattering).
When using Raman spectroscopy, an intense, monochromatic beam of electromagnetic radiation (usually a laser) is focussed on the sample, and the intensity of the scattered radiation is measured as a function of its wavelength. Usually, in a Raman spectrum the intensity is plotted as a function of the Raman wavenumber , expressed in , which is related to the difference in frequency between the scattered light and the incident electromagnetic radiation:
1.12
In this expression, the symbols and stand for the frequency of the scattered (measured) and incident radiation, respectively; c is the speed of light; wavenumbers are usually expressed in , so be careful when calculating them, as you need to use the appropriate units. Positive wavenumbers correspond with Stokes scattering, while negative wavenumbers correspond with anti-stokes scattering (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Raman spectrum of the mineral realgar () in the anti-Stokes region, Rayleigh line and Stokes region. The actual intensity of the Rayleigh line is suppressed by a holographic filter in the spectrometer.
Figure Intermezzo 1.1 Harmonic oscillator.
1.2 Selection Rule
From Equation (1.10) it can be seen that the Raman effect only happens if . Therefore, during the considered normal vibration a change in polarisability should happen:
1.13
