4,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: Greenbooks editore
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
"Preventing Burnout and Mobbing: Strategies for a Healthy Workplace" is a book that explores the connections between burnout and workplace bullying, commonly known as mobbing. The book delves into the causes, symptoms, and consequences of these two phenomena, and provides practical advice and solutions for dealing with them. It covers a range of topics, including the impact of burnout and mobbing on mental and physical health, the role of organizational culture in preventing and addressing these issues, and the legal and ethical considerations involved. The book draws on research and case studies from a variety of fields, including psychology, sociology, and organizational behavior, to offer a comprehensive and informative guide for anyone experiencing burnout or mobbing, or for those who work in a management or HR role and want to prevent and address these issues in the workplace.
Das E-Book können Sie in Legimi-Apps oder einer beliebigen App lesen, die das folgende Format unterstützen:
Ähnliche
Alejandra Ibañez
Preventing Burnout and Mobbing
Strategies for a Healthy Workplace
Index
Introduction. The issue of stress
Chapter One. Burnout
Chapter two. Mobbing
The Autor
Bibliography
Introduction. The issue of stress
The concept of work and its place in a person's life and daily habits have been influenced by social thought on work, which has undergone radical transformation from the past to today.
For centuries, work was considered an ignoble activity to be assigned mainly to slaves and prisoners, while only coordination and supervision activities were exercised by representatives of higher social classes. In some cultures, such as the Spanish one, the etymology of the word "trabajo" originated from the Latin term "tripalium", which designated a torture instrument for unproductive slaves.
In the 1700s, work began to become an increasingly widespread activity among representatives of all social classes, and a gradual change in social imagination began, representing work as a dignified activity aimed at achieving a goal, which can be the realization of a good or the creation of a service.
The subsequent transformations observed in recent centuries have seen work become not only a necessary activity for living, as it allows for economic independence, but also a means of social affirmation, assigning a status and having the value of a ritual that marks the true passage to adulthood.
Following these changes, the weight of work identity on personal identity has increased in recent years and this has led to dedicating more and more space to work, which, pushed to excess, has generated negative repercussions on psychosocial life and physical health. The social malaise that arises from excessive time devoted to work has been described in recent years in terms of "burnout", "work-related stress syndrome", but above all, "work addiction".
Work-Dependence: Reasons for Sacrificing Happiness
Today's historic changes in thinking about work have made work, especially in the Western world, an important tool for social integration and appreciation and for achieving economic independence. This has led to more and more talk of "dependency on work" recently, which was once a male privilege, but today, perhaps because work has always played an important role in the social struggle for recognition of women's rights, this dependence has also begun to expand to this gender.
"Workaholic," also defined in the United States as this addiction, referring to the English term "alcohol addiction," is a modern phenomenon, but can be described by mythical images, as people often do with other tendencies in spiritual life. "Workaholic" is defined as "workaholic" in the United States, referring to the English term "alcohol addiction". To borrow an ancient Greek legend, in this case we can define work dependence as "Sisyphus' disease," a term derived from the story of King Sisyphus of Corinth, who paid great greed for wealth and was condemned by Jupiter for a mistake in bringing a huge Stone back forever to the top of the mountain, from which the boulder fell from time to time. "Sisyphus Disease" is the story of King Sisyphus of Corinth, who paid great greed for wealth. Sisyphus' story is the story of King Sisyphus of Corinth.
Like other so-called "new addictions", such as work addiction, it represents an elevation to a wide range of daily activities. Rather, it is a "drug-free" addiction associated with legitimate, common activities that are now highly valued at the social level.
A very unique feature of work dependence is that it arises from secondary rewards, that is, indirect happiness arising from long-term and repetitive work actions. This factor makes it possible to understand why one can rely on an activity that rarely produces any major or direct rewards. In fact, work does not represent an object of immediate satisfaction, but an activity that requires efforts to obtain financial satisfaction or any other satisfaction. This allows consideration of two aspects. First of all, not all employees are masochists, because this kind of self-punishment tendency seems to be quite rare. The second implication of the main characteristic of work dependence is that this form of dependence is possible in those who have developed what is called a "secondary process", the ability to give up present happiness for future rewards, which on the one hand leads to a certain "psychological maturity" in the management needs and goals of work dependents, which is often lacking or lacking in other types of dependence.
However, a direct and immediate pleasure often exists, which is a factor in consolidating the attitude of devotion to work; It usually manifests itself as "enthusiasm" for the activity itself, a department or a discipline, just as some professionals devote all their free time to activities related to their major, such as reading and updating.
But above all, it is an indirect pleasure that can transform an unsatisfactory activity into a stable habit that can have an impact on the lives of those who maintain it and those around them.
In this regard, a study of the psychodynamic profiles of working employees reveals the main motivations that may be intertwined and combined, leading to a tendency to "work nonstop". As with other types of behavior, even a tendency to overwork can find four main job motivations, which are pushed to the extreme and can outline different jobs-employees:
Competitive and power-oriented workers: have the tendency of supremacy and self-affirmation. In this case, the stressors due to overwork will further increase the tendency of confrontational behavior, which will also lead to immoral behavior or domination of others.
Highly ambitious, success-oriented worker: His behavior is aimed at achieving higher and higher job goals, such as promotion or professional recognition. The tendency to succeed at work is characterized by a tendency to pursue excellence, responsibility and perseverance, which often stems from more or less conscious attempts to adapt to the recognition of patterns of extreme dedication to work (such as parents) and the implicit demand for perfection they convey to their children.
Single worker and affiliation orientation: In contrast to the first two categories is this category of employee-worker, for whom work provides a unique opportunity to experience social interactions that become more sporadic as a result of daily commitments. In this case, the cost of working hours, or even overtime, is a way to avoid loneliness or having no family.
Avoidant workers: The latter type of work motivation represents a special case of those who rush into their work and avoid a central problem in their lives, which may be emotional, family or social.
The central importance of work in building identity has also led to a discussion of insecure work, in which work-perhaps also due to the experience of parents, who often show appreciation and love after great success-is a way to seek social recognition to raise low self-esteem, or is always used to relying solely on the recognition and recognition of advantages such as work. This is the case, for example, for those whose parents tend to praise only the profits of study or work.
Finally, research into the psychological causes that may cause or nourish work dependence has also led to the identification of the types of guilty workers who escape the need for self-punishment by allowing themselves to be overburdened with "large doses" of work.
This classification of "job dependency types" must take into account the fact that behaviors--even problematic behaviors, such as job dependency--tend to be multi-motivated and tend to meet more inherent needs. Therefore, many interactions between motives and needs are often the knot to be untied in order to get rid of the shackles that may make a person's life depend on. However, the idea that dependency on work is a chain or constraint must not make people think that this attitude towards work is always painful, because the pain of overwork often falls on neighboring third parties or on the physical health of people who are overworked. In addition, a job dependant rarely admits that he has problems to solve.
The consequences of overwork
In the case of "work addiction", as in other cases that depend on varying degrees of daily activity, qualitative and quantitative indicators are available to identify problems, distinguish them from transitional periods, and identify acute or chronic conditions.
Acute indicators of employment dependence
Work compulsion, manifested as persistent and repeated work abuse, usually works more than 8 hours a day, usually during weekends or holidays.
There is no tendency to be absent from work, and there is no need to be absent from work, and there is little absence from work due to illness.
Abstinence crisis, when you feel empty, distressed or irritable when you leave work, such as on holidays.
A demonstration or life afraid of losing one's job.
Recurrent concerns related to work problems.
Constantly think and fantasize about new ways to solve problems or succeed at work.
Unable to rest, have few pastimes and hobbies, and tend to occupy weekends and free time with updates or reading and small work. This attitude is often accompanied by contempt for others to have fun and engage in regular leisure activities.
Nightmares related to mistakes or failures at work.
In addition, when the dependence on work becomes long-term, it is also possible to observe problems that develop to a later stage.
Long-term dependence on work-related problems
:: Increased work compulsion, "nighttime or continuous work crisis";
:: Long-term relationships with colleagues, superiors or employees;
Multiple dependence, which may be characterized by the use of stimulant drugs, excessive coffee consumption to reduce sleep time in order to spend more sleep time at work, or the use of alcohol or other substances, even if illegal (common in successful dependence);
:: Work stress syndrome, which can escalate into more serious psychological and physical disorders (depression, anxiety, alcoholism, heart disease);
Job burnout or emotional exhaustion syndrome (especially dependence on social occupation);
:: Family issues, related to lack of communication, authoritarian attitudes and failure to heed the constant demands for greater participation. After years of job dependency, these problems may also be one of the reasons for separations and divorces;
Social isolation.
There is a time in life when more work space is needed, which should not be regarded as a kind of work dependence, just as happiness at work or desire for success is not a symptom of this problem in itself. Let's talk about work relying on the exclusiveness of work, except in real life, especially in one's spiritual life.
Psychologically, "workaholics" are characterized by a lack of willingness to find time to rest, a lack of painful signs of sacrificing work, and the resulting concept of "living for work", which, for one or more reasons, replaces the concept of "working for life", that is, "engaging in other activities besides work". What is missing in the dependence on work is also the simple desire to do something that can't be done temporarily due to work commitment.
Syndrome progression
At this point, the behaviors described as acute and chronic symptoms of "work addiction" can depict the typical progress of this phenomenon.
At first, dependence on work was a habit, that is, working too long hours. In the second symptom stage, there are usually signs of burnout or so-called "work stress syndrome". This clinical manifestation may involve various mental or physical symptoms, such as anxiety, memory loss, fatigue, digestive disorders, headache, heart disease, eating disorders and so on. However, employees may still not hear the initial signs of discomfort, attributing it to physical problems or presumed genetic predisposition. Your clinical condition may deteriorate to heart attack and serious chronic health problems.
In this regard, a medical phenomenon known as "Karoshi" has been observed in Japan, which is related to work stress; Under excessive or harmful working conditions, many people are prone to severe cerebrovascular or heart disease; Some of them also died unexpectedly from ischemia or infarction.
Japanese medicine has recognized that overwork is the main cause of stress that causes or aggravates these diseases. Lack of sleep time needed for mental and physical health seems to be a factor closely related to overwork, which triggers profound changes in brain chemistry and neural regulation of all important functions. This factor should arouse people's thinking about drugs or other substances designed to reduce the need for healthy sleep to complete your work.
The "right position" at work
Today, dependency on work is still an underrated phenomenon and is rarely acknowledged in the context of psychological discomfort, so it is only diagnosed when it is associated with other mental or physical problems, a condition that currently often allows for a late diagnosis, perhaps after a heart attack or other serious illness, for which absolute work breaks are prescribed.
But even at home or on holiday, working staff are drawn to their activities and have a hard time admitting they have a problem that needs to be addressed seriously to reduce their relationship with work.
Since family members are often the first to report discomfort, early detection can also begin in the treatment of family or conjugal problems in which work dependence can play a decisive negative role.
Solving such problems means reducing the time and space in your working life and rediscovering other activities, which tend to pay less, but sometimes pay equally well, through which you can start to gain new satisfaction and design new goals with as much creativity.
Motivation and expectation
Job choices are always based on psychological motivation and reasonable expectations.
The latter is related to the social image of a profession, realistic information about the profession, attractiveness in the labor market, salary level and career opportunities.
The first reason is that those who choose this profession have a strong need for help. Need help means first and foremost putting yourself outside the threshold of needing help. Taking care of the sick means assuming that your health is impeccable.
Engaging in psychotherapy requires permanent mental health certification. Helping a person in need will blur their understanding of the need. To some extent, mutation means saving yourself from external evil.
The second reason is related to the first reason. Positioning oneself as a trailblazer, benefactor and savior can not only drive away the fear of external evil, but also ensure a good self-image, that is, dedicate one's life to others; A man who works to help can only be a good man: a man who struggles with evil, and more importantly with the evil of others, is a "white knight".
The third reason is about power. Those who need help are always in a state of inferiority, possessed and weakened by evil, just like a bad child or a sick child. Professional helpers position themselves as a great, welcoming mother and a great, omnipotent father. It can be a container for all the evil of the patient, control it with its power, and drive it away.
From these three reflections arose the imagination of an aspiring professional, built on three pillars: health, kindness and power.
Of course, these reasons are as plausible as many others, and if they are aware and controlled, they may be useful to the profession.
The fact is, they are often not at all. Lack of understanding and control of these deep needs can easily become a series of lives that are very harmful to both operators and users. Encountering need, discomfort, pain and death attacks the image of the mighty savior, creating feelings of depression and helplessness. This unhelpful situation makes it easy for people to doubt their own goodness until they become evil experiences. Finally, the discovery of impotence makes the evil force carried by patients become a kind of evil and persecution. This entanglement of possible experiences, which caught the operator from a huge idealized career, led to frustration and then burnout.
In 1936, Selye defined stress as the nonspecific biological response of organisms to the presence of stressors (stressors), which aim to restore the previous state (dynamic balance). The body's adaptive response to stress has gone through three stages:
1. Alerts: Involving changes in biochemical and hormonal properties;
2. Adaptation: In order to adapt to the new situation, the body organizes itself in a defensive way;
3. Exhaustion: Defensive collapse, unable to adapt further.
Two types of stress are distinguished: one is benign and adaptive, and the other is harmful and maladaptive, which does not lead to dynamic balance. If the subject can adopt appropriate strategies, it can even improve the performance (eustress); If you don't do this, you will worsen (distress), develop psychological symptoms (tension, tension, depression, irritability) and physical diseases (digestive disorders, dyspnea, abnormal heart rhythm, headache, nausea, weakness, etc.).
In 1984, Lazarus and Folkman redefined stress as a transition between man and the environment, in which individuals believe that their resources are excessive, thus endangering their own well-being. The entity is considered an active player.
In fact, he can influence the influence of stress factors through cognitive, emotional and behavioral strategies designed to control his emotional response. Besides psychological and physiological pressure, there are also social and psychological pressures. Particularly noteworthy are those critical events in life that force a person to face major changes in life and to work hard to adapt.
Stress and health work
One of the most studied areas of psychosocial stress recently is work stress. Human work is never purely the production of "things", but inevitably involves hot issues such as the production of identity, relationship and meaning.
This is particularly obvious in treatment and nursing work. In fact, it is mainly manifested as a series of products/services, jobs/processes, intertwined with the most problematic areas of human subjectivity, intertwined with extreme and uncertain painful experiences, and intertwined with the fear of disease and death.
High levels of mental and physical pain arouse major emotional needs and regressive demands in patients, and evoke symmetrical and profound feelings in healers: the desire for omnipotent redemption, hostility, impatience, persecuting anxiety and aggression. Despite the amazing advances in technology, "care work" can't ignore the relationship between people, that is, the relationship between those who seek help and those who provide help, and avoid the resulting emotionally confusing imbalance. In order to live and work fully and to take care of others as much as possible, it is clear that nurses, doctors and other caregivers must take care of themselves first.
Therefore, it is necessary for the operator to be specially trained to recognize and manage all the contradictory emotional instances that inevitably arise in painful contact with others, sometimes frustrating, so that he/she can deal with these emotions instead of being overwhelmed by them.
From Stress to Burnout
When can you talk about stress and when should you talk about burnout? What are the specific characteristics of the latter? It is necessary to distinguish between burnout and stress: burnout may occur at the same time as stress, and stress may be the cause of this situation, but burnout may not occur when there is stress. Psychologically, burnout is a response to what is considered intolerable, because the operator perceives an unbridgeable gap between the large number of requests made to him by users and the available resources (individuals and organizations) that respond positively to those requests.
This creates a sense of acquired helplessness, because they feel that there is nothing they can do to change this situation and eliminate the inconsistency between what they think users expect and what they can provide. This leads to energy depletion, which may have many manifestations. According to Faber (1983), the striking feature of "burnout" is that it is not so much the result of stress itself (which may be inevitable in medically assisted occupations), but rather that stress has no intermediary, no outlet, no constraint and no support. In practice, this is a kind of long-term work pressure, which is characterized by people thinking that they are in a situation with no prospects and no way out. When we talk about exhaustion, we are talking about a syndrome, a series of symptoms and signs. The concepts of stress and burnout, although different in time and quality, may represent a hypothetical path encountered by many social care professionals in their daily work experience: the existence of difficult situations leads to the adaptive response of the personnel concerned, and eventually leads to its crystallization into a specific syndrome.
In other words, in order not to suffer from this increasing pressure, doctors or nurses have pulled out their brains, adopted detached and very rigid attitudes towards patients, increased the degree of physiological cynicism inherent in the profession, and desperately searched for moments to gather and confront outside the institutional restrictions; This is the "kitchenette" in the ward. Among doctors, in particular, they are characterized by a refusal to turn to specialists for help to improve their condition, a near reluctance to acknowledge the situation, and a denial that psychosomatic and psychological symptoms (from creeping depression to skin disease somatization) may be linked to work dissatisfaction. Women and nurses are more willing to seek help and communicate.
The risk is that stress will become so pervasive that it pollutes the entire hospital structure, and at this point it will do whatever it takes not to acknowledge the problem and react in a defensive way, marginalizing those who feel more obviously uncomfortable than others. In charred cases, it's easy to get in, but hard to get out. Unless the work structure adopts coping and problem solving strategies, these strategies contribute to stress: poorly organized overwork, lack of satisfaction, humanization of hospital life.
A Brief Discussion on Stress Pathophysiology
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is produced by corticotropic hormone, which accounts for about 15% of anterior pituitary cells. Corticotropic hormone promotes and controls the secretion of adrenocortical hormone, mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) and glucocorticoid (mainly cortisol, also known as hydrocortisone).
Stress ACTH secretion and normal circadian secretion rhythm (physiological plasma ACTH level follows circadian rhythm, reaching its peak shortly before awakening and reaching its lowest point shortly before rest) are regulated by CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone).
The most important factors controlling ACTH secretion are CRH, plasma free cortisol concentration, stress and sleep-wake rhythm.
CRH is the main regulator of ACTH secretion. It is mainly produced by neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus, but it also exists in other areas of the brain (Libyan system and cerebral cortex), pancreas, intestine and adrenal gland.
CRH is delivered to the hypothalamus, where it begins to secrete ACTH. All physiological and mental stress conditions stimulate the secretion of ACTH, which is mediated by the release of CRH. The secretion of CRH is affected by hypothalamic neurotransmitters (such as 5-hydroxytryptamine and cholinergic system).
Corticotropin acts quickly: within minutes of secretion, the concentration of steroids in the blood increases.
We are mainly interested in the effects of cortisol or hydrocortisone, the main glucocorticoid, on the body.
The physiological activity of glucocorticoids affects the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.
Their main impacts are as follows:
1. Stimulate glycogen production in liver, resulting in a sharp increase in glycogen in liver cells;
2. Reduce the utilization of glucose by cells. The result of the two effects of point A and point b is an increase in blood sugar
3. They reduce protein synthesis and increase the catabolism of proteins already formed in cells. Therefore, if the cortisol level is too high, the immune function may be seriously damaged and the muscle system may be weakened;
4. Mobilize fatty acids in adipose tissue to increase its oxidation. In the case of stress, this changes the metabolism of cells, no longer using glucose as energy, but increasing the formation of fatty acids;
5. Cortisol obesity: Many subjects with excessive cortisol secretion show a special type of obesity (buffalo hunchback, moon phase), which is caused by excessive impulse eating, so in some areas of the body, fat is formed at a faster rate than metabolism;
6. Effects on the immune system. In chronic stress, cortisol leads to the decrease of lymphocytes and eosinophils in blood, and the immune defense ability decreases. Long-term action will lead to severe atrophy of the whole lymphoid tissue, which in turn will lead to a decrease in the formation of T lymphocytes and antibodies;
7. Many scholars believe that there is an important relationship between destructive stress (composed of significant aggressiveness that is not expressed or released) and cancer;
8. Pauli and Renneker have observed a significant relationship between stress and breast cancer in their long-term studies.
Stress and strain
In his work activities, the operator is faced with a complex system in which three components interact: people, work and environment. Any condition that disrupts the balance of man-work-environment system may be a stressor, and the resulting change is called strani.
From a schematic point of view, the stress-strain relationship can be expressed by the coupling of weight and spring, where weight represents the loading stress (stress) and elongation represents the deformation (strain) suffered by the spring: if the weight exceeds the elastic capacity or failure load of the spring, the deformation will become irreversible. Excessive environmental stimulation will not only lead to stress, but also lead to lack of stress.
There are several chemical variants of stress syndrome, which have the following common characteristics:
Pathophysiological responses are specific, so different stimuli may lead to very similar or overlapping chemical manifestations.
The process of disease is uniform, which is characterized by: the first stage, that is, the response to the stressed person; In the second stage, resistance, in the first stage, the alerted defense is in an unstable equilibrium; The second stage, that is, resistance; Finally, there is the third stage, in which the stressor continuously exhausts the defense, followed by the development of a state of functional failure. The mediators of stress-strain response are endocrine system, vegetative nervous system and immune system.
A basic feature of stress expression is that the response to environmental factors has dual physical and behavioral values, so psychological reaction, somatization phenomenon and comprehensive psychological reaction can be alternately produced.
Individual responses are mainly determined by the psychological type of the subject, but three types of responses can be identified in any case, and are often observed among health care professionals;
:: Behavioural disorders;
Psychophysiological disorders;
· Burnout syndrome.
Behavioral disorders cause a wide range of diseases, such as:
-Alcohol abuse;
D Smoking;
-Eating behavior disorder (ipo or excessive eating);
-General inhibition or excessive excitement;
D Emotional-Emotional reactions, such as sadness, irritability, anger, depression, inattention, decreased grades, easy forgetting, decreased self-esteem, and increased sense of helplessness.
Among the psychophysiological disorders, we list the most important and common disorders:
Sleep disorders;
:: Cardiovascular symptoms: Heart rate and increased heart rate in order to supply blood to the necessary areas to cope with stress conditions, resulting in subjective symptoms of palpitations (caused by various hormones, especially adrenaline);
:: Dyspnea: Increased respiratory rate, providing the necessary oxygen to the heart, brain and active muscles-hypertension: its origin depends on the type of work, changes in the systems involved in regulation (e.g. central and peripheral nervous systems, hormones [epinephrine, glucagon, cortisol], cardiovascular system, etc.);
Elevated blood sugar: psychological and physical stress undoubtedly affects parameters;
Multiple mechanisms of blood glucose: Increased production of a range of insulin-antagonistic hormones, such as epinephrine, glucagon, and cortisol. This may be the cause of hyperglycemia; When the liver releases its glucose reserves into the blood, it significantly increases the glucose concentration in the blood;
Hyperhidrosis: Increased sweating to eliminate toxic substances produced by the body and lower body temperature;
:: A sharp decrease in digestive secretions because the activity of the digestive system is not necessary to fight stress;
:: Systemic muscle tension associated with psychomotor restlessness and inability to relax. This is due to the transfer of blood from the skin and internal organs (except the heart and lungs) to increase the amount of oxygen and glucose in muscles and brains;
Lymphatic system atrophy leads to decreased immune defense ability (the important relationship between stress and cancer has been mentioned);
The strategies that individuals adopt in the face of difficulties, by changing their own environment, are called coping, which can be translated as "cavarsela" in Italian. This highlights efforts not to succumb to environmental pressures. Coping style is basically determined by personal characteristics and personal experiences.
In order to protect themselves from excessive stress, individuals may develop a cynical and dehumanizing reaction, which we can call depersonalization. Those people, those who shared the pain and suffering with him, became "objects", and it was good to keep a distance from them.
When expectations fail, so do personal beliefs about their abilities and abilities: "I can't help others", "I'm worthless!"
Maslach believes that the workers most likely to be burned are those who have difficulty defining the boundaries between themselves and others and the functional boundaries between professional and private lives; Generally speaking, in some ways, we can generally say that these people are vulnerable, they are willing to work in a non-discriminatory way, have strong enthusiasm and excessive need to help others.
Chapter One. Burnout
Through empirical research, the vague concept of theoretical definition was overcome and the understanding of this phenomenon was improved: in 1997, burnout was measured for the first time among 83 day care center staff (Berkeley Planning Association prevented burnout); Proceeding from the concept of alienation, "exhaustion" is referred to as "the original intention or purpose of the operator to leave or withdraw from his/her work, indicating the boundary of alienation from the patient, colleagues and the institution in which he/she works". "Exhausted" is called "exhausted" and "exhausted" is called "exhausted". In 1976, Maslach described "burnout" as "a loss of interest in the people you work with", that is, when work is too demanding, people tend to be MoMo and treat patients mechanically. Later, the author expanded this definition, pointing out that the operator, after months or years of generous commitment, will be burnt and show nervousness, uneasiness, MoMo and indifference, and then cynicism. Burnout begins as an emotional response to chronic stress, which is characterized by three components:
-Emotional exhaustion: "the feeling of continuous tension and dryness in relationships with others"; It is perceived by both the burnt subject and the external observer, and it is a response to a situation that leads to excessive emotional engagement, which makes a person feel tired, exhausted, exhausted of all physical and mental energy, unable to cope with professional difficulties, so that the only possible response is to avoid difficult situations, mainly at the relationship level.
-Depersonalization: Operators refuse and are hostile to users, and users are no longer regarded as people in need of help, but as objects with unsustainable needs. Operators become cynical and detached, unable to build a profitable helping relationship. This can be considered an attempt by the operator to deal with the feeling that their psychological resources have been exhausted.
-Personal accomplishment: "Feeling and realizing the decline of one's ability and desire for success", so that there is no enthusiasm, anger, frustration, failure and the desire to change jobs will arise. In fact, if an emotionally exhausted person uses an impersonal relationship to complete his work, he will feel a feeling of uneasiness and psychological uneasiness in the face of his negative attitude and behavior towards users and his work. Realizing that one's self-esteem as a professional is declining strengthens and amplifies the burnout process.
Cherniss defines "burnout" as "withdrawing from work psychologically to cope with excessive stress or dissatisfaction, and losing enthusiasm, interest and sense of responsibility". Changes in attitudes and behaviors associated with burnout provide a psychological escape and guarantee that additional stress will not be added to the tension already experienced.
He proposed a three-stage burnout model:
1. Stress is caused by the imbalance between available resources and the proposed work requirements;
2. An immediate and transient response to this imbalance characterized by tension, anxiety and exhaustion;
3. Defensive operation, involving emotional detachment from users, cynicism, and only caring for personal satisfaction.
Edelwich and Brodsky argue that this burnout is the result of a gradual loss of idealism, ambition and professional interest, caused by thankless working conditions and repeated emotional stress, which is caused by intense devotion to pain.
Perlman and Hartman put forward a complex burnout model considering three dimensions and four stages in 1982. These three dimensions are physiological dimensions, which are related to physical symptoms; Affective-cognitive dimension, which is related to feeling and attitude; Behavioral dimension is related to symptomatic behavior.
These four stages are:
1. The extent to which a situation may lead to stress (skills are insufficient to meet job requirements, or work done by an individual does not meet his or her needs, expectations and values);
2. The perception of stress, which is a purely subjective fact;
3. There are three kinds of stress reactions: physiology, cognition-emotion and behavior;
4. Consequences of job stress, burnout, absenteeism, turnover intention, psychophysiological changes, performance and job satisfaction decline.
In 1994, the World Health Organization included in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) a section on "Factors affecting health status and exposure to health services", which includes problems other than diseases, injuries or external causes in other classifications.
The cause of burnout
There are two major causes of charring.
Individual variables; Organizational variables.Individual variables: age, young people have the highest burnout rate, while the old people have a lower burnout rate; Compared with men, women are more inclined to experience stronger emotional breakdown, and men are more inclined to feel depersonalized and insensitive to the people they work with; Marital status, unmarried people experience more burnout, while married people experience less burnout; Personnel with greater professional qualifications and responsibilities have professional achievement level than auxiliary personnel; Seniority/work experience, the burnout rate will rise at the beginning of career, but with the passage of time and the increase of personal resources, the burnout rate will decline; Personality factors: people with burnout tendency are weak, unconfident, obedient, anxious, afraid of participation when dealing with people, difficult to define boundaries in helping relationships, often unable to control the situation, impatient and intolerant, easy to feel angry and depressed, and are likely to project this feeling on customers, treat them in an impersonal and degrading way, lack self-confidence, lack of ambition, secrecy and tradition, and feel dissatisfied with realization and effectiveness when dealing with people; (2) People with burnout tendency are dissatisfied with realization and effectiveness when dealing with others; Control sites, burn-out and internal control sites have a high correlation level; Coping style: The subjects with high burnout level used regressive coping style, that is, avoidance strategies that did not lead to problem solving or denied the stress effect of an event.
Organizational variables: Organizational and structural dysfunction of the working environment plays a vital role in the emergence and maintenance of job burnout. In 1992, the British Medical Association identified four major factors that lead to work stress: work-related factors, long-term non-social work, shift work, new technology, the risk of accidents or infections, overwork, repetition, and too difficult tasks; Factors related to organizational structure, lack of autonomy or excessive control, low participation in decision-making, poor communication at all levels, few opportunities to build relationships with colleagues, too fast substantive change and lack of feedback; Factors related to career prospects, low wages and low career prospects, duplication of work, outdated new technologies, job security, forced early retirement; Role-related factors, role conflict and role ambiguity of institutional and interpersonal types.
Symptoms of burnout
Miller divides the many symptoms of burnout into three categories:
1. Body: Emotional exhaustion, pay attention to minor diseases, headache and back pain, insomnia, gastrointestinal diseases and discomfort;
2. Behavior: Irritability, irritability, excessive drinking and taking drugs, marriage and relationship problems, rigid problem solving, impulsiveness and slow action, indignation at oneself and isolation from colleagues;
3. Cognitive emotion: emotional numbness/hypersensitivity, excessive identification with patients, belonging and sadness, pessimism and despair, boredom and cynicism, indecision and inattention, depression.
We must remember that these are nonspecific manifestations that do not allow a clear definition of burnout: the abundance of these symptoms in the literature may be due to the general inaccuracy and conceptual ambiguity in the field of burnout.
Burnout in oncology
Recent research has focused on some aspects of burnout in oncology: Lederberg highlights four major trends:
1. Among cancer workers, the incidence of burnout, anxiety or depression seems to be very high;
2. The quality of social support system of medical staff seems to be the strongest predictor of job satisfaction;
3. Operators' readiness for relationships and communication seems to be related to stress at work.
This relationship is confirmed by the fact that patients seem to be more tolerant of the stress of negative outcomes, provided that the relationship with the operator is humane and available in terms of explanation and support. Deficiency due to lack of communication and relationship skills seems to lead to a series of obstacles, such as tension, anxiety, low self-esteem and reduced job satisfaction;
4. It seems important that a vicious circle of underreinforcement has arisen as a result of deficiencies or distortions in staff's self-assessment of performance.
Specific features of burnout in oncology.
In oncology, scorch has characteristics associated with a range of specific factors, partly with the disease itself, partly with the oncologist's intervention, and partly with the patient's response.
Factors related to disease specificity:
-Highly incurable diseases;
-a high degree of inevitability;
-High unpredictability of onset, course of disease and treatment response;
-Extreme diffusion;
-It often evolves into obvious physical degradation and personality changes.
Today, the old concept of an incurable disease is being challenged by advances in research and treatment. In fact, many people generally realize that cancer is a long-term, potential and curable disease. Nonetheless, the Cancer Equals Death Association, which is based on the emotional impact of ill-prognostic disease courses, continues to occupy an important position among operators and has evolved rapidly since exitus, despite commitments and interventions.
Related factors of intervention by oncologists.
Nature of treatment
-Characteristics of surgical, radiological and chemotherapy treatments;
-Frequency and intensity of iatrogenic complications;
-Features of modern treatments and new diagnostic procedures.
The particularity of the relationship between role and patient
-Continuous dedication at all stages of the disease;
-prone to anger and guilt;
-Lack of preparation for comprehensive care;
-Repetition of personal experience;
-Making complex and difficult decisions more frequently.
Aspects related to multidisciplinary teamwork
-Difficulties related to respect for professional characteristics;
-Difficulties related to task integration.
Factors related to patient reaction
-the patient's response to the severity of the disease;
-Persistent dependence of patients on operators;
-Particularly difficult responses;
-Responses to death and death;
-Reaction to suicidal ideation;
-Treatment outcomes of maladjustment;
-An unjust response to human suffering.
The deep motivation behind career and health identity.
The root cause of this syndrome is related to the problems on which health care professionals choose their majors. This profession is inserted and integrated into the rather complex context of other deep motives, in which there seems to be an important need to control terrible events, or events arising from deep unconscious guilt, needs arising from the anxiety of death, or needs arising from the existence of obsessive-compulsive characteristics.
Equally important is some satisfaction gained from the positive experience of cancer care activities. It refers to the existence of many moments of emotional intensity, the pleasure of intellectual challenges in interacting with people in need, the satisfaction of being part of valuable social work, the satisfaction of playing an active role in profound human experience, and being wrapped in special feelings. These positives seem to be due to the need for a valuable role or status for cancer workers, a sense of belonging, and a fascination with all emotional dynamics.
Teachers' Stress and Burnout
As we have seen, it was initially identified in research carried out in the social and health fields (e.g. doctors and nurses), but it was soon expanded to include other occupational categories covered by the general definition of "auxiliary occupation", especially the occupational category of teachers.
The starting point of this passage is that long-term contact with students and patients can be particularly stressful, exposing teachers to unpleasant emotions such as tension, anxiety, frustration and depression, and believing that long-term exposure to this stress will lead to real burnout syndrome. In the past few decades, the professional situation of teachers seems to have deteriorated in particular. Although this school used to enjoy a high reputation, due to the lack of recognition and respect for its advantages by the school and ordinary people, the image of teachers is often belittled.
The focus on teacher stress and burnout began around the 1980s (as reported in the 1987 International Kiriaku Review), when a series of studies began in countries such as Britain, the United States, Israel and Australia.
In his comments, Kyriacou proposed a model of teacher stress, arguing that the demands made on him were too high, difficult or unable to meet them, and failed, thus threatening his mental and physical health.
According to this model, the core factors of stress, if sustained or excessive, may affect teacher burnout, mainly the teacher's view of the environment in which he works and the degree of control he has over this situation.
British sociologist Lacey emphasized that teachers are required to establish their own "professional identity", and this process can be summarized as a series of stages:
-Enthusiasm/euphoria, a honeymoon, but due to a series of difficulties in the relationship with students, these difficulties will be short-lived, and try to alleviate these difficulties by adopting teaching strategies;
-Accumulation of failures;
-Crisis related to self-efficiency;
-Find new strategies to solve this problem with the help of colleagues or by reorganizing your cognitive field.
Another reason the teaching profession is at risk of stress and burnout is because of the variety of roles they play, which may contribute to a feeling of inappropriateness. This is particularly true in some cases, such as recently in Italy, where changes in the social and school environment have led to new responsibilities without any consistent changes in the training of school staff. Therefore, teachers' pressure is a complex and multi-channel problem.
A brief analysis of the international literature on the subject shows that the authors are primarily concerned with the prevalence of stress and possible burnout, possible individual and school/organizational sources, and possible factors that mediate stress responses.
With regard to prevalence, research shows that a considerable proportion of teachers think their jobs are stressful. These studies mainly use self-assessment questionnaires of stress, job satisfaction or burnout.
Borg et al. (1991) conducted a study on 710 Maltese teachers, which showed that 1/3 of them thought their jobs were "stressful" or "stressful". Cockburnout(1996) found in a sample of 335 British primary school teachers that 46% rated their profession as "moderately stressful" and 43% as "extremely stressful", although it was impossible for these teachers to talk about real burnout situations because as many as 60% thought their work was enjoyable and their ability to deal with such stress was above average.
Morissette and Lessard (2002) report that burnout due to stress among Quebec teachers accounts for 40 percent of absenteeism among primary and secondary school staff, according to the Quebec Federation of Boards of Education.
In Italy, a study conducted by Acanfora and Concilio (2002) of 345 elementary, middle and high school teachers in the province of Naples found that job satisfaction was generally satisfactory, with 12 percent "completely satisfied" and 77 percent "fairly satisfied". Despite this good career orientation, many teachers have experienced the negative effects of stress firsthand and realize that stress can have a negative impact on family and private life. 86% of people complained of at least some disorder related to job dissatisfaction, among which anxiety and emotional stress, chronic fatigue, irritability, discouragement and MoMo were one of the most important symptoms of burnout.
Kyriacou (1987) reports that biographical characteristics such as gender, age, length of work experience and status in school are widely considered, but none of them have a clear and consistent association with stress and burnout.
In the studies we consider, female teachers are generally more stressed than male teachers, which is consistent with the hypothesis that women's stress is more inward, although there are some exceptions, such as the Borg and Riding (1991) study, which shows that males among Maltese teachers are most stressed, probably because of their lower prestige and social recognition.
With regard to age, some studies (Kyriacou Non Speciale, Griffith and Co., Abate and Garda) have found that young teachers are more stressed, mainly due to lack of experience and job security, difficulty in adapting to school organizational structure or emotional immaturity. Other authors argue that older or more experienced teachers are most vulnerable to job dissatisfaction, possibly because initial enthusiasm and motivation diminish over time because the accumulated negative pressures are not detailed enough (Borg, 1991).
In terms of school order, secondary school teachers are generally the most vulnerable to stress and burnout because they are most vulnerable to difficult situations and adolescent problems. However, Griffith (1996) reports that the pressure on primary school teachers is greater, but this seems to be more related to the changes in the British education system, which put such teachers under special pressure.
With regard to the main sources of stress, the research analyzed shows that there is consistency among the main sources of stress:
1. Children's behavior is difficult due to long-term contact and emotional participation;
2. Workload/time and resource constraints.
An important factor is that compared with career opportunities, economic and career satisfaction is low.
That is, the objective source of demand or stress from the work environment, thus highlighting the importance of factors related to work organization in determining stress and burnout, as we will see in more detail when discussing interventions.
Some studies have also sought to identify factors, such as coping strategies and social support, that may influence perceptions of this stress and thus the risk of burnout.
With regard to coping strategies, Cockburnoutshows in his research that teachers know many strategies, and the strategies they use most are related to teaching activities, for example. Prepare lessons and try to get to know the children alone.
Most of them (89%) think they have gained through experience and use traditional sources of help to fight stress, such as consulting an expert or joining a group on the issue as one of the four least cited stress coping strategies. Possible explanations could be either fears of stigmatization or the alleged ineffectiveness of the approach. Acanfora and Concilio (2002) found that teachers, especially those over 45, were more reluctant to turn to specialists. More than 25 percent thought it was an unnecessary intervention, perhaps because they thought their experience was sufficient, or because they "resisted" reporting problems within the organization to the outside. However, this should be taken into account when making plans to prevent stress and burnout.
Griffith's research shows that the most stressed teachers are those who use coping strategies such as divestment and restraining competitive activities. These strategies can only be effective in the short term, while in the long run, they may lead to an increase in workload, an increase in stress, a decrease in self-esteem and a decrease in helplessness, which may make people hesitate in real burnout. The author also emphasizes the protective role of social support as a mediator of teachers' perceived stress, especially the support of colleagues, and the importance of building a harmonious atmosphere and good relationship among colleagues.
These factors should be taken into account when proposing measures to prevent or reduce school stress and burnout; These interventions are important because stress and burnout have important effects not only at the individual level but also at the educational process level, because they disrupt the educational process and create a dangerous vicious circle in which burnout teachers exhibit tiredness, tension, stiffness and irritability towards students, and students react to this behavior, resulting in disciplinary problems and reduced motivation. These reactions lead to increased stress and burnout of teachers, as shown in the following example.
Burnoutsyndrome: M.L. For example.
M. is 56 years old, married with two daughters, graduated from mathematics and taught in a vocational school for eight years. For years, she has been complaining to her colleagues about her enormous difficulties teaching at the school: She says the only driving force behind her continued work is the idea that she will retire in a few years. Her colleagues listened tired and indifferent: They often heard her complain, and now they thought retirement was the only way to solve her work problems.
Recently, she has grown at odds with her principal, who has summoned her several times to tell her that many parents complain about her teaching methods and that all the classes she teaches are poorly prepared for math. She defended herself, claiming that the boys were very unruly and that she had no responsibility. He argues that students' poor performance is justified because his subjects in this art-oriented school are not considered important among students.
After the meeting with the headmaster, M. Performing his teaching duties in an increasingly bureaucratic way: he tried to follow the "roadmap" to complete the course (following the minister's instructions) without taking into account the fact that children were building up huge gaps.
The support teacher, who works one hour a week in three shifts at the same time, has repeatedly heard complaints from children and found it necessary to intervene to change the current stagnation.
She pointed out that it was appropriate to agree on a strategy together: she stressed the importance of maintaining a rational and non-punitive attitude in order to successfully engage children actively and break this tug-of-war between her and her class. You answered bluntly that it had nothing to do with you, that everything in this institution is terrible, and that you should not be held responsible for the consequences of this bad operation.
Explanation of the Relationship between Class Three and Mathematics Teachers
When he came to the classroom, he began to criticize the children under various excuses. His attitude expressed anger and resentment. He blamed them for being rude, undisciplined and not studying his discipline. Some girls tried to explain to her and the whole class often did not understand her explanation: She replied that their difficulties were due to a lack of commitment. At this point, some boys took issue with the fact that her explanations were inadequate, rigid and indifferent to being understood. In response, she begins to explain: at first, the students try to follow her, but then she repeats the same script every week: she explains simple concepts in a chaotic way, the procedure for practicing is distorted, the children ask for clarification, she doesn't listen, continues her explanation, and speaks to three ordinary students, although they listen to her hard (at the same time, she often looks at her watch). At this point, most boys start chattering and distracting.
Clinical case analysis
Teachers show several symptoms of burnout syndrome (anger, resentment, guilty attitude, rigid thinking, resistance to change, avoidance of confrontation with colleagues, etc.). According to the scheme formulated by C. Cherniss, we can think that teachers are in the defensive conclusion stage, in which there are emotional detachment, cynicism and fossilization (Cherniss, 1983).
As with other mental illnesses, there is not only one cause, but several factors at play. These factors, whether personal, organizational or social, are closely related to the context and circumstances in which this occurs.
Various stressors can be found in his work history, among which psychosocial stressors are very important: for the past eight years, he has been working in a vocational college in a region with high crime rate in Rome. He teaches a subject without any consideration, and each class has two hours a week. For this reason, he found himself having to teach in several classes to complete the 18-hour class period.
Traditionally, people's expectation of entering vocational schools is to study technical and practical subjects, which do not require much effort. These expectations act as filters in selecting the school population, which is usually composed of students who pay little attention to learning, especially theoretical study.
Teaching mathematics in this situation is a difficult task, because the subject is abstract.
In recent years, with the full implementation of school reform (2000), the power of schools is highly concentrated in the hands of school management. M. complains that she is marginalized and plays different roles (including financially) than other colleagues who have good relations with management: their projects are approved, their working hours are better, and so on.
She felt that she was not supported by the headmaster, but was constantly judged by the headmaster.
Two years ago, he had to be absent for two months. When he returned, his strangeness to a constantly changing school grew stronger, where he could not find his place.
Children's relationships are getting harder and harder: They have little interest in your discipline, and you feel less and less capable of engaging them. It does not use the only computer science classroom, which may help make the subject's approach less boring. When the counselor suggested that she apply to use the room together, she replied that she had no intention of taking a computer course. At the same time, he keeps taking written tests and disrespects students' study time. His parents began to complain that his professional situation was slowly deteriorating.
At present, his personal performance has been considerably damaged. In order to dispel his sense of inadequacy and fear of possible disciplinary sanctions, he carried out his professional duties in a strictly bureaucratic manner (following the minister's instructions on the program "verbatim", strictly following the timetable, checking the class register to ensure there were no formal irregularities, etc.).
Some personality factors reduce her coping ability: she is impulsive, very extroverted, not easy to reflect, and rigid (her rigidity is also reactive). He didn't agree to change his teaching methods, and his response to criticism was strictly defensive. The idea that he could retire in a few years reinforced his closed and rigid attitude.
Prevent burnout
After highlighting the causes of burnout and possible interventions when symptoms appear, the final section will be devoted to preventive measures related to burnout.
Pines (1981) holds that "... the positive characteristics of the work environment promote individual attitudes and protect against burnout tendency", and identifies the diversity of tasks to be completed, the autonomy to manage work, the emphasis on what is done, and the support and stimulation provided by the work environment as the main characteristics.
Therefore, Pines adopted Maslach's (1977) view and agreed with the author's view that the cause of burnout can be found in the work environment, and the work environment is the most appropriate intervention level: it is easier to adjust a role in the work environment than to intervene at the political and social levels. The author believes that burnout can be prevented by proper job organization design and management:
1. Control the occurrence of stress;
2. Opportunities to increase operator job satisfaction.
In any case, the charring operation must include:
1. Role of the responsible person: The system constituting the intervention must address the problem within its mandate, must have a degree of awareness of the phenomenon and must have the will to act.
2. The specificity of the job situation: The design and implementation of measures aimed at preventing burnout must begin with an accurate understanding of the work reality involved, which Cherniss defines as "an accurate diagnosis of the problem".
Cherniss (1983) emphasized the importance of prevention in his book, which should be promoted in organizations where staff are at high risk of burnout (such as auxiliary occupations, teaching, etc.). Because it is more effective and cheaper than treatment, because reversibility requires long-term efforts, and the results are achieved from a long-term perspective. Moreover, the phenomenon is quite contagious in the work environment: disjointed and absent from work by burnout victims creates many problems for team work and causes operators to grieve over the loss of long-term co-workers.
The growing interest in this phenomenon has led many researchers and practitioners to develop contributions, guidance and methodologies for the prevention of burns (Alexander, 1980; Streepy, 1981; Cherniss, 1983; Walsh, 1987). These efforts have a lot in common.
Cherniss's indications are divided into five intervention areas, which seem to be the most detailed list of indications, because the topics dealt with by the authors include the most common topics in the literature.
Let's look at C. Cherniss (1980) 's contribution to the prevention of burnout in the field of social health:
1. Staff development
-Reducing their demands on operators by encouraging them to adopt more realistic targets; Guide young operators;
-Encourage operators to adopt new targets to provide alternative sources of satisfaction;
-Assisting professionals in the development and use of short-term benefit-sensitive monitoring and feedback mechanisms (Colarelli and Siegel 1966, Chronic Schizophrenia Surveillance Card)
-Provide frequent training opportunities for:
1. Improving role efficiency (Kramer 1974, simulated nurse training);
2. Resolve organizational conflicts.
-Regular "job burnout checks" for all staff (Mendel, 1978);
-Organization of group meetings for staff who experience high levels of stress at work;
-Encouraging the development of resource exchange systems (Sarason and Lorentz, 1979).
2. Changes in job and role structure
-Limit the number of patients the staff is responsible for for a certain period of time;
-Assigning the most difficult and least rewarding tasks among the staff;
-Require staff to work in more than one role and program;
-Plan each day to alternate activities that are rewarding and activities that are unrewarding.
-Organize roles so that operators can rest when needed:
-The use of support staff to provide "rest" opportunities for ordinary staff (Pines and Maslack, 1978; Alexander, 1980, Mental Health Day);
-Limiting the number of hours worked by each staff member;
-Don't discourage part-time jobs.
-Provide every staff member with the opportunity to set up a new program (Goldemberg, 1971, Assistance Centre for Disturbed Teenagers);
-Establishing different career stages for all staff.
3. Management development
-Develop training and development programs for current and future supervisory staff, emphasizing the most difficult aspects of the role of administrative staff;
-Establishment of supervisor control systems (e.g. staff surveys and regular feedback on supervisor performance);
-Control the role tension in the supervisor and intervene when it is too tense.
4. Organizational problem solving and decision-making moments
-Establishment of formal team mechanisms to resolve organizational problems and conflict resolution;
-Conflict resolution and group problem resolution training for all staff;
-Strengthening staff autonomy and participation in decision-making (Rasskin 1973; Cherniss and Egnatios 1978).
5. Objectives and management model of the center
-Making objectives as clear and compatible as possible;
-Develop a strong and original management model (Cherniss, 1980, humanistic team teaching);
-Make training and research the main objectives of the programme;
-Sharing responsibility for care and treatment with patients, their families and the community.
The role of training in preventing burnout
At the end of the day, we cannot ignore the importance of training related to occupations involving interpersonal relationships, that is, all occupations that seem to be in danger of burnout. Appropriate training must include theoretical knowledge and technical knowledge, but it must also allow for proper self-awareness.
It is pointed out in the literature that inappropriate ways related to users are one of the reasons for operator burnout. In particular, the way of dealing with others (users) seems to have two stages:
The first stage: recognition and confusion, in which a large number of recognition and mutual projection occur;
The second stage: violent detachment, which is manifested as rejection of the situation, is due to the emotional burden it brings.
Training courses aimed at appropriate "abilities" are the basic strategies to prevent burnout.
Two basic aspects of auxiliary vocational training are identified:
1. Separate concerns (Fox and Lief, 1963) or "Separate Interests".
The aim is to establish a balance of power, an oscillation between participation (identification) and detachment (restoration of emotional distance). In order to work effectively, you must not be overwhelmed by your emotions. If you are too engaged, you will lose objectivity and you will not be able to help patients. Emotions are the most important aspect of our "relationship" and should not be seen as something we can defend against, but direct contact with them is important.
2. Role flexibility (Harrison, 1980). In this case, the goal is to build a flexible and critical professionalism and avoid rigid roles, which exacerbate the lack of cooperation between different professionals and hinder teamwork.
From this point of view, independent attention and flexibility of roles are two characteristics of training prospects, regardless of the specific occupation to be acquired.
