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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
This set of exercises has been created expressly for students and teachers of conservation biology and wildlife management who want to have an impact beyond the classroom. The book presents a set of 32 exercises that are primarily new and greatly revised versions from the book's successful first edition. These exercises span a wide range of conservation issues: genetic analysis, population biology and management, taxonomy, ecosystem management, land use planning, the public policy process and more. All exercises discuss how to take what has been learned and apply it to practical, real-world issues. Accompanied by a detailed instructor's manual and a student website with software and support materials, the book is ideal for use in the field, lab, or classroom. Also available: Fundamentals of Conservation Biology, 3rd edition (2007) by Malcolm L Hunter Jr and James Gibbs, ISBN 9781405135450 Saving the Earth as a Career: Advice on Becoming a Conservation Professional (2007) by Malcolm L Hunter Jr, David B Lindenmayer and Aram JK Calhoun, ISBN 9781405167611
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Seitenzahl: 538
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011
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Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY? SPIDERS AS EXEMPLARS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONCEPT
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 2: WHAT IS CONSERVATION BIOLOGY? AN ANALYSIS OF THE CRITICAL ECOSYSTEM PARTNERSHIP FUND’S STRATEGIES AND FUNDING PRIORITIES
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 3: WHY IS BIODIVERSITY IMPORTANT? WHY IS IT THREATENED? AN EXPLORATION WITH THE IUCN “RED LIST” OF THREATENED SPECIES
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
PART 2: GENES
CHAPTER 4: POPULATION GENETICS: DIVERSITY WITHIN VERSUS DIVERSITY AMONG POPULATIONS
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURE
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 5: GENETIC DRIFT: ESTABLISHING POPULATION MANAGEMENT TARGETS TO LIMIT LOSS OF GENETIC DIVERSITY
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 6: PEDIGREE MANAGEMENT: CONTROLLING THE EFFECTS OF INBREEDING AS INDICATED BY FLUCTUATING ASYMMETRY
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 7: LANDSCAPE GENETICS: IDENTIFYING MOVEMENT CORRIDORS
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
PART 3: POPULATIONS
CHAPTER 8: LIFE TABLE ANALYSIS: BALANCING COMMERCIAL FISHERIES WITH SEA BIRD “BY-CATCH”
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 9: POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS: EL NIÑO FREQUENCY AND PENGUIN POPULATION PERSISTENCE
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 10: HABITAT LOSS AND FRAGMENTATION: ECOLOGICAL TRAPS, CONNECTIVITY, AND ISSUES OF SCALE
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 11: DIAGNOSING DECLINING POPULATIONS: ASSESSING MONITORING DATA TO BETTER UNDERSTAND CAUSES OF RARITY IN AN ENDANGERED CACTUS
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 12: ESTIMATING POPULATION SIZE WITH LINE TRANSECTS AND DISTANCE
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 13: ANALYZING CAMERA TRAP DATA WITH PRESENCE
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 14: ESTIMATING POPULATION SIZE WITH MARK-RECAPTURE DATA AND MARK
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
PART 4: SPECIES
CHAPTER 15: ESTIMATING “BIODIVERSITY”: INDICES, EFFORT, AND INFERENCE
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 16: DESIGNING A ZOO: EX SITU CENTERS FOR CONSERVATION, RESEARCH, AND EDUCATION
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 17: PLANT REINTRODUCTIONS: REESTABLISHING EXTIRPATED POPULATIONS
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 18: EDGE EFFECTS: DESIGNING A NEST PREDATION EXPERIMENT
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
PART 5: ECOSYSTEMS AND LANDSCAPES
CHAPTER 19: ECOSYSTEM FRAGMENTATION: PATTERNS AND CONSEQUENCES FOR BIODIVERSITY
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 20: FOREST HARVESTING: BALANCING TIMBER PRODUCTION AND PARROT HABITAT
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 21: PROTECTED AREAS: A SYSTEMATIC CONSERVATION PLANNING APPROACH FOR ECOREGIONS
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 22: ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY: HOW PARK SIZE AND CONDITION AFFECT THE NUMBER OF SPECIES PROTECTED
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 23: GIS FOR CONSERVATION: MAPPING AND ANALYZING DISTRIBUTIONS OF WILD POTATO SPECIES FOR RESERVE DESIGN
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 24: GLOBAL CHANGE: WILL A COLD-ADAPTED FROG SURVIVE IN A WARMER WORLD?
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 25: CLIMATE ENVELOPE MODELING: INFERRING THE RANGES OF SPECIES TO FACILITATE BIOLOGICAL EXPLORATION, CONSERVATION PLANNING, AND THREAT ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
PART 6: POLICY AND ORGANIZATIONS
CHAPTER 26: POPULATION, CONSUMPTION, OR GOVERNANCE: WHICH DRIVES SPECIES IMPERILMENT MOST IN AFRICA AND EUROPE?
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 27: OVERCONSUMPTION: WHO’S SMARTER… STUDENTS OR THEIR PROFESSORS?
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 28: CONSERVATION VALUES: ASSESSING PUBLIC ATTITUDES
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 29: PRIORITY SETTING: WHERE AROUND THE GLOBE SHOULD WE INVEST OUR CONSERVATION EFFORTS?
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 30: AN INTERNATIONAL DEBATE: COMMERCIAL FISHING IN GALÁPAGOS NATIONAL PARK
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 31: CONSERVATION LAW: SHOULD THE POLAR BEAR BE LISTED AS A THREATENED SPECIES?
OBJECTIVES
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 32: CONSERVATION POLICY: SHAPING YOUR GOVERNMENT
OBJECTIVE
PROCEDURES
EXPECTED PRODUCTS
DISCUSSION
MAKING IT HAPPEN
FURTHER RESOURCES
Literature Cited
Index
© 2008 by James P. Gibbs, Malcolm L. Hunter, Jr., and Eleanor J. Sterling© 1998 by Blackwell Publishing
BLACKWELL PUBLISHING350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia
The right of James P. Gibbs, Malcolm L. Hunter, Jr., and Eleanor J. Sterling to be identified as the Authors of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks, or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
First edition published 1998 by Blackwell PublishingSecond edition published 2008
1 2008
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Gibbs, James P.Problem-solving in conservation biology: exercises for class, field, and laboratory/James P. Gibbs, Malcolm L. Hunter, Jr., Eleanor J. Sterling. – 2nd ed.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4051-5287-7 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. Conservation biology. 2. Wildlife management. 3. Conservation biology–Problems, exercises, etc. 4. Wildlife management–Problems, exercises, etc. I. Hunter, Malcolm L. II. Sterling, Eleanor J. III. Title.QH75.G53 2008577–dc222007016279
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards.
For further information onBlackwell Publishing, visit our website:www.blackwellpublishing.com
Preface
If you are a student today you have an opportunity to play a significant role in how the biodiversity crisis plays out. Although the long-term trajectory of the human population is unclear, during the next few decades the level at which it might eventually stabilize will become increasingly clear. Of course, enormous expanses of the environment have been fundamentally transformed by our activities, yet much is left that merits conserving. How we conserve that which remains, and how we choose to live upon and in some cases restore the rest, will determine the fates of millions of wild species. Much of this will transpire during your career.
While you can learn a good deal from attending class lectures, what will be most useful to you are practical experiences. This is because conservation biology and wildlife management are, more than anything, about the application of ideas to the solving of problems. One can go to great effort to discuss all the dimensions of the biodiversity crisis, carefully enumerate the individuals in an endangered population, or methodically poll the public on its attitudes toward wild life. Ultimately what matters most is putting this information into action. This is the biggest challenge that any practicing conservationist faces.
We have generated this book expressly for the students and teachers of conservation biology and wildlife management who want to have an impact beyond the classroom. The book originated from our collective sense that “learning by doing” is the most effective, fun, and durable way to develop into a professional. A so-called problem-based learning approach worked best for us when we were students. Now we wish to share this engaging learning approach with you.
We have created a set of exercises that addresses problems spanning a wide range of conservation issues: genetic analysis, population biology, ecosystem management, the public policy process, and more. Some can be used as simple homework exercises for individuals working alone. Others are lengthy, group exercises. All carry a message about “making it happen,” that is, how to take what you have learned in an exercise and have an impact in the larger world.
The first edition of this book was published in 1998. In the interim, the book has been purchased and used by many around the world, enough to warrant a second edition. We now have more experience in developing exercises that “work.” Approximately two-thirds of the material in this second edition is new or dramatically revised from the first.
Our target audience is upper-level college undergraduates, early-stage graduate students, and possibly some practicing professionals. While the book might best complement an existing conservation biology or wildlife management lecture course, it can contribute to a variety of courses, and has, for example, been adopted for a re-training course for secondary school teachers and a field-based natural history course.
We view conservation biology and wildlife management as complementary fields, and have therefore included exercises applicable to both. The two fields contrast mostly in terms of emphasis. Conservation biology views all of nature’s diversity as important and having inherent value, whereas traditional wildlife management operates from a somewhat more utilitarian perspective with a primary objective of providing recreational resources for people, including sustained yields of harvested species, especially birds and mammals. Both fields recognize the need to integrate the contributions of non-biologists (economists, sociologists, political scientists) to conserve wild species. This commonality distinguishes both fields from the pure sciences. Because of the blurred distinctions between these fields we have intentionally not tried to identify which exercises are more suitable to a conservation biology class versus a wildlife management class.
The book has been designed to accompany any of the main-stream conservation biology and wildlife management texts. Instructors should be aware that they need a copy of the accompanying instructors’ manual to make certain exercises succeed. To secure a copy, see “Important note about the instructor’s manual” below.
Copying
We are well aware that the cost of textbooks often leads both students and faculty to copy portions of textbooks illegally. The temptation to do this is particularly great with lab texts in which not all of the exercises will be used. We have tried to minimize this temptation by keeping the price of the book low. We are also aware that many scanned, electronic copies of exercises from the first edition of the book are posted on course websites on the internet. This is flattering yet frustrating as it undercuts not only our efforts but also any publisher’s interest in books such as this. Perhaps it will help some people to avoid the temptation of photocopying to know that all of the royalties from this book have been dedicated to conservation: two fellowship funds for natural resource and biology students from developing countries.
Important Note About the Instructor’s Manual
Instructors should be aware that they need a copy of an accompanying instructor’s manual to make many exercises succeed. While developing this book we compiled a companion electronic document with the answers to all the exercises as well as many tips and suggestions. We wish to manage the distribution of this manual to instructors of classes. To receive an electronic copy, please send an email message to James Gibbs at [email protected] indicating:
your institution and positionthe course name and number, andapproximate number of students in the class.With this information we will arrange a web download or email transmission of the manual.
As we regard this as an evolving project please also send along suggestions and criticisms. We would especially like to hear about ways to improve these exercises. We know that many teachers of conservation biology and wildlife management courses have put together similar exercises for their classes. For possible inclusion in a future edition of the book, please send them along to us.
The Book’s Website
This book has an accompanying website with the data sets and other resources to support many of the exercises presented herein: www.blackwellpublishing.com/gibbs
Acknowledgments
We are most grateful to the students who worked through earlier, less polished versions of these exercises. Most of the exercises have been “field-tested” and greatly improved by students at the State University of New York’s College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Columbia University, the University of Maine, and Yale University. Also, Erin McCreless and Brian Weeks kindly assisted with exercise preparation.
A number of people have either authored Exercises or written them with us. We are extremely pleased to include their excellent contributions here:
Margret C. Domroese, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA
Jennifer Griffiths, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA
Luigi Guarino, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji
Ian J. Harrison, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA
Robert J. Hijmans, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
Andy Jarvis, Bioversity International and International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Cali, Colombia
Thane Joyal, Law Offices of Joseph J. Heath, Syracuse, New York, USA
Michael E. Meredith, Wildlife Conservation Society, Kuching, Malaysia
Viorel Popescu, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, New York, USA
Richard B. Primack and Brian Drayton, Boston University, Boston, USA
Pablo Ramirez de Arellano, Bioforest S.A., Concepción, Chile
Robert S. Seymour, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
Krishnan Sudharsan, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
We would also like to highlight the direct and indirect contributions to this effort by the staff of the Network of Conservation Educators and Practicioners (NCEP), particularly Nora Bynum and Ian Harrison of the American Museum of Natural History. NCEP is a global project to improve the practice of biodiversity conservation by improving training in biodiversity conservation. Some of the exercises herein are adapted directly from NCEP materials and you are encouraged to consult the NCEP website to access many related materials, including class presentation materials, topic syntheses, and even more exercises: http://ncep.amnh.org/
Drawings were produced by Debbie Maizels and the staff of Emantras.
Last, but certainly not least, at Blackwell Publishing Rosie Hayden patiently guided us through an extended publication process and Janey Fisher did an extraordinary job scrutinizing the manuscript during the copy-editing process for this 2nd edition.
Images at chapter and part openings: credits
Front (p ii): Green turtle at Monkey Mia, Western Australia. Image: Malcolm L. Hunter, Jr.
Introduction: Kihansi Gorge, Udzungwa Mountains, Eastern Arc, Tanzania. Image:
James P. Gibbs.
1 What is Biodiversity? Araneidae. Image: Berland (1955).
2 What is Conservation Biology? Mountain ash (a species of Eucalyptus), Victoria, Australia. Image: Malcolm L. Hunter, Jr.
3 Why is Biodiversity Important? Giant anteater, Roraima, Brazil. Image: James P. Gibbs.
Genes: PCR amplicons for representatives of 94 fish families. Image: Ivanova, N. V., et al. Molecular Ecology Notes 7:544–548.
4 Population Genetics: Orchid, unknown spp., Roraima, Brazil. Image: J. P. Gibbs.
5 Genetic Drift: Eastern barred bandicoot. Image: Hunter and Gibbs (2007).
6 Pedigree Management: Triple nose-leaf bat. Image: Blanford (1888).
7 Landscape Genetics: American toad, New York State, USA. Image: James P. Gibbs.
Populations: Leopard frogs, New York State, USA. Image: Nancy Karraker
8 Life Table Analysis: Albatross, Antarctic Ocean. Image: Malcolm L. Hunter, Jr.
9 Population Viability Analysis: Galapagos Penguins, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. Image: James P. Gibbs.
10 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: White trillium, New York State, USA. Image: Donald J. Leopold.
11 Diagnosing Declining Populations: Opuntia spp. Image: James P. Gibbs.
12 Estimating Population Size with DISTANCE: Orang utan, Sepilok Rehabilitation Center, Sabah. Image: Michael E. Meredith.
13 Analyzing Camera Trap Data: Golden cat. Image: Zoo Heidelberg/Ales Toman.
14 Estimating Population Size with MARK: Karanth and Nichols (2002). © Center for Wildlife Studies.
Species: Atlantic puffin. Image: Malcolm L. Hunter, Jr.
15 Estimating “Biodiversity”: Various Coleoptera. Image: W. S. Blatchley, The Nature Publishing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana (1910).
16 Designing a Zoo: Candidate species. Image: Hunter and Gibbs (2007).
17 Plant Reintroductions: Blue lupine ready for outplanting. Image: James P. Gibbs.
18 Edge Effects: Artificial nest with hen’s egg. Image: James P. Gibbs.
Ecosystems and Landscapes: Acadia National Park, Maine, USA. Image: Malcolm L. Hunter.
19 Ecosystem Fragmentation: Fragmentation stage. Image: Hunter and Gibbs (2007).
20 Forest Harvesting: Macaw, Roraima, Brazil. Image: James P. Gibbs.
21 Protected Areas: Working landscape. Image: Hunter and Gibbs (2007).
22 Island Biogeography: Species-area relationships. Image: Hunter and Gibbs (2007).
23 GIS for Conservation: Wild potato (Solanum megistacrolobum subsp. toralapanum), Toralapa, Cochabamba, Bolivia. Image: Robert Hijmans.
24 Global Change: Mink frog, Adirondack Mountains, New York, USA. Image: James P. Gibbs.
25 Climate Envelope Modeling: Wild peanut (Arachis nitida). Image: Karen Williams, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Policy and Organization: Bottle-nosed dolphin, Monkey Mia, Western Australia. Image: Malcolm L. Hunter, Jr.
26 Population, Consumption, or Governance: Syracuse, New York, USA. Image: James P. Gibbs.
27 Overconsumption: SUNY-ESF, Syracuse, New York, USA. Image: James P. Gibbs.
28 Conservation Values: Opinion survey. Image: James P. Gibbs.
29 Priority Setting: Shavla River, Argut Nature Park, Altai, Russia. Image: James P. Gibbs.
30 Commercial fishing in Galapagos National Park: Pinzon Island, Galapagos National Park, Galapagos, Ecuador. Image: James P. Gibbs.
31 Conservation Law: Polar bears, Svalbard Islands. Image: Malcolm L. Hunter, Jr.
32 Conservation Policy: Formal letter. Image: James P. Gibbs.
PART 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
WHAT IS CONSERVATION BIOLOGY? AN ANALYSIS OF THE CRITICAL ECOSYSTEM PARTNERSHIP FUND’S STRATEGIES AND FUNDING PRIORITIES
James P. Gibbs
Attend a meeting of the Society for Conservation Biology and you are likely to meet economists and ecologists, geneticists and geographers, philosophers, foresters, and fisheries managers. People can wear many different hats and still say, “I am a conservation biologist.” Conservation biology is a remarkably diverse discipline that sits squarely at the intersection of many other fields. Of course, one cannot define a discipline solely in terms of other intersecting disciplines. Conservation biology is best defined by its overarching goal, maintaining the planet’s biological diversity. This focus creates a unique niche for conservation biologists, nestled within the larger arena of environmental management, applied ecology, and natural resources management. More and more people are finding a home in that niche as we become increasingly sensitive to the plight facing most of the earth’s species and ecosystems.
But just what is Conservation Biology? Conservation biology is a crisis mission focused on saving life on earth. Despite this noble cause, the discipline still fails to “ring a bell” with much of the general public. One of the reasons is that conservation biology is indeed a mish-mash of many disciplines. Science in general and biology in particular play a big role in conservation biology yet the field extends into many other disciplines. These include finance, law, sociology, organization management, communications, and education; in other words, the “human dimensions” of conservation biology (Jacobson 1990, Soulé 1985). Expertise in these latter fields is what gives conservation biologists traction in the real world. It’s been often said that conservation biology is as much about changing people’s habits as it is about saving nature.
So what is the precise mix of disciplines? What do conservation biologists actually do? If you are preparing for a career in conservation biology, what skills should you develop? A schematic model developed by Susan Jacobson (1990) has frequently been used to depict the interacting fields that constitute conservation biology (Figure 2.1), and gives us a starting point for analyzing just what conservation biologists do. This model indicates that students seeking a career in conservation biology need to develop an unusually broad outlook, marrying a focus on basic biological sciences and its application via the natural resources to a human-centered focus on economics, politics, law, and communication, which together represent the political arena in which all conservation efforts must operate. Conceptual models are useful but perhaps most useful is breaking down what conservation biologists are doing right now to stem the loss of biological diversity. In this exercise you will evaluate current strategies used by one of the largest and most ambitious conservation programs operating around the world. In analyzing the strategic emphases of this program, we hope to provide you with a timely view of what conservation biology is all about.
Fig. 2.1 Schematic depicting the interaction of disciplines that together represent the field of conservation biology (redrawn after Jacobson 1990).
Objectives
To learn what conservation biologists doTo generate an appreciation of the complexities that underlie most conservation issuesTo identify the diverse skills required for a career in conservation.Procedures
In this exercise we focus on the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF). The CEPF advances biodiversity conservation at the global scale. Its main goal is to catalyze interactions among diverse groups working in the conservation and thereby develop a comprehensive, coordinated approach to conservation problems. Because the CEPF seeks to achieve the highest returns on conservation investments it focuses primarily on regions that are considered biodiversity “hotspots.” These are the 25 or so regions that cover just 1.4 percent of the Earth’s land surface yet host more than 60 percent of the planet’s terrestrial species diversity. To be eligible for funds projects must be (i) within a biodiversity hotspot, (ii) within a developing country that has ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity, and (3) undertaken by applicants that represent nongovernmental organizations, community groups, or private-sector partners.
CEPF is a joint initiative of Conservation International, the Global Environment Facility, the Government of Japan, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, and the World Bank, with some $125 million committed to date. Funds are administered by the non-profit conservation group Conservation International. Funds are provided in the form of grants to individual recipient organizations consistent with overall CEPF strategy. An immense amount of thought has gone into setting priorities and strategy to ensure that the many millions of dollars allocated to the effort produce tangible benefits for biodiversity and the local people associated with it. Because the CEPF represents a direct manifestation of the field of conservation biology it can be illuminating to focus on what strategies it has devised.
As a tool to organize your thinking, Jacobson’s (1990) schemata shows graphically the relationship between conservation biology and other disciplines (Figure 2.1). To see how this model plays out in reality we will use it as the starting basis for an analysis of the CEPF strategies. The procedure is straightforward. We will crosswalk Jacobson’s figure (and any variations of it that you can come up with) with the conservation directions and investment priorities established by the CEPF for five recognized global biodiversity hotspots: Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of Tanzania and Kenya (Box 2.1), Cape Floristic Region (Box 2.2), Caucasus (Box 2.3), Southern Mesoamerica (Box 2.4), and the Mountains of Southwest China (Box 2.5).
Box 2.1 CEPF strategic funding directions and investment priorities in the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of Tanzania and Kenya (2003–2008)
1. Evaluate community-based forest management initiatives in the hotspot to determine best practices.
2. Promote nature-based, sustainable businesses that benefit local populations in the hotspot.
3. Explore possibilities for direct payments and easements (Conservation Concessions) for biodiversity conservation in the hotspot and support where appropriate.
4. Build the capacity of community-based organizations in the hotspot for advocacy in support of biodiversity conservation at all levels.
5. Support cultural practices that benefit biodiversity in the hotspot.
6. Research and promote eco-agricultural options for the local populations of the hotspot.
7. Assess potential sites in the hotspot for connectivity interventions.
8. Support initiatives that maintain or restore connectivity in the hotspot.
9. Monitor and evaluate initiatives that maintain or restore connectivity in the hotspot.
10. Support best practices for restoring connectivity in ways that also benefit people.
11. Refine and implement a standardized monitoring program across the 160 eligible sites.
12. Support research in the less studied of the 160 eligible sites in the hotspot.
13. Monitor populations of Critically Endangered and Endangered Species in the hotspot.
14. Support research in the hotspot to facilitate Red List assessments and re-assessments for plants, reptiles, invertebrates and other taxa.
15. Compile and document indigenous knowledge on hotspot sites and species.
16. Support awareness programs that increase public knowledge of biodiversity values of the hotspot.
17. Support targeted efforts to increase connectivity of biologically important habitat patches.
18. Support efforts to increase biological knowledge of the sites and to conserve critically endangered species.
19. Establish a professional resource mobilization unit, within an appropriate local partner institution, for raising long-term funds and resources for the hotspot.
20. Utilize high-level corporate contacts to secure funding from the private sector for the hotspot.
21. Train local NGOs and community-based organizations in fundraising and proposal writing.
Box 2.2 CEPF strategic funding directions and investment priorities in the Cape Floristic Region (2003–2008)
1. Identify and design innovative mechanisms and strategies for conservation of private, corporate, or communal landholdings within biodiversity corridors.
2. Support private sector and local community participation in the development and implementation of management plans for biodiversity corridors.
3. Especially within the Gouritz and Cederberg corridors, identify priority landholdings requiring immediate conservation action.
4. Promote civil society efforts to establish and support biodiversity-based businesses among disadvantaged groups, in particular in areas surrounding the Gouritz and Baviaanskloof corridors.
5. Implement best practices within industries affecting biodiversity in the CFR, e.g. the wine and flower industries.
6. Support civil society efforts to consolidate data to support appropriate land use and policy decisions.
7. Integrate biodiversity concerns into policy and local government procedures in priority municipalities.
8. Improve coordination among institutions involved in conservation of CFR biodiversity corridors through targeted civil society interventions.
9. Support internships and training programs to raise capacity for conservation, particularly targeting previously disadvantaged groups.
10. Support initiatives to increase technical capacity of organizations involved in CFR conservation, particularly in relation to the priority geographic areas.
Box 2.3 CEPF strategic funding directions and investment priorities in the Caucasus (2003–2008)
1. Promote transboundary cooperation by carrying out joint initiatives and harmonizing existing projects to conserve border ecosystems and species and site outcomes.
2. Support existing efforts to create new protected areas and wildlife corridors through planning processes and co-financing efforts.
3. Develop and implement management plans for model protected areas with broad participation of stakeholders.
4. Provide funding for research and implementation of the Caucasus Red List re-assessments, particularly for poorly represented taxas such as plants, invertebrates, reptiles, and fish.
5. Focus small grant efforts on supporting efforts to conserve 50 globally threatened species in the hotspot.
6. Provide support to conservation agencies specifically to improve implementation of international conventions such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
7. Evaluate and implement models for sustainable forestry, water use and range management.
8. Focus small grant efforts on supporting existing NGOs to undertake projects focused on developing alternative livelihoods, such as ecotourism, collection of non-timber forest products and sustainable hunting and fishing.
9. Support civil society efforts to mitigate, participate in, and monitor development projects.
10. Develop local capacity to train environmental journalists and develop incentives to write on environmental issues, targeting decisionmakers in particular.
11. Develop a communications campaign to increase environmental awareness.
Box 2.4 CEPF strategic funding directions and investment priorities in Southern Mesoamerica (2003–2008)
1. Create a coordinating group, led by the NGO community, that will guide conservation actions in the Cerro Silva-Indio Maiz-La Selva Corridor.
2. Support NGO efforts to evaluate modalities for establishing additional private conservation areas to integrate connectivity among key areas.
3. Support civil society efforts and community efforts to establish best practices in coffee, cocoa, and tourism in areas of potential connectivity.
4. Implement awareness programs focused on flagship species in order to improve public understanding of the value of biodiversity.
5. Establish an emergency fund to support projects that will help protect critically endangered species.
6. Create participatory management plans in target areas and provide opportunities for civil society to participate in government led planning processes.
7. Establish the Maquenque National Park in northern Costa Rica.
8. Support civil society efforts to establish protected areas within the Ngobe-Bugle indigenous territory.
9. Support efforts by the NGO and private sector community to provide financial incentives for private reserves and conservation set-asides.
10. Support targeted civil society efforts to implement discreet elements of existing management plans.
Box 2.5 CEPF strategic funding directions and investment priorities in the Mountains of Southwest China (2003–2008)
1. Define 5- and 10-year map-based conservation outcomes for the hotspot through a collaborative, participatory approach.
2. Support projects that utilize scientific tools to evaluate changes in land cover, spatial relationships, and ecosystem health.
3. Establish a mechanism to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of the site-specific projects and ensure adaptive management and sharing of lessons learned.
4. Provide resources to track human-induced environmental trends and high-resolution monitoring to report on site-specific impacts.
5. Conduct scientific research and socioeconomic analysis to better understand biodiversity and conservation issues and threats in the region.
6. Improve the credibility and scientific methodology used for biodiversity conservation research in this hotspot.
7. Enact effective nature reserve and community resource management.
8. Develop ecotourism and environmental education as a tool to support biodiversity conservation.
9. Undertake ecosystem restoration, especially filling in the gaps in existing governmental programs.
10. Projects to reduce illegal and other unsustainable wild animals and plants trade.
11. Promoting biodiversity-friendly “green” production or harvest of traditional Chinese medicines.
12. Assess, develop and implement a series of training programs based on the training needs in the region. Training could focus on a number of topics including reserve management, the fundamentals of green businesses, business management for conservation and environmental education.
13. Provide resources for individuals in the region to participate in training opportunities.
14. Establish a trainers’ training program in the region to multiply transfer of skills and knowledge to conservation professionals in the region.
15. Demonstrate best-case innovative approaches for integrating biodiversity concerns into local, regional and national development programs.
16. Collect and disseminate information about biodiversity and socioeconomic benefits of conservation to improve implementation of existing government initiatives and influence national policies.
17. Communicate successful examples of innovative approaches to public-private efforts to better integrate biodiversity conservation into governmental efforts.
18. Provide funding to individuals and institutions for research analysis or small-scale activities that will help build the conservation capacity of civil society and/or yield measurable mitigation of threats.
19. Provide technical support to trainees to enable better design and implementation of small on-the-ground projects.
These are merely examples drawn from biodiversity hotspots around the world to give you a sense of the complexities involved in actually implementing conservation biology. Inspecting these priorities will enable you to elucidate just which topics among the many that fall under the umbrella of conservation biology are most germane to its practice. Review all available information about the strategies for the selected hotspots with a copy of the Jacobson figure at hand and make a list of all the topics that are relevant to each hotspot. Tally these in a summary table to examine the overall distribution of priorities among topic areas.
For example, your table might array the hotspots (Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of Tanzania and Kenya, Cape Floristic Region, Caucasus, Southern Mesoamerica, and Mountains of Southwest China) as column headers and strategic areas as rows. You should devise your own topic areas based on Figure 2.1 as a starting point but here are some suggestions: Biodiversity research, assessment, or management, Communications, Community-based activities, Conservation finance, Economic enterprise, Information management, Inventory and monitoring, Organizations and policy, and Protected areas and corridors. Note that some hotspot-specific strategies can have multiple foci and as such are best tallied more than once; for example, a project to boost sustainable livelihoods of farmers in potential biological corridor zones might best be tallied as both economic enterprise and protect areas/corridors.
Expected Products
A tabular summary of the focal areas for biodiversity conservation as highlighted by the CEPF for each hotspot and an accompanying synthesis (in a format indicated by your instructor) of what professional skills and training would seem most useful to be able to participate effectively in these efforts.Responses in a form indicated by your instructor to the Discussion questions below.Discussion
1 What are the most heavily represented topic areas in the CEPF strategies? What are the least? Are you surprised by the results?
2 Why do you think topic areas differ so much from one hotspot to another? What are the social, economic and cultural explanations for this variation?
3 In a conservation context, how might the relative importance of different disciplines changed over the last 50 years? How are they likely to change in the future?
4 Is the CEPF and the activities it supports an adequate representation of what conservation biology is all about? Why or why not?
Making It Happen
This exercise is intended to let you see what a “real-world” biodiversity conservation program looks like. If you seek to get involved in any conservation problem, be it local or global, you will need a thorough understanding of an intricate web of issues; an analysis such as this is a logical place to begin. At this point in your career you might also use your analysis as the basis for examining the curriculum at your school… are you developing the skills you need?
Further Resources
For further reading about the definition of conservation biology see any of the major conservation biology textbooks, including Caughley and Gunn (1996), Cox (2005), Groom et al. (2006), Hunter and Gibbs (2006), Primack (2004a and 2004b), Pullin (2002), Sutherland (2000), and Van Dyke (2002). One of the best ways to understand what falls under the umbrella of conservation biology is to read the two key journals, Conservation Biology and Biological Conservation. The primary professional organization is the Society for Conservation Biology; the URL for their website is www.scb.org. For more information on the CEPF consult its website: http://www.cepf.net/xp/cepf/.
CHAPTER 3
WHY IS BIODIVERSITY IMPORTANT? WHY IS IT THREATENED? AN EXPLORATION WITH THE IUCN “RED LIST” OF THREATENED SPECIES
James P. Gibbs
Although species extinctions are part of the evolutionary process, current extinction rates are much greater than at any time in the last several million years. To address this issue, we need to understand the major threats to biodiversity. Many human activities threaten biodiversity either directly or indirectly, and virtually all current extinctions are due to human activities. However, each species faces its own specific suite of threats. Moreover, species in different regions of the world are more prone to some threats than others. If we are to mitigate these threats we must first understand them.
We also need to ask: What is the importance of biodiversity? These two questions are part and parcel of the same issue…if biodiversity’s importance cannot be articulated, then it is hard to convince others to reduce threats to it. Fortunately, there are ways to try to bring the issue of why biodiversity is important into better focus. As in human life, sometimes how we value others emerges best when we are about to lose them. A friend moves to a new city or a grandparent dies. Their passage often provokes reflection upon what they meant to us and the ways in which they were important to us. Similarly, many wild species are about to depart from our existence, and their passage can force us to come to better grips with whether their extinction and hence their existence has value to us or not.
The World Conservation Union maintains a list of imperiled and extinct species that can serve as a useful point of departure for an examination of both threats and values. The list, known as the Red List of Threatened Species, or “Red List” for short, is continually being compiled and updated for species all over the world. It is easy to get a list of all the species known to be currently threatened with extinction in a country of interest to you. With this list in hand, you can become familiar with these species and speculate how their fate is important to us. We can also then contrast the causes of species imperilment in a particular country of interest with those in the world at large. From this assessment, you can develop an understanding of the primary threats to biodiversity both locally and globally, as well as what potential values associated with these species are at stake.
Objective
To explore the complex ways that imperiled wild species have “value”To understand regional versus global threats to bioidiversityTo become familiar with the IUCN Red List of threatened species as a resource for understanding species’ changing status around the world.Procedures
Securing the List of Imperiled Species
The Red List is constantly being updated and modified. For the most recent version, access the internet and go to: www.iucnredlist.org/ and select “Search” (you can choose Expert Search but for the purposes of this exercise a simple search will suffice).
Values Assessment
On the Search screen, first select the Red List categories of interest. Select CR (critically endangered: facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild), EN (endangered: facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild) and VU (vulnerable: facing a high risk of extinction in the wild). If you are having trouble selecting multiple categories, see the “help” button by the Red List Categories. These three categories include the most threatened, extant species among all those with sufficient data available to categorize them (Figure 3.1). You are strongly encouraged to become familiar with the different IUCN list categories and criteria at: www.iucnredlist.org/info/categories_criteria2001. The reason is that IUCN list categories and criteria are part of the common language of most conservation biologists.
Fig. 3.1 Structure of IUCN Red List categories
Under “Select one or more countries” choose any country of interest to you. This might be your home country or another that simply intrigues you. Now choose Search and you will generate a list of species. “Sort” them by Kingdom and then inspect the list. These are the species that, without concerted conservation effort, are soon to be lost. You can learn what little may be known about the species listed by clicking on their Latin bionomials. If you lack internet access we have provided a list of species from a sample country to work with (Table 3.1).
Latin NameCommon name (E=English, F=French, S= Spanish)IUCN Red List categoryChelonia mydasGreen turtle (E), Tortue comestible (F),Tortue franche (F), Tortue verte (F),Tortuga blanca (S), Tortuga verde (S)EN A2bdDermochelys coriaceaLeatherback (E), Leathery turtle (E),Luth (E), Trunkback turtle (E), Tortue luth (F),Baula (S), Canal (S), Cardon (S), Tinglada (S),Tinglar (S), Tortuga laud (S)CR A1abdEpinephelus itajaraGoliath grouper (E), Jewfish (E),Mérou géant (F), Mérou (F), Tétard (F),Cherna (S), Cherne (S), Guasa (S), Guato (S),Guaza (S), Mero batata (S), Mero guasa (S),Mero güasa (S), Mero pintado (S),EN A2adEpinephelus striatusNassau grouper (E), Cherna Criolla (S), Cherna (S)EN A2adEretmochelys imbricata
