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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Conservation Science and Practice
- Sprache: Englisch
Protected areas spearhead our response to the rapidly accelerating biodiversity crisis. However, while the number of protected areas has been growing rapidly over the past 20 years, the extent to which the world's protected areas are effectively conserving species, ecosystems, and ecosystem services is poorly understood.
- Highlights new techniques for better management and monitoring of protected areas
- Sets guidelines for the decision making processes involved in setting up and maintaining protected areas
- Fully international in scope and covering all ecosystems and biomes
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Contributors
Introduction: Do Protected Areas Safeguard Biodiversity?
The future of protected areas
References
Part I: The Global Protected Area Portfolio
1 Government Commitments for Protected Areas
Introduction
Emergence and evolution of government commitments on protected areas
Role of the CBD and its Programme of Work on Protected Areas (2004)
The CBD 2020 Strategic Plan and Aichi Target 11
The importance of national implementation in the context of the global target
Sources of progress toward Target 11
Strengthening the link between political commitment and action
Overcoming funding and policy barriers to implementation of protected area commitments
Scaling up ambition and achieving sustained public support
References
2 Protected Area Diversity and Potential for Improvement
Introduction
The variety of protected areas
Different approaches to building national protected area systems
Identifying some gaps in our knowledgeand necessary next steps
References
3 Sound Investments
Introduction
Protected areas as natural solutions to climate change
Protected areas securing human welfare
Protect, connect, and restore
Funding protected area expansion and management
Mainstreaming protected areas into development strategies
References
4 Optimal Protection of the World’s Threatened Birds, Mammals, and Amphibians
Introduction
Materials and methods
How well represented are threatened birds, mammals, and amphibians in the current PA system?
What is needed to optimally protect birds, amphibians, and mammals, and where are these priority landscapes?
Discussion
Conclusion
References
5 Maintaining a Global Data Set on Protected Areas
The world database on protected areas
WDPA quality
Protected area statistics
Biodiversity protection statistics
Enabling the WDPA: fundamental principles
Summary and conclusion
References
Part II: The Fate of Species in Protected Areas
6 Species Population Trends in Protected Areas
Introduction
Data availability: Collating abundance data for protected area evaluation
Current trends: African case study
Future trends: Scenario models to support protected area policy
Discussion
Acknowledgments
References
7 Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Conserving Large Carnivores in Europe
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Acknowledgements
References
8 Towards Understanding Drivers of Wildlife Population Trends in Terrestrial Protected Areas
Introduction
Impact of protection
Drivers of biodiversity outcomes
Acknowledgements
References
Part III: Managing Protected Areas at System Scales
9 Toward Assessing the Vulnerability of US National Parks to Land Use and Climate Change
Introduction
Delineating PACEs
Exposure to land use and climate change in the last century
Forecasting change in climate and biome location: 2010–2090
Cumulative effects of past and projected future climate and land use
Implications for management
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
10 Integrating Community-Managed Areas into Protected Area Systems
Introduction
CCAs as important solutions to biodiversity conservation: The assumptions
Protected areas as complex socioecological systems: The relevance of institutional theory
A comparative analysis of biological outcomes in community-managed landscapes
Comparisons of community-managed/used areas with SPAs
Comparisons of community-managed/used areas with open-access systems
Community-managed forests over time
Biological outcomes in CCAs: Analysis of socioeconomic, environmental, and institutional drivers
Negative biological outcomes in community-managed areas
Positive biological outcomes in community-managed areas
Biodiversity conservation in community-managed areas: Synergies and trade-offs
Conclusions
References
11 The Importance of Asia's Protected Areas for Safeguarding Commercially High Value Species
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Protected areas provide the best hope for the dedicated antipoaching efforts needed to conserve CHV species in Asia
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Part IV: Monitoring Protected Areas at System Scales
12 Monitoring Protected Area Coverage and Impact on Key Biodiversity Areas, Important Bird Areas and Alliance for Zero Extinction Sites
Introduction
Protected area coverage of important sites for biodiversity conservation
State, pressure and responses at protected areas that overlap important sites for biodiversity conservation
Trends in the extinction risk of species in protected areas that overlap important sites for biodiversity conservation
Conclusions and policy implications
Acknowledgements
References
13 Camera Traps for Conservation
Introduction
Species level indicators
Scaling biodiversity surveys to monitor Aichi progress: Field surveys and camera trapping
Cost considerations for camera trap monitoring in protected areas
Acknowledgments
References
14 Monitoring Protected Areas from Space
Introduction
Remote sensing and terrestrial protected area monitoring
Remote sensing and marine protected area monitoring
Limitations
Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 01
Table 1.1
Some international milestones in the evolution of global protected area commitments
Chapter 02
Table 2.1
‘The IUCN protected area matrix’: a classification system for protected areas comprising both management category and governance type
Chapter 03
Table 3.1
Examples of benefits afforded by protected areas through ecosystem services in addition to biodiversity conservation
Chapter 04
Table 4.1
The number of gap species and the number of species that met their representation target (see text) by taxonomic group
Table 4.2
Two different scenarios for the amount of land requiring protection in order to achieve threatened species representation and persistence targets: (1) achieving coverage by at least one protected area for each threatened mammal, bird, and amphibian species and (2) achieving minimum persistence targets for each threatened mammal, bird, and amphibian species (defined by Rodrigues et al., 2004a, b)
Chapter 07
Table 7.1
Species life history data used to develop the population and protected area network models
Chapter 09
Table 9.1
Land use properties of the PACEs surrounding the US national park units included in this study.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1
A summary of positive, negative, and neutral outcomes in biodiversity conservation from selected case studies
Chapter 11
Table 11.1
Proportion of the seven CHV species’ range and total population within protected areas
Chapter 13
Table 13.1
CBD Aichi 2020 targets relating to protected areas and biodiversity
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure 1.1
Growth in number of nationally and internationally designated protected areas (1911–2011).
Figure 1.2
Current and targeted percent of terrestrial area under protection for 86 countries.
Figure 1.3
Marine areas under protection and national MPA targets for 70 countries.
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1
Dispersal between protected areas will vary with species, intervening environment and many other factors
Figure 2.2
Different options for connectivity between protected areas: (a) network of small reserves functioning as a mega-reserve and (b) network of small reserves isolated from each other and not interacting
Figure 2.3
Some different relationships between species and protected areas: (a) species confined entirely inside protected areas, (b) species distribution unaffected by protected areas, (c) species concentrated in but not confined to protected areas, and (d) species entirely outside protected areas
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1
The relationship between protected area coverage and geographic range size for threatened bird, amphibian, and mammal species (
n
= 4118). The gray line represents the persistence target for each species developed by Rodrigues et al. (2004a, b), based on the scaled fraction of range size.
Figure 4.2
Priority additions (black) to the global protected area estate that capture underrepresented threatened species’ distributions. This analysis starts with the existing protected area system and adds new sites that contribute most to meeting persistence targets (see text for details). Gray areas represent existing protected areas.
Figure 4.3
Proportion of new protected areas in an efficiently designed protected area network that lies within the borders of each country and achieves (a) representation of all threatened BAM species, (where total area added is equal to 0.2% of the terrestrial area on Earth) and (b) persistence targets for all threatened BAM species (where total area added is equal to 5.5% of the terrestrial area on Earth).
Chapter 05
Figure 5.1
WDPA attributes. *Indicates attributes assigned or calculated by UNEP-WCMC (2015).
Figure 5.2
Attribute gaps in the WDPA in August 2014.
Figure 5.3
Percentage of all terrestrial and marine areas (0–200 nautical miles) covered by protected areas, 1990–2014 (Juffe-Bignoli et al., 2014a)
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1
Location of abundance time series in protected areas. (a) Map showing coincidence of marine and land-based protected areas with population abundance data. (b) Number of time series data over time. (c) Length of time series data. (d) Time series starting and ending.
Figure 6.2
Trends in populations of large mammal species in African protected areas for (a) whole continent and (b) eastern, (c) western, and (d) southern Africa.
Figure 6.3
Biodiversity indicators track changes in protected area status under a range of different management scenarios. (a) Red List Index.
(b) Living Planet Index.
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1
Main steps followed in the development of population distribution models
Figure 7.2
Coverage percentage of protected areas for three species in Europe. BL, baseline coverage (protected habitat/overall habitat); EC, effective coverage (protected habitat reaching the target at the cluster level/overall habitat); MPS, MPS coverage (protected habitat with a minimum patch size/overall habitat); NPAs, national protected areas; SACs, Special Areas of Conservation in Natura 2000 network. Values above the EC bars indicate the number of protected site clusters able to support viable populations.
Figure 7.3
Potential population size within protected area system in each European country (assuming their occupation and connection within each country and considering an average density of 0.02 n/km
2
). Dashed lines represent the target for the species.
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1
Protected area centered ecosystems (PACEs) surrounding each US national park, color-coded by land use typological membership. Classification criteria were as follows: wildland protected, >65% public; wildland developable, <65% public, >60% private undeveloped, <16% private agriculture; agricultural, <65% public private, >60% undeveloped, >16% private agriculture; exurban, <65% public private, >60% undeveloped, <15% private dominated by exurban or urban; urban, <65% public private, >60% undeveloped, >15% private dominated by urban or urban.
Figure 9.2
Relative levels of temperature change, proportion of PACE developed, and nonnative vascular plants among PACEs. The data are expressed as the percentage of the highest value among the PACEs for each variable, and these percentages are summed to represent the relative magnitude of the combined exposure to these three components of global change
Figure 9.3
Projected change in mean annual temperature within protected area centered ecosystems (PACEs) surrounding US national parks under the CGCM3_A2 model and scenario.
Figure 9.4
Percent of each protected area centered ecosystems (PACEs) projected to shift in biome type suitability under the consensus of six climate models and scenarios (above) and color-coded level of biome suitability shift by 2030 mapped across the United States.
Figure 9.5
PACEs positioned in the space defined by the percentage of the PACE developed in 2010 and by the percentage of the PACE projected to undergo a biome shift by 2030.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1
Frequency of association (number of case studies) of selected variables from Ostrom’s socioecological systems framework (Ostrom, 2007) with positive and negative biological outcomes.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1
Current ranges of Asian elephants (top left) (adapted from Talukdar et al., 2010), tigers (top right) (adapted from Walston et al., 2010), gaur and banteng (bottom left) (adapted from IUCN, 2010), and Asian rhinoceroses (bottom right) (adapted from Hedges et al., 2009), with Javan rhinoceros solely on the island of Java, Sumatran rhinoceros only the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, and greater one-horned rhinoceros only in India and Nepal (inset)
Figure 11.2
Overlap in the range of CHV species in protected areas showing how many of the seven species occur in each protected area
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1
Trends in (a) the extent of terrestrial protected areas and their coverage of (b) IBAs and (c) AZEs. For protected areas, the lines represent minimum and maximum estimates with 95% confidence intervals, derived from areas with delimited boundaries and those with and without delimited boundaries, respectively. For IBAs and AZEs, shading shows 95% confidence intervals based on uncertainty around date of protection (and, for a small subset of IBAs, proportion protected).
Figure 12.2
The proportion of total protected area extent covering important sites, 1950–2006. Lines represent minimum and maximum estimates based on uncertainty in the extent of protected areas.
Figure 12.3
IBA indices (mean ± 95% CI) for state, pressure and response during 1999–2005 at protected (filled circles, n = 20) and unprotected (filled squares, n = 16) Kenyan IBAs.
Figure 12.4
Proportion of Kenyan IBAs that are protected areas (n = 20) or unprotected (n = 16) with different categories of scores for management planning during 1999–2005; figures give the number of IBAs.
Figure 12.5
Proportion of Kenyan IBAs that are protected areas IBAs (n = 20) or unprotected (n = 16) with different categories of scores for conservation action during 1999–2005; figures give the number of IBAs.
Figure 12.6
IBA indices (mean ± 95% CI) for state, pressure and response during 1999–2005 at protected Kenyan IBAs managed by the Kenya Forest Service (KFS; n = 4), Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS; n = 7), National Museums of Kenya (NMK; n = 1) or jointly by more than one of these agencies (JA; n = 8).
Figure 12.7
Annual percentage decline in Red List Index for sets of bird species (during 1988–2008) with ≤50% or >50% of IBAs completely protected and for bird (1988–2008), mammal (1996–2008) and amphibian species (1980–2004) restricted to single sites (AZEs) that are partially/unprotected versus completely protected (averaged across taxa, weighting species equally). Numbers within each bar refer to the number of species. Error bars show 95% confidence intervals based on uncertainty around the estimated value that is introduced by data-deficient species.
Figure 12.8
Observed annual percentage declines in Red List Index (RLI) are significantly different from those expected by chance based on 10,000 randomisations for (a) bird species (during 1988–2008) with >50% of IBAs completely protected (N = 1004, P < 0.001) and (b) for bird (1988–2008), mammal (1996–2008) and amphibian species (1980–2004) restricted to single sites (AZEs) that are partially/unprotected (N = 675, P = 0.025) versus completely covered by protected areas (N = 170, P = 0.032). The RLI for bird species with ≤50% of IBAs completely protected was not significantly different from random (N = 3440, P = 0.31 (a)). The observed annual percentage change in RLI is shown as black lines (with 95% confidence intervals based on uncertainty introduced by data-deficient species shown by dashed lines) and annual percentage change in RLI from randomly allocating species 10,000 times shown by grey bars, with short black lines indicating the 5% confidence interval for a one-tailed test.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1
Growth in research publications citing use of camera traps to collect data, falling cost of camera traps (closed circles, regression line), increasing capacity (images on film versus digital cameras: above line), and increased battery life (below line) (Reuters, 2015)
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1
Excess of rainfall (in millimetre), NDVI and NDWI as reported by the African Protected Areas Assessment Tool (Hartley et al., 2007) for the Serengeti National Park (Tanzania). Observations are collected for each 10-day period and contrasted against 10-year averages (grey line) and associated 95% Confidence intervals (grey areas).
Guide
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Conservation Science and Practice Series
Published in association with the Zoological Society of London
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Protected Areas: Are They Safeguarding Biodiversity?
Edited by
Lucas N. Joppa, Jonathan E. M. Baillie and John G. Robinson
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Names: Joppa, Lucas, editor. | Baillie, Jonathan, editor. | Robinson, John G., editor.Title: Protected areas : are they safeguarding biodiversity? / edited by Lucas Joppa, Jonathan Baillie, and John Robinson.Description: Chichester, West Sussex : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2015036766| ISBN 9781118338162 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118338155 (pbk.)Subjects: LCSH: Protected areas. | Natural resources conservation areas. | Biodiversity conservation. | Wildlife conservation.Classification: LCC S944.5.P78 P754 2016 | DDC 333.72–dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015036766
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Contributors
J. E. M. Baillie Zoological Society of London, London, UK
M. Barnes Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, AustraliaSchool of Geography Planning and Environmental Management, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
B. Bertzky United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UKInstitute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra, Italy
L. Boitani Department of Biology and Biotechnologies, Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
T. M. Brooks NatureServe, Arlington, VA, USA; IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
N. D. Burgess United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UKCenter for Macroecology, Evolution, and Climate, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
S. H. M. Butchart BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK
L. R. Carrasco Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
B. Collen Centre for Biodiversity & Environment Research, University College London, London, UK
C. Corrigan United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK
I. D. Craigie ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
C. Davis College of Forestry and Conservation, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
G. Dubois European Commission – Joint Research Centre, Brussels, Belgium
N. Dudley Equilibrium Research, Bristol, UK
R. A. Fuller School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
L. Gurney European Commission – Joint Research Centre, Brussels, Belgium
J. Haas USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO, USA
A. Hansen Ecology Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
S. Hedges Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USA
M. Hockings School of Geography Planning and Environmental Management, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
L. Joppa Microsoft Research, Cambridge, UK
D. Juffe-Bignoli United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK
S. Kenney United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK
N. Kingston United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK
L. Krueger The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, USA
J. Loh WWF International, Gland, SwitzerlandSchool of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
K. MacKinnon IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) Cambridge, UK
B. MacSharry United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK
L. Maiorano Department of Biology and Biotechnologies, Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
L. McRae Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, UK
A. Milam United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UKEcoLogic, LLC, Birmingham, AL, USA
E. J. Milner-Gulland Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Berkshire, UKDepartment of Zoology, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
M. A. K. Mwangi BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK
H. Nagendra School of Development, Azim Premji University, Bangalore, India
E. Nicholson School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, AustraliaDeakin University, Geelong, Australia. School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology (Burwood Campus), Australia
T. G. O’Brien Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USAMpala Research Centre, Nanyuki, Kenya
N. Pettorelli Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, UK
N. Piekielek University Libraries, 208L Paterno Library, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
M. Rao Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USA
J. G. Robinson Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USA
C. Rondinini Department of Biology and Biotechnologies, Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
L. Santini Department of Biology and Biotechnologies, Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
J. P. W. Scharlemann United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UKSchool of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
D. B. Segan Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USA
G. Shahabuddin Centre for Ecology, Development and Research, Uttarakhand, India
E. J. Stokes Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USA
S. Stolton Equilibrium Research, Bristol, UK
J. Walston Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USA
J. E. M. Watson Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USASchool of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, AustraliaSchool of Geography, Planning and Environmental Management, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
M. Wegmann Remote Sensing and Biodiversity Research, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, GermanyGerman Aerospace Centre, Cologne, Germany
S. Whitmee Centre for Biodiversity & Environment Research, University College London, London, UKInstitute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, UKInternational Union for Conservation of Nature, Cambridge, UK
Introduction: Do Protected Areas Safeguard Biodiversity?
J. E. M.Baillie1, L. Joppa2and J. G. Robinson3
1Zoological Society of London, London, UK
2Microsoft Research, Redmond, WA, USA
3Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, USA
In 1959, the UN Economic and Social Council called for a list of the world’s national parks and equivalent reserves to recognise their economic, social and scientific importance and for their role in environmental well-being. The protected area network at the time covered roughly 2,000,000 km2 and is now rapidly approaching 20,000,000 km2 (WDPA, 2014). This tenfold increase in protected area coverage over 50 years has been one of the greatest successes in conservation. But protected areas are not an end in themselves, and to a large extent, biodiversity loss has continued unabated. Populations of many species have continued to decline, some species have gone extinct, and the integrity of ecosystems has increasingly been threatened. The world population has more than doubled, as has the human consumption of water, food and energy. Ever-increasing land conversion, carbon emissions, spread of invasive alien species, nitrogen pollution and over-exploitation have driven biodiversity loss. Ecosystems such as forests, coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds are on the decline (Butchart et al., 2010; Emmott, 2013), taking with them the species they contain (WWF, 2012). And these trends are not changing; the United Nations projected there will be 9.6 billion people on the planet by 2050 (United Nations, 2013) and the consumption of food, water and energy will more than double, resulting in the conversion of many of the last remaining wild spaces. As human population increases and land is converted or degraded, protected areas will therefore play an increasingly important role in conserving biodiversity. The imperatives of providing resources to meet the needs of an expanding human population while protecting other life forms will surely collide, and there will be growing pressures to develop or exploit these remaining protected landscapes. We are now at a point where we must now decide how much space we are going to leave for other forms of life.
Although protected areas are recognised as one of the most effective tools for conserving both terrestrial and marine biodiversity (Bruner et al., 2001; Selig & Bruno, 2010), we have only a preliminary understanding of the extent to which the portfolio of protected areas safeguards biodiversity on a global scale. This book aims to define what is currently known about the current coverage of the global protected area network, the extent to which this network is truly safeguarding biodiversity and steps needed to improve the effectiveness of our protected area portfolio. It is hoped that this will provide a solid foundation for protected area planning in the 21st century.
Strengthening the foundation for protected area planning is particularly important as the world’s governments have recently made a commitment to expand global protected area coverage to at least 17% of terrestrial and inland water habitats and 10% of marine areas by 2020, ‘especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity…’ (Target 11) (CBD, 2010). This coverage is mandated to be ‘ecologically representative’. However, before expanding the current global network of protected areas, it is important to first understand how much of the world is currently under protection, which components of biodiversity are within this network and where, how and whether the system is functioning effectively.
The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) is reviewed in Part I or Chapter 5 providing insight into protected area coverage and representation. The proportion of the world’s surface under some form of protection is not insignificant: The database indicates that 14.6% (19.6 million km2) of the world’s terrestrial area, excluding the Antarctica, and 2.2% (6 million km2) of the global ocean are managed. However, that protected area portfolio does not protect the full range of species and ecological diversity: Of the 823 terrestrial ecoregions and 232 marine ecoregions that have been defined (Olson et al., 2001; Spalding et al., 2007), only about one third of the terrestrial ecoregions meet the Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) 17% coverage target, and 13% of the marine ecoregions meet the 10% target. In 2010, 10% of the terrestrial ecoregions had less than 1% of their area protected, and 59% of the 232 marine ecoregions had less than 1% protected (Bertzky et al., 2012). The current protected area system does not meet the targets for 2020, especially in terms of representation, even taking into account that our scientific understanding of the patterns of biodiversity is rudimentary.
Part IV explores how the current network of protected areas might best be expanded to ensure that the portfolio is more ecologically representative and covers areas of particular importance to biodiversity. Chapter 12 introduces the concept of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) and Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZEs) sites. IBAs are places of international significance for the conservation of birds, and AZEs represent locations at which species extinctions are imminent unless the areas are appropriately protected. IBAs and AZEs have been located worldwide, and 10,993 IBAs and 588 AZEs have been identified. In 2010, only 28% of IBAs were completely contained within protected areas, while 49% were completely outside. Only 22% of AZEs were completely contained within protected areas, and 51% were found outside of these areas. In the case of both IBAs and AZEs, the calculated risk of extinction of species was higher outside of protected areas. If all unprotected or partially protected IBAs and AZEs were added to the current protected area network, this would necessitate an increase in the global network of 4.6 million km2 and an increase of 17.5% in the protection of terrestrial habitat.
Chapter 4 examines what it would take to expand the protected area network to protect threatened mammal, bird and amphibian species. How much additional land would need to be protected to ensure the persistence of all threatened mammals, birds and amphibians? The current protected area network only met the persistence targets for 12.7% of the threatened species, but the persistence targets for all threatened mammals, birds and amphibians could be met if the global protected area system was strategically expanded to cover an additional 18.4% of the earth’s surface.
From the analyses presented in these chapters, it is clear that even if Aichi Target 11 is met and 17% of the terrestrial environment and 10% of the oceans are protected, it would be insufficient to protect the world’s threatened species. It is important to recognise the sampling bias in these analyses, as they are based on a subset of the vertebrate data, representing less than 2.5% of the world’s described species.
Part III highlights a number of the drivers that will likely play an increasingly important role in determining future patterns of biodiversity loss. These drivers include land-use change, climate change and the exploitation of high value species. Chapter 9 focuses on examining changing land uses around national parks in the United States and the implications for biodiversity within the parks. Lands surrounding 48 parks strongly connected to the ecological functioning of each were delineated and defined as protected area-centred ecosystems (PACEs). Land-use change and climate change are then summarised over the recent past and projected into the future. A take-home lesson was the great variability across the 48 PACEs in their vulnerability to land-use change and climate change. This approach has great utility in identifying landscapes that will be particularly vulnerable to future change and could greatly assist with adaptive management strategies.
Chapter 11 examines the importance of protected areas in conserving commercially high value (CHV) species found in Asia. CHV species analysed include:
Tigers (
Panthera tigris
)
Asian elephants (
Elephas maximus
)
Asian rhinoceros species
Greater one-horned rhinoceros (
Rhinoceros unicornis
)
Javan rhinoceros (
Rhinoceros sondaicus
)
Sumatran rhinoceros (
Dicerorhinus sumatrensis
)
Asian wild cattle species
Banteng (
Bos javanicus
)
Gaur (
Bos gaurus
)
In all of these cases, as populations have been exploited and species ranges have been restricted, protected areas provide the last refuges for these species. With the high value of these species, especially in illegal markets, the challenge is securing adequate funding to protect them. For example, effective tiger conservation is estimated to cost roughly US$930 per km2 per year (Walston et al., 2010), but available funding is in the range of US$500 per km2 per year. Nevertheless, criteria can be identified that would allow effective management of CHV species.
Part II highlights one of the greatest challenges to the conservation movement – how to effectively monitor species, ecosystems and the drivers of biodiversity loss. Without this information, it is difficult to empirically demonstrate which interventions are working or which conservation sites are more successful than others at safeguarding biodiversity. New insights, methods and approaches are beginning to transform the field of conservation. Chapter 6 examines available vertebrate population time series data for protected areas; trends are assessed in African protected areas, and future scenarios are modelled to explore the relative importance of management and protected area expansion. Data for these analyses were based on some 4337 populations of 1543 species in 977 protected areas, an extensive collection but one that represents less than 1% of the protected areas listed in the WDPA. Regions with the greatest data gaps include South America and Southeast Asia. The case study from Africa demonstrates that in the sampled protected areas, the number of large mammal species may have decreased by half since 1970. The analysis identifies major differences in regional trends. What are the factors that account for these trends? One lesson is that the area under protection is frequently less important than the effectiveness of management. Expending efforts and budgets on management might frequently be more effective than seeking to expand the protected area portfolio. Business as usual is not a good long-term strategy. This chapter demonstrates that though data are still limited, especially from some of the most biodiverse parts of the planet, aggregating population time series data shows great promise for providing conservationists with robust trend data to help with management from the local to global scale.
Chapter 13 reviews approaches to monitoring species in protected areas. Camera trapping is identified as one of the most scientifically robust and cost-effective approaches for monitoring diurnal, nocturnal and crepuscular medium- to large-sized vertebrates. This approach is rapidly expanding and helping to provide insight into abundance, distribution and species richness in some of the most data-poor parts of the world. This data can be aggregated to provide trends in abundance from the site level to global scale and will greatly improve the current species time series datasets.
Finally, Chapter 14, introduces the latest science on monitoring biodiversity using satellite technology to guide protected area design and management. The multiple uses of satellite technology to help manage protected areas are explored: monitoring populations of specific species (e.g. penguins to invasive species), recording land-use changes, relating climatic anomalies and measuring ecosystem services such as productivity. The application of satellites to monitor marine protected areas is highlighted: Satellites can provide information on surface temperature, salinity, sea surface height, wind speed and direction. In addition, they can detect threats to marine protected areas such as oil spills or illegal fishing vessels. While much of this technology is still in its infancy, satellites will provide major breakthroughs in monitoring and will revolutionise protected area monitoring as high-resolution data becomes more widely available, especially to developing countries.
Part II examines how the effectiveness of management in protected areas can be improved. Chapter 8 explores the drivers of species population trends in protected areas. This requires that in addition to monitoring biological outcomes (population trends), inputs, actions and context are also measured. They found that protected areas with information on both species population trends and data such as expenditure, capacity, threat intensity, specific interventions, ecological context, sociopolitical context or total area were extremely rare, making it difficult to empirically demonstrate conditions or actions that lead to successful conservation outcomes. Case studies and expert opinion surveys are also reviewed, demonstrating that factors driving species population trends in protected areas are complex but that management quality and resources are unsurprisingly extremely important factors.
Different protected area types differ in their effectiveness at protecting biodiversity. Chapter 2 reviews the categories of protected areas based on management regime (from strict reserves to management resource protected areas) and based on governance (from those run by government to those managed privately or by indigenous peoples/local communities). Each category offers options that may help improve upon existing approaches. One conclusion is that the traditional focus of studies on conservation effectiveness has been on state-run protected areas. This has resulted in a limited understanding of the effectiveness of other forms of protected area governance. This is addressed to some extent in Chapter 10 where the conservation effectiveness, as measured by biological indicators, of protected areas run by indigenous peoples or local communities is compared to that of strictly protected, government-run areas. Protected areas run by indigenous peoples or local communities represent 9.3% of all protected areas with a known governance type (Bertzky et al., 2012), so assessing their effectiveness in conserving biodiversity is critical. While no general patterns in terms of forest cover, deforestation rates and species diversity/richness were discernible, there were clear differences in the composition of vertebrate species under the two regimes. Not surprisingly, where certain species were used by local people, this influenced their viability. Biological diversity in community-managed forests also tended to be degraded over time. Studies also found that negative biological outcomes were associated with rapid economic development, population pressure, market incentives for conservation, conflicts and accessibility. There is clearly great variation among community-managed protected areas in their effectiveness at conserving biological diversity, but these areas are a critical part of the global protected area network and deserve greater research and attention.
Chapter 7 examines the effectiveness of the European national park network and Natura 2000 sites in conserving the three largest carnivores in Europe: the lynx (Lynx lynx), wolf (Canis lupus) and brown bear (Ursus arctos). The long-term viability for each of these species was assessed under different protected area network scenarios in countries across Europe. One conclusion is that in isolation, few countries in Europe can protect one or more viable population of large carnivores by themselves. Conservation planning for these species can only be effective if planning were done at the continental scale. While the Natura 2000 network was not designed to operate at this scale and led to many uncoordinated national networks, large carnivores in Europe were resilient to this design flaw, largely because of their ability to adapt to the matrix landscape outside protected areas. Suitable habitat outside of protected areas has been critical to their long-term survival, and populations of large carnivores in Europe are increasing.
Part I extends the argument for protected areas beyond biodiversity conservation. Protected areas are an important investment for society, and there are a number of ancillary arguments as to why they should be financed. Chapter 3 outlines the biodiversity and humanitarian implications of climate change and highlights the fundamental importance of protected areas in storing carbon. A conservative estimate is that protected areas globally store 312 billion tons of carbon or 15% of the terrestrial carbon stock. Ensuring that these carbon stocks are secured is in the interest of global health. Protected areas also play a critical role in climate change adaptation, helping to reduce the vulnerability of local communities by protecting watersheds and soil, maintaining features such as mangroves that shield communities from major tidal surges or helping to maintain food sources such as fisheries or other wild crop relatives. Protected areas are also responsible for providing a significant amount of drinking water to major cities such as New York, Tokyo, Sydney and Mumbai (Dudley & Stolton, 2003) and providing major sources of water for crop irrigation. In addition, they play a more traditional role of providing jobs through ecotourism.
Recent estimates of the costs of supporting an effectively managed and representative global protected area network range from US$34 to US$79 billion per year (Butchart et al., 2012; McCarthy et al., 2012). Current expenditures are likely closer to US$6 billion (Balmford & Whitten, 2003). However, expenditures of even US$79 billion are comparably inexpensive when compared to the estimated annual value for goods and services provided by the global protected area system, which are closer to US$4400–5200 billion (Balmford et al., 2002). The societal justification for establishing and managing many protected areas has frequently been their value in conserving biodiversity, but clearly the value of this land use needs to be quantified in terms of economic benefits and development agendas. We need to better understand and communicate the economic and social value of each protected area and the larger national and global networks.
The future of protected areas
So what does the future look like for the world’s protected areas? First, it is clear that even if we meet Target 11 by 2020 and 17% of the land and inland waters and 10% of the ocean are protected, this will be insufficient to ensure viable populations of species that are currently known to be threatened. We would therefore not meet Target 12 of the CBD 2020 targets, which calls for the ‘…extinction of known threatened species to be prevented and their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, to be improved and sustained by 2020’ (CBD, 2010). The global community recognises that the numbers specified in Target 11 have no scientific or ecological basis (see Chapter 1), and ultimately, there is no scientific answer to how much space we should leave for other forms of life. This is a moral and ethical discussion. Our decision on how much space to set aside for other forms of life, and where to do so, will have major implications for generations to come.
While the broad question of how much area should be set aside as protected areas is not scientifically tractable, the more specific question of how much should be set aside to prevent the extinction of individual species (Target 12) can be determined empirically. Chapter 6 begins to address this important question. At the very least, we should follow this approach to assess the area needs of threatened species and do this beyond mammals, birds and amphibians. Ecological representation can also be empirically measured (preliminary findings are presented in Chapter 4), but this too needs to be explored in much greater detail. The conservation community has a responsibility to identify the area needs for species. If this is not done, and a clear vision articulated and advocated, the future of many species, and perhaps our own, will be defined by what a few policymakers feel is politically appropriate or feasible.
An increase in protected areas is obviously positive for biodiversity, and countries should be held accountable to the commitments that have already been made under Target 12. However, countries are under no formal obligation to define a strategy of how the target will be met and the timeline for implementation. Civil society has a role in helping governments develop these strategies. National conservation non-governmental organisations (NGOs) should be demanding these implementation strategies and encouraging countries to report progress against the intended timeline.
In Part IV, it is evident there is a biodiversity monitoring revolution in play. The increased capacity to monitor biodiversity will completely transform the field of conservation with a particular impact on protected area management. With new technology such as remote monitoring units and satellites, protected area managers will soon be able to cost-effectively measure trends in species and ecosystems as well as drivers of biodiversity loss. It will be possible to disaggregate this information to explore trends by protected area, major ecosystem, region and county or even at the global scale. Conservation will finally join other disciplines in having real-time biodiversity indicators. We will then be able to clearly state which protected areas are truly safeguarding biodiversity and which interventions are having the intended impact, allowing us to rapidly scale up activities that truly work. This technology will revolutionise surveillance in protected areas and public engagement.
We currently have protected areas globally that contain extremely economically valuable species, yet as described in Chapter 11, many lack the resources to effectively protect them. It is much like having an art gallery that lacks an alarm system or sufficient security staff; thieves can simply walk off with the most expensive pieces. New technology will soon help effectively provide an alarm system for the world’s protected areas, but much more than an early warning system is needed to secure the future of CHV species. The conservation community needs to develop common standards to effectively protect species. CHV species such as rhino, elephant and tigers are but the most visible manifestation of the needs to protect valuable biodiversity. For instance, a new standard should include the recommendations from Chapter 11 as well as a common platform for patrol-based monitoring such as the Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology (SMART) system and a clear community engagement strategy. Sufficient funding then needs to be raised to rapidly roll out these new standards across the world’s protected areas.
Chapter 2 defines many different management categories that have been adopted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. One common goal of protected areas is the protection of biodiversity. The goal of protection however should not be restricted to protected areas, and the conservation of biodiversity must also be a goal in the broader landscape and seascape matrix. It may be more appropriate to think in terms of zoning, with some land and sea use zones being more wildlife friendly than others. Ensuring that this broader landscape matrix is maintained through effective zoning is essential for the long-term persistence of species such as the large European carnivores reviewed in Chapter 7.
Engaging the public and making the social and economic argument for protected areas should be a continued effort of the NGO and scientific community. Technology is transforming the way people engage with protected areas. A mobile application, Instant Wild, now exists sending hundreds of thousands of people images of amazing species from protected areas all over the world, asking them to get involved in the identification process (ZSL, 2014). Soon, many of the world’s protected areas will be brought to life through digital media reaching millions. People will be able to track individual species or watch predator–prey interactions from their desktop or smartphone. They may even have the option to adopt a particular square of a protected area that they can also help to monitor and protect. While digital engagement in a world that’s population is predominantly urban is extremely important, nothing will replace, encouraging the next generation to experience nature first hand. Initiatives bringing local children to protected areas should be part of national curriculums and a fundamental activity of local NGOs. If we fail to communicate the importance of protected areas to the next generation, they will be quickly lost as land-use trade-offs intensify.
The conservation of biodiversity in protected areas is rooted in an ethical argument. It is our responsibility to protect the roughly 8.7 million other forms of life because they have a right to exist and future generations have a right to live in a world that contains the great diversity of life. This is fundamentally the reason that most people want to protect species, because they think it is the right thing to do. However, we also need to support this with strong economic and human development arguments that are well articulated in Chapter 1. The conservation community needs a much stronger research agenda that focuses on how to connect the next generation with nature and how to best measure and articulate the economic and social values of protected areas.
With increasing population growth and associated pressures for agricultural expansion and resource extraction, there is going to be more and more pressure to both develop and extract resources from the world’s protected areas. For example, there are oil and gas concessions that are inside 27% of the natural World Heritage Sites, and although none of these currently have active oil wells (Turner, 2012), companies that hold these concessions are expecting to drill. What is permissible within protected areas? What activities will not be tolerated in protected areas under specific management regimes? When most of the world is effectively zoned for agriculture or resource extraction, do we really need to exploit the 14.6% of land and 2.2% of the oceans that have been set aside for nature? The conservation community needs to develop a clear position and work with government and industry to ensure they make lasting commitments to this position.
Finally, much better reporting on the effectiveness of the world’s protected areas is needed, clearly defining progress towards agreed targets as well as state, pressure and response monitoring of protected areas from the site to national to global scale. This document would be fundamental in the continual evaluation and planning process of the global protected area network. It is hoped that this book will lay the foundation for such a report and the effective planning of the global protected area network as we start to look well beyond 2020.
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Part IThe Global Protected Area Portfolio
1Government Commitments for Protected Areas: Status of Implementation and Sources of Leverage to Enhance Ambition
L. Krueger
The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, USA
Introduction
The past 20 years has seen a dramatic increase in the number and extent of protected areas worldwide. Although the legal creation of a park does not guarantee the conservation of the biodiversity within it, it is usually an essential first step for securing natural values in a place, particularly as global population and development pressures leave few landscapes and seascapes untouched by humanity. As such, the ongoing creation of protected areas and expansion of the protected area portfolio are often cited as some of the greatest successes of conservation. While the establishment of protected areas clearly recognizes the value of protection as a way to mitigate human impacts on biodiversity, it is appropriate to review the political mechanisms that have driven these achievements: What is the role of formal political commitments, and what are the potentials and limitations as we seek more comprehensive and effective conservation outcomes moving forward?
Governments at many levels have long recognized the value of protected areas, and indeed, the very concept of conservation or reserve areas has an ancient provenance. But since the 1992 Rio Summit, the global protected area estate has dramatically expanded largely in response to explicit commitments made by governments in the international fora. International treaties have contributed to a process of changing global norms and have encouraged governments to make deeper commitments to protected areas; among them are the World Heritage Convention, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance. In addition, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), while not a formal intergovernmental agreement, has done much to promote a global community of practice in support of protected areas. Most recently, in 2010, 193 nations in the world committed to the CBD’s Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 to increase “effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected areas” to at least 17% of the terrestrial and inland water and 10% of the coastal and marine areas by 2020 (CBD, 2010a).
This chapter reviews the role and status of legal frameworks and other commitments for protected areas, and it explores the relationship between scientific evidence and political practicality in implementing current targets and achieving the more ambitious ones. The rationale for these targets is contested. On the one hand, they are seen as underambitious, as biodiversity research has demonstrated that even successful implementation of current targets is unlikely to prevent unprecedented levels of biodiversity loss. On the other hand, the very concept of protected areas is challenged in some quarters as outmoded, and their expansion is seen as a hindrance to more economically profitable land uses. Under these circumstances, the international policy debates around protected areas become crucial arenas for reconciling multiple societal goals and can help the world achieve a rational and effective level of protection given our best understanding of the science and the costs and benefits of alternatives. Although the link between international political commitment and action is not always direct, it can establish channels to promote deeper and more sustainable public support for conservation.
