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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
QUANTITATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ANALYSIS FOR HUMAN HEALTH An updated edition of the foundational guide to environmental risk analysis Environmental risk analysis is a systematic process essential for the evaluation, management, and communication of the human health risk posed by the release of contaminants to the environment. Performed correctly, risk analysis is an essential tool in the protection of the public from the health hazards posed by chemical and radioactive contaminants. Cultivating the quantitative skills required to perform risk analysis competently is a critical need. Quantitative Environmental Risk Analysis for Human Health meets this need with a thorough, comprehensive coverage of the fundamental knowledge necessary to assess environmental impacts on human health. It introduces readers to a robust methodology for analyzing environmental risk, as well as to the fundamental principles of uncertainty analysis and the pertinent environmental regulations. Now updated to reflect the latest research and new cutting-edge methodologies, this is an essential contribution to the practice of environmental risk analysis. Readers of the second edition of Quantitative Environmental Risk Analysis for Human Health will also find: * Detailed treatment of source and release characterization, contaminant migration, exposure assessment, and more * New coverage of computer-based analytical methods * A new chapter of case studies providing actual, real-world examples of environmental risk assessments Quantitative Environmental Risk Analysis for Human Health is must-have for graduate and advanced undergraduate students in civil engineering, environmental engineering, and environmental science, as well as for risk analysis practitioners in industry, environmental consultants, and regulators.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
LIST OF VARIABLES WITH COMMON EXAMPLE UNITS
List of Units
List of Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Special Functions
List of Conversions
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
1 Introduction
1.1 RISK ANALYSIS
1.2 RISK
1.3 CONTAMINANTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
1.4 USES OF ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT
1.5 RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
2 Fundamental Aspects of Environmental Modeling
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 MODELING PROCESS
2.3 PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL BASIS FOR RISK ASSESSMENT MODELS
2.4 CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT EQUATION
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
NOTES
3 Release Assessment
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 CONCEPTUAL MODEL
3.3 CONTAMINANT IDENTIFICATION
3.4 EMISSION‐RATE QUANTIFICATION
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
4 Environmental Transport Theory
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 ONE‐DIMENSIONAL SOLUTIONS OF THE CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT EQUATION
4.3 THREE‐DIMENSIONAL CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT
4.4 ADVANCED SOLUTION METHODS
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
NOTES
5 Surface Water Transport
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 TYPES OF SURFACE WATER BODIES
5.3 SORPTION
5.4 TRANSPORT MODELING
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
NOTES
6 Groundwater Transport
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 SUBSURFACE CHARACTERIZATION
6.3 SATURATED FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA
6.4 SORPTION
6.5 SUBSURFACE CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT MODELING
6.6 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN GROUNDWATER TRANSPORT
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
NOTES
7 Atmospheric Transport
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION
7.3 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT MODELS
7.4 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
8 Food Chain Transport
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 CONCENTRATION IN SOIL
8.3 CONCENTRATION IN VEGETATION
8.4 CONCENTRATION IN ANIMALS
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
NOTES
9 Exposure Assessment
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 DOSE
9.3 CONTAMINANT INTAKE
9.4 DOSE CALCULATIONS
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
NOTES
10 Basic Human Toxicology
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
10.3 MECHANISMS AND EFFECTS OF TOXICITY
REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
NOTES
11 Dose–Response and Risk Characterization
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF DOSE–RESPONSE MODELING
11.3 ELEMENTS OF QUANTITATIVE DOSE–RESPONSE ANALYSIS
11.4 DOSE–RESPONSE MODELING
11.5 RISK CHARACTERIZATION
11.6 REGULATORY IMPLEMENTATION
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
PROBLEMS
NOTES
12 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analyses
12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.2 TYPES AND SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTY
12.3 STATISTICS FUNDAMENTALS
12.4 UNCERTAINTY PROPAGATION
REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
NOTES
13 Screening and Computational Resources
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 SCREENING TOOLS
13.3 SURFACE WATER TRANSPORT
13.4 GROUNDWATER TRANSPORT
13.5 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT
13.6 FOOD CHAIN TRANSPORT
13.7 TRANSPORT, EXPOSURE, AND CONSEQUENCE ASSESSMENT TOOLS
13.8 GEOCHEMICAL SPECIATION MODELING
13.9 UNCERTAINTY
13.10 OTHER USEFUL COMPUTATIONAL RESOURCES
REFERENCES
14 Case Studies
14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.2 PFAS
14.3 ARSENIC IN DRINKING WATER
14.4 MCHM
14.5 RELEASES FROM ROCKY FLATS
REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
NOTE
15 Ethics, Stakeholder Involvement, and Risk Communication
15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.2 ETHICS
15.3 STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT
15.4 RISK COMMUNICATION
REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
NOTES
16 Environmental Risk Management
16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.2 RISK MANAGEMENT PROCESS
16.3 RISK MANAGEMENT METHODS
REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
17 Environmental Laws and Regulations
17.1 INTRODUCTION
17.2 GENERAL LEGAL AND REGULATORY STRUCTURE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
17.3 MAJOR FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS
17.4 CERCLA PROCESS
17.5 ADDITIONAL REGULATIONS
REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
APPENDIX A: Mathematical Tools
A.1. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
A.2. LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
A.3. EXACT SOLUTIONS TO THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT EQUATION
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL READING
APPENDIX B: Degradation and Decay Parameters
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
TABLE 1.1 Examples of Contaminant Releases Resulting in Adverse Human Health...
Chapter 2
TABLE 2.1 Characteristics of Various Phases in a Tiered Approach to Environm...
TABLE 2.2 Steady‐state Partition Factors in Environmental Risk Assessment
Chapter 3
TABLE 3.1 Common Environmental Contaminants in the United States
TABLE 3.2 Common Emission‐Rate Approximations
a
Chapter 4
TABLE 4.1 Approximate solutions to the One‐Dimensional Contaminant Transport...
Chapter 5
TABLE 5.1 Water Solubility Limits for Selected Contaminants
TABLE 5.2 Default Distribution Coefficients for Inorganic Contaminants
TABLE 5.3 Default Organic Carbon–Water Partition Coefficients (
K
oc
) and the ...
TABLE 5.4 Measured Dispersion Coefficients
Chapter 6
TABLE 6.1 Representative Values of the Effective Porosity of Aquifer Materia...
TABLE 6.2 Representative Values of the Hydraulic Conductivity of Aquifer Mat...
TABLE 6.3 Fitting constants for Eq. 6.15 (Schulze‐Makuch 2005)
TABLE 6.4 Fraction Sorbed as a Function of the Liquid Volume Ratio and Distr...
TABLE 6.5 Effect of Sorption on Contaminant Velocity in the Saturated Zone
a
...
Chapter 7
TABLE 7.1 Pasquill Stability Classification System
a
TABLE 7.2 Pasquill–Gifford Stability Classification Systems as Implemented b...
TABLE 7.3 Equations Recommended by Briggs for
σ
y
and
σ
z
as a Funct...
TABLE 7.4 Joint Frequency Distribution of Wind Speed and Atmospheric Stabili...
TABLE 7.5 Contribution to the Source‐Normalized Concentration for Each Stabi...
TABLE 7.6 Dispersion Parameters for Instantaneous Releases where σ
yI
= a x
b
,...
TABLE 7.7 Volumetric Washout Factors and Henry's Law Constants for Selected ...
TABLE 7.8 Joint Frequency Distribution of Wind Speed and Atmospheric Stabili...
Chapter 8
TABLE 8.1 Food Chain Transport Parameters
TABLE 8.2 Beef and Dairy Cattle Feed and Water Intake Rates (kg
wet
/d)
TABLE 8.3 Compartment Data for Problem 8.1
TABLE 8.4 Results of Calculations for Problem 8.1
Chapter 9
TABLE 9.1 Exposure Factors
TABLE 9.2 Dermal Permeability Constants for Water
a
TABLE 9.3 Dermal Absorption Fraction for Soil
TABLE 9.4 Radiation Effective Dose Coefficients
a
Chapter 10
TABLE 10.1 Hallmarks of Cancer
TABLE 10.2 Known Human Teratogens
Chapter 11
TABLE 11.1 Deterministic Effects of Inhalation of SO
2
TABLE 11.2 Deterministic Effects of Acute Whole‐body Exposure
a
to Ionizing R...
TABLE 11.3 Hill's Criteria for Causation
TABLE 11.4 Solid Cancer Incidence in Survivors of Atomic Bombings in Japan (...
TABLE 11.5 Illustrative dose–response data
TABLE 11.6 Stochastic Effects of Acrylonitrile on Sprague–Dawley Rats
TABLE 11.7 Example Dose
a
–Response Models for Dichotomous Data
TABLE 11.8 Hypothetical Dose–Response Data
TABLE 11.9 Oral Reference Doses for Selected Contaminants
TABLE 11.10 Inhalation Reference Concentrations for Selected Contaminants
TABLE 11.11 Slope Factors and Unit Risks for Selected Contaminants
TABLE 11.12 Population Average Cancer Risk Coefficients for Ionizing Radiati...
TABLE 11.13 Dose–response Data from Carcinogenesis Studies of Chlorodibromom...
TABLE 11.14 Animal Testing Data for Problem 11.1
TABLE 11.15 Approximate Concentrations of Benzene and 1,3 Butadiene in the U...
Chapter 12
TABLE 12.1 Properties of Distributions Commonly Used in Environmental Risk A...
TABLE 12.2 Maximum Entropy Distributions for Various Types of Input Informat...
TABLE 12.3 Results of a Dose Reconstruction for the Savannah River Site
a
TABLE 12.4 Exact Expressions for the Means and Variance of Simple Functions...
TABLE 12.5 Algorithms for Monte Carlo Sampling of Distributions (from Table ...
TABLE 12.6 Risk Parameter Distributions for Example 12.4
TABLE 12.7 Descriptive Statistics for the Monte Carlo Simulation from Exampl...
Chapter 14
TABLE 14.1 EPA drinking water Health Advisory Levels (EPA 2022b)
Chapter 15
TABLE 15.1 Purposes and Goals of the EPA Public Involvement Policy
TABLE 15.2 Typical Spectrum of Stakeholder Involvement
TABLE 15.3 Some Laws and Requirements Related to Stakeholder Involvement and...
TABLE 15.4 Approaches for Stakeholder Involvement
TABLE 15.5 Factors Affecting Risk Perception.
TABLE 15.6 Seven Cardinal Rules of Risk Communication.
Chapter 16
TABLE 16.1 Paradigm for Decision Analysis
TABLE 16.2 Decisions Under Certainty
TABLE 16.3 Decision Matrix Showing the Evaluation
z
ik
of Each Alternative
X
i
TABLE 16.4 Decision Matrix for Example 16.3,
a
TABLE 16.5 Decision Matrix for Waste Pit Problem in Example 16.3 with Scaled...
TABLE 16.6 Dollar Value of Benefits and Cost/Benefit Ratio for Each Alternat...
TABLE 16.7 Pairwise Comparison of Alternatives for Each Attribute in the Dec...
TABLE 16.8 Decision Matrix for Example 16.7
TABLE 16.9 Decision Matrix for Example 16.8
TABLE 16.10 Decision Matrix for Example 16.9
TABLE 16.11 Probabilities for the Event Tree End States Shown in Example 3.4...
TABLE 16.12 Performance Values for Three Attributes for Each Plant End State...
TABLE 16.13 Scaled Performance Values for Three Attributes for Each Plant En...
TABLE 16.14 Utilities Computed Using the Weights Specified
TABLE 16.15 Decision Matrix for Problem 16.3
Chapter 17
TABLE 17.1 Major Environmental Laws
TABLE 17.2 Environmental Laws Categorized According to Main Function
TABLE 17.3 Example Chemical Test Rule Data for Aniline (CAS 62‐53‐3)
TABLE 17.4 Standards for the Seven Air Pollutants for Which Ambient Air Qual...
Appendix A
TABLE A.1 Laplace Transforms
TABLE A.2 Exact
a
Solutions to the One‐Dimensional Contaminant Transport Equa...
Appendix B
TABLE B.1 Degradation Half‐Lives of Organic Contaminants
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Relationships among the three components of risk analysis: risk a...
Figure 1.2 Risk curve for fatalities due to chlorine releases from rail acci...
Figure 1.3 Risk curve for early fatalities as a result of a nuclear reactor ...
Figure 1.4 Human exposures due to routine releases of environmental contamin...
Figure 1.5 Risk assessment process.
Figure 1.6 Risk calculation component of the risk assessment process.
Figure 1.7 EPA and NAS formulations of the risk calculation component of the...
Figure 1.8 Risk curve for Problem 3.
Figure 1.9 Risk curve for fatal accidents in the Eurotunnel between France a...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Process for model development and application.
Figure 2.2 Modeling assurance.
Figure 2.3 Mass conservation in a control volume.
Figure 2.4 Pictorial (a) and schematic (b) of control volume for the problem...
Figure 2.5 Concentration vs. time for a constant‐source first‐order removal ...
Figure 2.6 Instantaneous partitioning between two compartments.
Figure 2.7 Partitioning of a contaminant between two compartments. At
t
= 0,...
Figure 2.8
C
(
r
,
t
)
dV
is the mass of contaminant in
dV
at time
t
.
Figure 2.9 Border between Pennsylvania and New York.
Figure 2.10 Dynamic partitioning of a contaminant between the solid and aque...
Figure 2.11 Advective compartment.
Figure 2.12 Modification of the advective compartment illustration for the p...
Figure 2.13 Satellite view indicating location of the farm in Problem 2.21....
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Model for the calcuation of the SO
2
emission rate in Example 3.1....
Figure 3.2 Exceedance probability for the mass of a contaminant released in ...
Figure 3.3 System for refilling the anhydrous ammonia storage tank in Exampl...
Figure 3.4 Fault tree for the release of anhydrous ammonia fault tree depict...
Figure 3.5 System for refilling an anhydrous ammonia storage tank.
Figure 3.6 Event tree for the release of anhydrous ammonia from a storage ta...
Figure 3.7 Common emission‐rate approximations.
Figure 3.8 Actual emission rate for Example 3.5.
Figure 3.9 Comparison of the emission‐rate approximation in Example 3.5 to t...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Generic environmental pathways and compartments.
Figure 4.2 Pictorial (
a
) and schematic (
b
) of an example of a one‐dimensiona...
Figure 4.3 Concentration vs. distance at
t
1
and
t
2
, where
t
1
<
t
2
(
a
,
c
) and...
Figure 4.4 Concentration profiles for one‐dimensional advection–dispersion o...
Figure 4.5 Concentration vs. time measurements of tritium in the Savannah Ri...
Figure 4.6 Concentration profiles for one‐dimensional advection–dispersion o...
Figure 4.7 Three‐dimensional advection–dispersion.
Figure 4.8 One‐dimensional environmental transport problem with three simult...
Figure 4.9 Emission rate for Problem 4.
Figure 4.10 Emission rate for Problem 7.
Figure 4.11 Emission rate for Problem 8.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Surface water compartments, potential coupling with biotic food c...
Figure 5.2 Flooding of pasture along the North Fork Kentucky River July 28, ...
Figure 5.3 Partitioning of a contaminant between the aqueous and solid phase...
Figure 5.4 Fraction sorbed as a function of the product of the distribution ...
Figure 5.5 Contaminant removal from the water column due to settling of susp...
Figure 5.6 Two‐compartment model of a lake. Contaminant sorbed to suspended ...
Figure 5.7 Monthly water concentrations of
137
Cs at the Cold Dam station of ...
Figure 5.8 Dispersion due to turbulence and nonuniform velocity distribution...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Characterization of subsurface formations.
Figure 6.2 Parameters commonly used to characterize the physical properties ...
Figure 6.3 Groundwater flow through a macroscopic volume
V
. Mean linear velo...
Figure 6.4 Pore‐level dispersion processes. (From Fetter and Kreamer 2022; r...
Figure 6.5 Field‐derived longitudinal dispersivities for unconsolidated sedi...
Figure 6.6 Aqueous‐phase concentration vs. distance for an instantaneous rel...
Figure 6.7
C
w
/
C
w
0
as a function of time for a semi‐infinite step release wit...
Figure 6.8 Pictorial (
a
) and schematic (
b
) of conceptual model for Eq. 6.22 ...
Figure 6.9 Effect of transverse dispersion on concentration along x‐axis for...
Figure 6.10 Comparison of one‐and three‐dimensional predictions in Example 6...
Figure 6.11 Compartmental model of water flow and contaminant transport in t...
Figure 6.12 Biotic transformations of PCE and its degradation products.
Figure 6.13 Depiction of an LNAPL spill. (From Falta 2020.)
Figure 6.14 Depiction of a DNAPL spill. (From Domenico and Schwartz 1998; re...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Typical local atmospheric transport scenario.
Figure 7.2 Suppression of vertical motion when the temperature profile in th...
Figure 7.3 Representative actual temperature profiles: (
a
) neutral–coning; (
Figure 7.4 Briggs curves for estimating
σ
y
and
σ
z
(From Barr and C...
Figure 7.5 Pasquill–Gifford–Turner curves for estimating
σ
y
and
σ
z
Figure 7.6 Normalized ground‐level centerline concentration as a function of...
Figure 7.7 Downwind distance where the maximum concentration occurs (km) and...
Figure 7.8 Concentration isopleths in the vicinity of a release point.
Figure 7.9 Sector‐averaged model.
Figure 7.10 Effect of plume rise on effective release height.
Figure 7.11 Effect of time of day on mixing height.
Figure 7.12 Conceptual model for approximating dry deposition and precipitat...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Principal food chain compartments and transport pathways.
Figure 8.2 Simple food chain.
Figure 8.3 Biological organism modeled as a non‐advective compartment to ill...
Figure 8.4 Concentrations of DDT (ppm) in an estuarian food web on the South...
Figure 8.5 Contaminant deposition and removal processes for soil.
Figure 8.6 Contaminant concentration in soil vs. time in Example 8.4.
Figure 8.7 Processes affecting contaminant concentration in food crops. (Fro...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 LD
50
values in rats for selected substances are shown with Hodge...
Figure 10.2 Translating the mRNA Molecule. Following transcription, mRNA is ...
Figure 10.3 Cellular anatomy: (a) cell components (b) cellular membrane (bot...
Figure 10.4 Schematic representation of the
epidermal growth factor receptor
Figure 10.5 (a) Direct and indirect actions of ionizing radiation. (b) Examp...
Figure 10.6 Structure of the International Commission on Radiological Protec...
Figure 10.7 Respiratory tract anatomy. (From Burke 1980; reprinted by permis...
Figure 10.8 Neuronal structure. (From Burke 1980; reprinted by permission of...
Figure 10.9 Bone structure. (a) Anatomy of a long bone. (b) Anatomy of a fla...
Figure 10.10 Classification of human health effects.
Figure 10.11 Schematic of changes in the adenoma–carcinoma sequence. Althoug...
Figure 10.12 Congenital malformation of the feet of an infant caused by thal...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Example adverse outcome pathway with relevant biological level o...
Figure 11.2 Biological Structure of the Integrated Exposure Uptake and Bioki...
Figure 11.3 Example systemic biokinetic models used in radiation protection....
Figure 11.4 Dose‐rate dependence of toxicity.
Figure 11.5 Relationship between the LOAEL and NOAEL for the data in Table 1...
FIGURE 11.6 Fractional response and BMDS Online recommended dose–response mo...
FIGURE 11.7 Metabolic rates for select mammals and birds plotted against bod...
Figure 11.8 Plot of data in Table 11.8 with 95% confidence intervals and rec...
Figure 11.9 Plot of data in Table 11.13 with 95% confidence intervals and fi...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 PDF, CDF, and CCDF for the standard normal distribution.
Figure 12.2 Example illustrating that variability of a risk parameter is gre...
Figure 12.3 Propagation of uncertain risk parameters through a risk model by...
Figure 12.4 (
a
) PDF for random numbers on the interval [0, 1]. (
b
) Generic P...
Figure 12.5 PDF for Example 12.3.
Figure 12.6 Monte Carlo simulation for Example 12.4: (
a
) probability and fre...
Figure 12.7 Flowchart to generate realizations that reflect both aleatory an...
Figure 12.8 Example of propagation and display of aleatory and epistemic unc...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Subsistence farmer scenario for RESRAD‐ONSITE (Yu et al. 2001)
Figure 13.2 Exposure pathways and exposure locations for RESRAD‐OFFSITE (Yu ...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Deterministic and carcinogenic risk as a function of arsenic con...
Figure 14.2 Pictorial (
a
) and schematic (
b
) of a conceptual model of MCHM le...
Figure 14.3 Time‐integrated concentration (GBq s/m
3
) vs downwind distance fo...
Figure 14.4 Median (50th percentile) time‐integrated plutonium concentration...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 UN Sustainable Development Goals (https://www.un.org/sustainable...
Figure 15.2 Conceptual model of communication. (From Shannon 1948; reprinted...
Figure 15.3 Paradigm for stakeholder involvement in environmental health ris...
Figure 15.4 Importance of factors determining trust and credibility of a per...
Figure 15.5 Message map template.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Generalized Likert scale for a criterion of implementability. Th...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Superfund sites in Idaho as of December 31, 2022.
Appendix A
Figure A.1 Finite step release.
Figure A.2 Relationship between the error function and the Gaussian distribu...
Figure A.3 Plots of the error function and the complementary error function....
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
List of Variables with Common Example Units
Preface to Second Edition
Preface to First Edition
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Appendix A Mathematical Tools
Appendix B Degradation and Decay Parameters
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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QUANTITATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ANALYSIS FOR HUMAN HEALTH
Second Edition
Robert A. Fjeld
Clemson University
Timothy A. DeVol
Clemson University
Nicole E. Martinez
Clemson University
Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Fjeld, Robert A., author. | DeVol, Timothy A., author. | Martinez, Nicole E., author.
Title: Quantitative environmental risk analysis for human health / Robert A. Fjeld, Timothy A. DeVol, Nicole E. Martinez.
Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2024] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023014424 (print) | LCCN 2023014425 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119675327 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119675334 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119675402 (epub)
Subjects: MESH: Environmental Pollutants | Environmental Exposure | Risk Assessment–methods | Environmental Monitoring
Classification: LCC RA427.3 (print) | LCC RA427.3 (ebook) | NLM WA 670 | DDC 362.1–dc23/eng/20230727
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023014424
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023014425
Cover design: Wiley
Cover image: Used with permission Clemson University
This book is dedicated
to Pam just for being who she is (Fjeld)
in loving memory of my parents (A. Stephen and Mary R.) who taught me the importance of education (DeVol)
to my father, Paul, from whom I first learned about chemical risk, and to my mother, Elizabeth, from whom I learned to love math (Martinez)
LIST OF VARIABLES WITH COMMON EXAMPLE UNITS
α
≡
dispersivity, m
α
F
≡
soil‐to‐skin adherence factor, mg
s
/cm
2
α
L
≡
longitudinal dispersivity, m
α
flow
≡
first‐order rate constants for contaminant flow out of a volume, 1/s
α
settling
≡
first‐order rate constant for removal by settling, 1/s
A
≡
radioactivity, Bq or decays/s
A
≡
total cross‐sectional area of the medium, m
2
A
skin
≡
area of skin exposed, cm
2
B
fish
≡
bioaccumulation factor for fish, L/kg
fish
B
v
≡
bioaccumulation factor, kg
s
/kg
v,wet
C
≡
contaminant concentration,
≡
average concentration, μg/m
3
C
a
≡
contaminant concentration in air,
C
beef
≡
contaminant concentration in beef, mg
c
/kg
beef
C
fish
≡
contaminant concentration in food, mg
c
/kg
fish
C
food
≡
contaminant concentration in food, mg
c
/kg
food
C
g
,
n
≡
Gaussian plume concentration for the
n
th set of hourly meteorological
measurements, μg/m
3
C
max
≡
maximum contaminant concentration, μg/m
3
C
medium
≡
contaminant concentration in medium, mg
c
/kg
medium
or, mg
c
/L
medium
C
milk
≡
contaminant concentration in milk, mg
c
/L
milk
C
organism
≡
contaminant concentration in organism, mg
c
/kg
organism
≡
sector‐averaged concentration, μg/m
3
C
s
≡
contaminant concentration in solid (or soil) phase, mg
c
/kg
s
C
s
,ext
≡
extractable soil concentration, mg
c
/kg
s
C
ss
≡
steady‐state contaminant concentration,
C
T
≡
total contaminant concentration,
C
v
≡
contaminant concentration in vegetation, mg
c
/kg
v,wet
≡
contaminant concentration in vegetation due to deposition on foliage,
mg
c
/kg
v,wet
≡
contaminant concentration in vegetation due to uptake from the soil, mg
c
/kg
v,wet
C
w
≡
contaminant concentration in the aqueous phase, mg
c
/L
w
≡
time‐integrated concentration,
≡
contaminant destruction rate density, mg
c
/(L
w
s)
≡
settling rate density, mg
c
/(L
w
s)
d
m
≡
representative grain size (diameter), μm
D
≡
absorbed dose (radiation), Gy = J/kg
D
≡
dispersion coefficient, m
2
/s
≡
dose rate, mg/(kg d)
≡
true average daily dose rate, mg/(kg d)
≡
lifetime average daily dose rate, mg/(kg d)
D
H
≡
mechanical dispersion coefficient, m
2
/s
D
M
≡
molecular diffusion coefficient, m
2
/s
D
T
≡
turbulent dispersion coefficient, m
2
/s
D
L
≡
longitudinal dispersion coefficient, m
2
/s
D
M
≡
effective molecular diffusion coefficient for porous media, m
2
/s
D
s
≡
stack diameter, m
D
T
≡
total dose, mg/kg
D
T,R
≡
absorbed dose to organ or tissue (T) from radiation (R), Gy = J/kg
ε
≡
removal efficiency
E
≡
effective dose (radiation), Sv
≡
effective dose rate, Sv/s
E
T
≡
total effective dose (radiation), Sv
E
x
≡
(surface water) longitudinal dispersion coefficient, m
2
/s
f
abs
≡
dermal absorption fraction
f
i,j
≡
fraction of time that winds blow into the given sector under stability
j
f
v
≡
fraction of the contaminant that is intercepted by the vegetation
f
milk
≡
fraction of contaminant transferred to milk
f
ox
≡
fraction of sulfur oxidized to SO
2
in the combustion process
f
s
≡
fraction sorbed
f
s
≡
fraction (by weight) of sulfur in the coal,
kg
S
/kg
coal
F
≡
buoyancy flux, m
4
/s
3
F
beef
≡
beef transfer factor, d/kg
beef
F
milk
≡
milk transfer factor, d/kg
milk
≡
contaminant generation rate density, mg
c
/(L s)
≡
total (aqueous and solid phase) contaminant generation rate density, mg
c
/(L s)
g
≡
acceleration due to gravity, m
2
/s
h
≡
stack height, m
h
e
≡
effective release height, m
h
pr
≡
plume rise height, m
h
s
≡
physical release height, m
H
≡
hydraulic head, m
H
≡
height, m
I
≡
contaminant inventory, kg
I
≡
total amount of radioactivity taken into the body during the exposure, Bq
≡
irrigation rate, m/yr
≡
contaminant intake rate, mg
c
/d (for chemicals) or Bq/d (for radionuclides)
≡
intake rate of vegetation, kg
v,wet
/d
j
≡
advective flux (scalar quantity), mg
c
/(m
2
s)
j
A
(
r
,
t
)
≡
advective flux vector, mg
c
/(m
2
s)
j
d
≡
deposition flux to the surface, mg
c
/(m
2
s)
j
D
(
r
,
t
)
≡
dispersive flux vector, mg
c
/(m
2
s)
κ
≡
resuspension factor, 1/m
k
≡
first‐order rate constant, 1/s
k
H
≡
hydraulic conductivity, cm/s
k
L
≡
first‐order rate leaching rate constant, 1/yr
k
p
≡
dermal permeability constant, cm/h
k
s
≡
first‐order rate constant for removal from soil, 1/s
k
s
,
r
≡
resuspension rate constant, 1/s
k
v
≡
vegetative removal rate constant, 1/d
K
≡
eddy diffusivity, m
2
/s
K
D
≡
distribution coefficient, L
w
/kg
s
K
F
≡
Freundlich sorption constant, L
w
n
kg
s
/mg
c
n−1
K
oc
≡
organic carbon–water partition coefficient, L
w
/kg
oc
K
ow
≡
octanol–water partition coefficient, L
w
/L
o
λ
≡
radionuclide decay constant, 1/s
L
≡
length, m
L
≡
atmospheric mixing height, m
m
s
≡
mass of dry solid material, kg
mw
≡
mass of water, kg
≡
mass rate of a material introduced to a process, kg/h
M
c
≡
mass of contaminant, mg
c
M
s
≡
mass of contaminant associated with solid phase, e.g., soil, sediment, mg
c
M
v
≡
mass of contaminant associated with vegetation, mg
c
M
w
≡
mass of contaminant associated with aqueous phase, mg
c
n
≡
reaction order
n
≡
porosity, L
i
/L
n
e
≡
effective porosity, L
mw
/L
N
≡
number of radioactive atoms
N
≡
number of samples quantified to formulate the reduced values
N
0
≡
Avogadro's number, 6.022 × 10
23
atoms/mol
p
≡
gauge pressure, Pa
P
≡
gas pressure, Pa
≡
mean percolation rate, m/yr
q
≡
specific discharge, m/s
Q
≡
volumetric flow rate,
ρ
≡
cancer slope factor, [mg/(kg d)]
−1
ρ
air
≡
ambient density of air,
g
air
/m
3
air
ρ
B
≡
bulk soil density,
g
s
/m
3
ρ
P
≡
density of individual soil particles,
ρ
parcel
≡
density of parcel of air,
g
parcel
/m
3
parcel
ρ
R
≡
radiation risk coefficient, (1/Sv)
ρ
w
≡
density of water,
g
w
/m
3
R
≡
retardation factor
R
≡
fractional response (proportion of an exposed population exhibiting or expected
to exhibit an effect)
≡
rainfall rate, m/yr
R
V
≡
retardation factor for vadose zone sediments
σ
≡
standard deviation
σ
≡
atmospheric dispersion parameter, m
σ
2
≡
variance
s
≡
channel slope, m/m
≡
contaminant mass emission rate, kg/yr
≡
average contaminant mass emitted per unit time, kg/yr
≡
contaminant mass emission rate per unit length, kg/m
≡
average contaminant mass emitted per unit length, kg/m
≡
actual contaminant mass emission rate,
kg/yr
≡
contaminant mass emitted per unit length per unit time,
kg/(m yr)
S
i
≡
sensitivity ratio
S
T
≡
total contaminant mass emitted, kg
τ
≡
mean residence time, s
τ
d
≡
daily exposure duration, h/d
θ
≡
moisture content
t
≡
time, yr
t*
≡
time at which the concentration is a maximum, yr
t
1/2
≡
half‐life, yr
t
avg
≡
averaging time, yr
t
e
≡
exposure time, yr
t
s,e
≡
soil exposure time, yr
Δ
T
≡
temperature difference between stack gas and ambient temperature, K
T
≡
temperature, °C
T
s
≡
stack gas temperature, K
T
v
≡
translocation factor
μ
≡
mean
μ
w
≡
viscosity of water, Pa s
u
≡
mean linear velocity a.k.a. seepage velocity (in groundwater systems), m/yr
u
c
≡
mean linear velocity of the contaminant, m/yr
u
i
≡
wind speed, m/s
u
v
≡
mean linear velocity in the vadose zone
u
v,c
≡
contaminant mean linear velocity in the vadose zone
u*
≡
shear velocity, m/s
U
≡
uncertainty coefficient
v
≡
groundwater velocity, m/yr
v
d
≡
deposition velocity, m/s
v
d
,
D
≡
dry deposition velocity, m/d
v
d
,
W
≡
wet deposition velocity, m/s
v
e
≡
exposure frequency, 1/d
v
s
≡
plume exit velocity, m/s
v
y
≡
exposure frequency, d/yr
V
i
≡
volume of interstitial space, m
3
V
milk
≡
milk volume, m
3
V
mw
≡
volume of mobile water, m
3
V
≡
total volume, m
3
V
w
≡
volume of water, m
3
ω
v
≡
volumetric washout factor,
w
R
≡
radiation weighting factor for radiation type R
w
T
≡
tissue weighting factor for organ or tissue T.
W
≡
width, m
χ
≡
areal concentration (or areal contamination density), mg
c
/m
2
x
≡
distance, m
x
max
≡
distance to maximum concentration, m
≡
sample mean
ξ
≡
random number
Y
≡
vegetative yield, kg
v,wet
/m
2
Z
R
≡
depth of the root zone, m
List of Units
Bq
≡
becquerel
Btu
≡
British thermal unit
Ci
≡
curie
cm
≡
centimeter
d
≡
day
g
≡
gram
Gy
≡
grey
h
≡
hour
J
≡
joule
kg
≡
kilogram
L
≡
liter
m
≡
meter
mg
≡
milligram
mol
≡
mole
mon
≡
month
Pa
≡
pascal
s
≡
second
Sv
≡
sievert
wk
≡
week
yr
≡
year
List of Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Special Functions
3DFEMWATER
≡
Three‐dimensional Finite Element Model of Water Flow Through
Saturated‐unsaturated Media
3DLEWASTE
≡
Three‐Dimensional Lagrangian‐Eulerian Finite Element Model of
Waste Transport Through Saturated‐unsaturated Media
AERMOD
≡
American Meteorological Society/EPA Regulatory Model
ALARA
≡
as low as reasonably achievable
ALOHA
≡
Areal Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres
AW
≡
atomic weight, g/mol
BASINS
≡
Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources
BASS
≡
Bioaccumulation and Aquatic System Simulator
BMCL
≡
benchmark concentration lower limit, mg/m
3
BMD
≡
benchmark dose, mg/(kg d)
BMDL
≡
benchmark dose lower limit, mg/(kg d)
BMDS
≡
Benchmark Dose Software
BMDU
≡
benchmark dose upper limit, mg/(kg d)
BMR
≡
benchmark response
BW
≡
body weight, kg
CAA
≡
Clean Air Act
CAP‐88 PC
≡
Clean Air Act Assessment Package – 1988
CCDF
≡
complementary cumulative distribution function
CDC
≡
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CDF
≡
cumulative distribution function
CEAM
≡
Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling
CERCLA
≡
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act
CFR
≡
Code of Federal Regulations
COCs
≡
contaminants of concern
cos(
x
)
≡
cosine
CR
≡
contact rate, m
3
/d
cr
≡
normalized contact rate, m
3
/(kg d)
CTDMPLUS
≡
Complex Terrain Dispersion Model Plus Algorithms for Unstable
Situations
CWA
≡
Clean Water Act
δ(
t
)
≡
Dirac delta function
Da
≡
Damköhler number
DandD
≡
Decontamination and Decommissioning
DC
ext
≡
effective external dose coefficient (radiation), Sv/Bq
DC
ing
≡
effective ingestion dose coefficient (radiation), Sv/Bq
DC
inh
≡
effective inhalation dose coefficient (radiation), Sv/Bq
DC
int
≡
effective internal dose coefficient (radiation), Sv/Bq
DOE
≡
U.S. Department of Energy
EAR
≡
excess absolute risk
EFDC
≡
Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code
EIS
≡
Environmental Impact Statement
EPA
≡
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EPACTMP
≡
Composite Model for Leachate Migration with Transformation
Products
ER
≡
extra risk
erf(
t
)
≡
error function
erfc(
t
)
≡
complementary error function
ERR
≡
excess relative risk
exp(
t
)
≡
exponential function
FEMA
≡
Federal Emergency Management Agency
FGR
≡
Federal Guidance Report
FRAMES
≡
Framework for Risk Analysis in Multimedia Environmental Systems
Γ(
α
)
≡
gamma function
GAC
≡
granular activated carbon
GASPAR II
≡
Gaseous Pathway Dose Assessment
GIS
≡
geographic information system
GMS
≡
Groundwater Modeling System
GUI
≡
graphical user interface
GWB
≡
Geochemist's Workbench
h(
t
)
≡
Heaviside unit step function
HEC
≡
human equivalent concentration
HED
≡
human equivalent dose
HELP
≡
Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance model
HEPA
≡
high‐efficiency particulate air
HI
≡
hazard index
HQ
≡
hazard quotient
HSPF
≡
Hydrological Simulation Program ‐ Fortran
HYSPLIT
≡
Hybrid Single‐Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory
ICRP
≡
International Commission on Radiological Protection
IEUBK
≡
Integrated Exposure Uptake and Biokinetics.
ing
≡
ingestion
inh
≡
inhalation
IRIS
≡
Integrated Risk Information System
IUR
≡
inhalation unit risk
LD
50
≡
lethal dose to 50% of the population
LEL
≡
lowest effects level
LHS
≡
Latin hypercube sampling
ln(
x
)
≡
natural logarithm
LMS
≡
linearized multistage
LOAEL
≡
lowest observed adverse effects level
MARSSIM
≡
MultiAgency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual
MATC
≡
maximum allowable toxicant concentration
MCHM
≡
4‐methylcyclohexanemethanol
MCL
≡
maximum contaminant level
MeHg
≡
methylmercury
MEI
≡
maximally exposed individual
MEPAS
≡
Multimedia Environmental Pollutant Assessment System
MF
≡
modifying factors
MOE
≡
margin of exposure
MR
≡
metabolic rate
MS
≡
multistage
MTD
≡
maximum tolerated dose
mw
≡
mobile water
MW
≡
molecular weight
NESHAPS
≡
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NIST
≡
National Institute of Standards and Technology
NOAA
≡
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOAEL
≡
no observed adverse effects level
NOEC
≡
no observed effects concentration
NPDES
≡
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NPL
≡
National Priorities List
NRC
≡
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NSPE
≡
National Society of Professional Engineers
oc
≡
organic carbon
ow
≡
octanol water
PAG
≡
protective action guide
PBPK
≡
physiologically-based pharmacokinetic
≡
probability density function
Pe
≡
Peclet number
PF
≡
partitioning factor
PFAS
≡
per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances
PFOA
≡
perfluorooctanoic acid
PFOS
≡
perfluorooctane sulfonic acid
PMF
≡
proton-motive force
POD
≡
point‐of‐departure, mg/(kg d) or mg/m
3
PRG
≡
preliminary remediation goals
RAGS
≡
Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund
RAIS
≡
Risk Assessment Information System
RAMP
≡
Radiation Computer Code Analysis and Maintenance Program
RASCAL
≡
Radiological Assessment System for Consequence Analysis
RCRA
≡
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RfC
≡
reference concentration, mg/m
3
RfD
≡
reference dose, mg/(kg d)
RFP
≡
Rocky Flats plant
RML
≡
Regional Removal Management Levels
ROD
≡
record of decision
RR
≡
relative risk
RSL
≡
Regional Screening Levels
SADA
≡
Spatial Analysis Decision Assistance
SARA
≡
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SCRAM
≡
Support Center for Regulatory Atmospheric Modeling
SERAFM
≡
Spreadsheet‐based Ecological Risk Assessment for the Fate of
Mercury
sin(
x
)
≡
sine
SMS
≡
Surface‐water Modeling System
ss
≡
steady state
SS
≡
suspended solids concentration, mg
s
/L
STOMP
≡
Subsurface Transport Over Multiple Phases
TMDL
≡
total maximum daily load
TSCA
≡
Toxic Substances Control Act
UF
≡
uncertainty factors
USGS
≡
U.S. Geological Survey
VSP
≡
Visual Sample Plan
WASP
≡
Water Quality Analysis Simulation Program
WVDEP
≡
West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection
List of Conversions
1 Bq = 1 decay per second
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
1 pCi/L = 37 Bq/m3
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
The second edition of Quantitative Environmental Risk Analysis for Human Health represents the combined efforts of three generations of authors/classroom teachers. There are two new chapters, significant additions or modifications to five chapters, and the addition of student-oriented learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter. Also, throughout the book, we have updated/added examples and sidebars, updated figures and tables, added numerous “for the expert” clarifying footnotes, added end-of-chapter problems, updated references and URLs, and conducted a comprehensive review of units.
“Case Studies” is a new chapter that provides the student with four risk assessment examples representing a spectrum of purposes and levels of quantitative intensity. They include a purely qualitative examination of a relatively new group of contaminants (PFAS), an evaluation of the hazards posed by a naturally occurring contaminant (arsenic) in groundwater based on measurements throughout the world, the application of rudimentary compartmental models to the accidental release of an industrial chemical (MCHM) to a river, and a comprehensive retrospective risk assessment of releases of a radioactive contaminant (plutonium) from a fire at a federal facility that occurred in 1957. The second new chapter, “Screening and Computational Resources,” provides brief descriptions of publicly available and commercial software of potential interest to the risk analysis practitioner. Some of these tools address specific regulatory needs while others address one or more of the four steps of the risk calculation process that serves as an organizing framework for the book. Chapter 4, “Environmental Transport Theory” has undergone a major modification. Important clarifications have been added to the approximate solutions to the contaminant transport equation in Table 4.1, and exact solutions are given in an expanded Appendix A. In addition, the mechanics of solving the contaminant transport equation using Laplace transforms has been relocated to Appendix A. Chapter 10, “Basic Human Toxicology,” has been modified to reflect the current understanding of carcinogenesis including the role of mutated proto-oncogenes and mutated or lost tumor suppressor genes (such as BRCA and TP53) and identification of the hallmarks of cancer. The revised chapter also contains several new/modified tables and figures. Chapter 11, “Response and Risk Characterization,” has been extensively revised with new and modified figures, tables, examples, and sidebars and incorporation of new guidance from EPA on chemical dose–response modeling and from ICRP on radiation dose calculations. Chapter 12, “Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis,” now includes a section on Monte Carlo simulation detailing the mathematical steps required to randomly sample risk parameter distributions, propagate aleatory (variability) and epistemic (lack of knowledge) uncertainty through a computational risk assessment model, and display/summarize the results. Chapter 15, “Ethics, Stakeholder Involvement, and Risk Communication,” has a new title to reflect the addition of a new section on ethics. Chapter Objectives have been added at the beginning of each chapter. These objectives are intended to provide the student with a short list of the most important topics in the chapter. Among the updates and additions mentioned in the first paragraph, we'd like to highlight a couple of items. First are new sidebars/examples on thermal stratification in Chapter 5, biomagnification of DDT in an ecosystem in Chapter 8, cancer in radium dial workers in Chapter 9, colon cancer mechanisms in Chapter 10, adverse outcome pathways in Chapter 11, and the “mouse to elephant” curve in Chapter 11. A second is an attempt to harmonize the variables amongst all the chapters. There are only a couple of cases where a variable has more than one meaning, which should be apparent from the context. A list of variables, units, and acronyms is included for reference.
We would like to acknowledge and thank the contributions of Dr. Norman Eisenberg and Dr. Keith Compton as co-authors of the first edition. We particularly want to express our appreciation to Dr. Eisenberg for his many valuable comments and suggestions, many of which we have incorporated into the second edition. We'd also like to acknowledge Dr. Eric Williams for his helpful comments over the years as well as Cynthia Barr and Dr. Cassandra Campbell, Dr. David Freedman, Dr. Brian Powell, and Dr. David Stuenkel on their thoughtful review of various sections/chapters of the second edition. Finally, one of the authors (RAF) expresses his personal thanks to Dr. Timothy DeVol for agreeing to take on the task of interfacing with Wiley on the publication of the second edition. A companion website with additional resources for instructors is available at: https://www.wiley.com/go/fjeld2/QuantitativeEnvironmentalRisk.
August 2023
Robert A. FjeldTimothy A. DeVolNicole E. Martinez
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
Environmental risk analysis for human health is the systematic analytical process of assessing, managing, and communicating the risk to human health from contaminants released to or contained in the environment in which humans live. It is a discipline central to the development of environmental regulations and the demonstration of compliance with those regulations. The goal of the book is to provide both the methods that are commonly used in environmental risk analysis and the underlying scientific basis for these methods. Although the text covers all three of the activities involved in environmental risk analysis (risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication), the focus is on environmental risk assessment, especially the computational aspects.
The book is designed for both academic and professional audiences. It may be used to instruct graduate students and advanced undergraduates with a background in quantitative science or engineering. Practitioners may find the book useful for gaining an understanding of the science and methods outside their specialty. To make the text as accessible as possible, we presume no prior knowledge of environmental processes or environmental modeling, although we do expect readers to have a working knowledge of the fundamentals of physical science and mathematics through vector calculus, including some knowledge of statistics.
Development of a textbook on environmental risk analysis is a challenging undertaking. Environmental risk analysis encompasses a variety of diverse technical disciplines, including surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology, air dispersion meteorology, chemical process engineering, toxicology, health physics, decision analysis, and risk communication, to name a few. Each of these disciplines is a separate field of technical study, often with individual academic curricula and professional certification. A significant challenge in developing the book has been choosing the appropriate degree of depth and detail for each of these many technical disciplines. Our approach is to provide enough information for each discipline so that the reader can develop an understanding of its role in the overall analysis, its methods, and significant uncertainties. Because the treatment of each specialty is limited, practitioners are likely to seek more focused texts for their particular specialty.
Certain perspectives on environmental risk analysis have shaped the treatment:
Most environmental risk analyses require a completely integrated approach to be successful.
The risk analysis is driven by the questions asked and the nature of the system—a single approach does not fit all.
Quantitative analysis is a useful tool, but analysts, reviewers, and managers should understand the limitations and uncertainties of the analysis.
Although risk assessment is the main focus of the book, risk communication, risk management, and regulatory requirements are essential features of most risk analyses and have a significant impact on virtually all technical aspects of the analysis.
Several unifying principles are used to address these perspectives and assist in organizing the text:
The paradigm for the risk assessment calculation is four sequential steps (release assessment, transport assessment, exposure assessment, and consequence assessment) in which the output of one step provides the input to the next.
The contaminant transport equation and its solutions may be used to model a wide variety of environmental systems by choosing model aspects and conditions appropriate to the system.
The characterization of human health consequences as either deterministic or stochastic, as is commonly done in health physics, is extended to include both chemical and radioactive contaminants, thereby providing a unified basis for describing and quantifying human health consequences.
Both qualitative and quantitative uncertainties are important at every step of the analysis.
The book has its origins in class notes for a risk assessment course taught since the mid-1980s in the Department of Environmental Engineering and Science at Clemson University. These evolved into a set of instructional modules prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy and published in 1998. These modules were subsequently used at Clemson University and for six semesters of instruction in the Professional Master of Engineering Program at the University of Maryland. The book represents a significant enhancement and update of the original modules and has benefited from extensive classroom experience.
The overall organization of the book is as follows: Chapter 1 is an overview of environmental risk analysis and environmental risk assessment, Chapter 2 describes the modeling process and fundamentals of environmental models, Chapters 3 through 11 are concerned with environmental risk assessment, Chapter 12 deals with uncertainty and sensitivity analysis, Chapter 13 covers risk communication, Chapter 14 describes methods of risk management, and Chapter 15 presents environmental laws and regulations. Since a four-step paradigm is used for the risk assessment calculation, the risk assessment chapters are organized as follows: Chapter 3, release assessment; Chapter 4, generic transport; Chapters 5 to 8, surface water, groundwater, atmospheric, and food chain transport, respectively; Chapter 9, exposure assessment; and Chapters 10 and 11, basic human toxicology and dose–response; respectively. Much of the material presented in Chapters 2 through 11 is in the form of deterministic quantitative relationships. There are exceptions to this practice; for example, Chapter 3 contains an abbreviated treatment of probabilistic methods used for analyzing releases. For historical, pedagogical, and practical reasons, probabilistic methods are not described substantially until Chapter 12.
This approach allows treatment of the various disciplines in a simplified, largely deterministic fashion conducive to instruction at this level.
The book is designed to allow flexible approaches to instruction. We recognize that some readers will benefit from certain mathematical treatments, and some will not. To accommodate varying degrees of facility with mathematics, the book is structured to facilitate passing up mathematically demanding parts without interrupting the orderly presentation of material. Thus, selected sidebars, examples, and problems with heavy mathematical content can be skipped without seriously affecting the reader's ability to proceed through the remainder of the book. Similarly, Chapter 12, Chapter 14, or both may be omitted in a one-semester course. Our experience is that readers who have stronger backgrounds in mathematics have a greater appreciation for, and accrue greater benefits from, using the contaminant transport equation as a unifying theoretical basis for most of the mathematical models that are used in risk calculations. Consequently, the instructor must decide whether the material in Chapter 4 is appropriate for a given class. To fit the course into a single semester, some chapters will probably need to be skipped, depending on the course focus. For instructors wishing to emphasize the overall environmental risk analysis process, Chapters 1314,, and probably 15 are essential; however, one or more of the environmental transport chapters (Chapters 5, 6, 7, or 8) could be omitted. For instructors wishing to emphasize the risk assessment calculation, all or parts of Chapters 13, 14, or 15 could be omitted.
We are indebted to the many people who have contributed to the book. We thank Sandra Sanderson for her invaluable help in preparing the manuscript, Debbie Falta for checking the examples and assisting in the preparation of the solutions manual, Rachael Williams for her careful review of Chapters 1 through 9, graduate students at Clemson University and in the Professional Master of Engineering Program at the University of Maryland for valuable comments and corrections, Mary Shirley for her assistance with the figures, and Tom Overcamp for his review of the atmospheric transport chapter. Thanks are also extended to Kevin Farley, David Hoel, Owen Hoffman, Tom Kirchner, Frank Parker, Art Rood, and Linda Wennerberg, who reviewed a set of educational modules that served as a precursor to the book. We also want to thank Jerry E. and Harriet Calvert Dempsey for financial support through their endowment to Clemson University.
Robert A. FjeldNorman A. EisenbergKeith L. Compton
1Introduction
Chapter Objectives
To distinguish between environmental risk analysis and environmental risk assessment.
To list and describe the components of (1) an environmental risk analysis and (2) an environmental risk assessment.
To describe the uses of an environmental risk assessment.
Environmental risk analysis for human health is a systematic analytical process for assessing, managing, and communicating the risk to human health from contaminants released into or contained in the environment in which humans live. Environmental risk analysis encompasses a broad variety of disciplines and endeavors including natural sciences such as geology, meteorology, hydrology, and ecology which describe the natural environment in which contaminants migrate; biological sciences such as physiology, toxicology, anatomy, and cell biology which describe the interaction and response of humans to environmental toxins; physical sciences such as physics and chemistry which describe how contaminants migrate in natural systems; and decision and social sciences which provide methods for making rational decisions and for communicating with stakeholders throughout the risk analysis process.
A well‐established paradigm for risk analysis includes (1) risk assessment, (2) risk management, and (3) risk communication. Most of this book addresses the environmental risk assessment component of environmental risk analysis. However, most environmental risk assessments are performed to answer a question or resolve an issue, such as: “Is it safe for a proposed chemical plant to operate in this location?” Because the
