Quinoa E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: World Agriculture Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 688

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Quinoa is an ancient grain that has grown in popularity in recent years. It has been known as a good source of both protein and fiber. As the demand for quinoa increases a comprehensive and up-to-date reference on the biology and production of the crop is essential. Quinoa: Improvement and Sustainable Production brings together authors from around the world to provide a complete assessment of the current state of global quinoa research and production. Topics covered include quinoa history and culture, genomics and breeding, agronomy, nutrition, marketing, and end-uses. The book focuses in particular on the emerging role of quinoa in providing increased food security to smallholder farmers and communities throughout the world. Quinoa will interest quinoa researchers, producers, crop scientists, agronomists, and plant geneticists, as well as advanced students working with this important grain.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Preface

Chapter 1: Quinoa: An Incan Crop to Face Global Changes in Agriculture

INTRODUCTION

A BRIEF HISTORY OF QUINOA CULTIVATION

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF QUINOA SEED

BOTANICAL AND GENETIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE QUINOA PLANT

QUINOA AND ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES: DROUGHT AND SALINITY

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Chapter 2: History of Quinoa: Its Origin, Domestication, Diversification, and Cultivation with Particular Reference to the Chilean Context

QUINOA ORIGINS IN THE CENTRAL ANDES

ANCIENT EXPANSION TO SOUTHERN LATITUDES IN CHILE

REINTRODUCTION OF QUINOA IN ARID CHILE AFTER LOCAL EXTINCTION

FINAL REMARKS

REFERENCES

Chapter 3: Agroecological and Agronomic Cultural Practices of Quinoa in South America

INTRODUCTION

ANDEAN DOMESTICATION

BOTANICAL AND TAXONOMICAL DESCRIPTION

GENETIC BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH ON QUINOA GENETICS

ECOLOGY AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

CULTIVATION AND AGRONOMIC PRACTICES IN SOUTH AMERICA

QUINOA PRODUCTION

CLIMATE

CULTIVATION

REFERENCES

Chapter 4: Trends in Quinoa Yield over the Southern Bolivian Altiplano: Lessons from Climate and Land-Use Projections

SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

Chapter 5: The Potential of Using Natural Enemies and Chemical Compounds in Quinoa for Biological Control of Insect Pests

INTRODUCTION

INSECTS IN QUINOA

POTENTIAL OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL IN QUINOA

POTENTIAL FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT OF QUINOA

REFERENCES

Chapter 6: Quinoa Breeding

HISTORY—DOMESTICATION PROCESS

COLLECTION OF GENETIC RESOURCES

GOALS AND METHODS OF QUINOA BREEDING

QUINOA BREEDING METHODS

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Chapter 7: Quinoa Cytogenetics, Molecular Genetics, and Diversity

INTRODUCTION

CYTOGENETICS AND GENOME STRUCTURE OF

Chenopodium quinoa

CROSSABILITY OF QUINOA AND ALLIED TETRAPLOID TAXA

DNA SEQUENCE EVIDENCE FOR QUINOA'S GENOMIC ORIGINS

QUINOA GENETIC MARKERS AND LINKAGE MAPS

QUINOA DIVERSITY

SUMMARY

REFERENCES

Chapter 8: Ex Situ Conservation of Quinoa: The Bolivian Experience

INTRODUCTION

CENTERS OF ORIGIN AND DIVERSITY OF QUINOA

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF QUINOA

GENEBANKS OF THE ANDEAN REGION

BOLIVIAN COLLECTION OF QUINOA GERMPLASM

STEPS FOR

EX SITU

MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF QUINOA

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

Chapter 9: Quinoa Breeding in Africa: History, Goals, and Progress

INTRODUCTION

GOALS OF QUINOA BREEDING IN AFRICA

CHALLENGES AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Chapter 10: Quinoa Cultivation for Temperate North America: Considerations and Areas for Investigation

INTRODUCTION

TOLERANCE TO ABIOTIC STRESSES

PRODUCTION ASPECTS

CHALLENGES TO QUINOA PRODUCTION

ALTERNATIVE USES OF QUINOA

CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

Chapter 11: Nutritional Properties of Quinoa

INTRODUCTION

PROTEIN

CARBOHYDRATES

LIPIDS

VITAMINS

MINERALS

ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS OF QUINOA

BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS

SUMMARY

REFERENCES

Chapter 12: Quinoa's Calling

INTRODUCTION

A SNAPSHOT OF THE ECONOMICS OF A SMALLHOLDER FARMER IN BOLIVIA AND THE INTERNATIONAL MARKET

THE QUINOA MARKET: SUPPLY AND DEMAND

CURRENT PRODUCTION PRACTICES, INCREASED ACREAGE, AND THOUGHTS ON SUSTAINABILITY

LIVING WELL, REVERSED MIGRATION, AND CULTURAL IDENTITY

OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE BOLIVIAN FARMER

Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Quinoa: An Incan Crop to Face Global Changes in Agriculture

Figure 1.1 Development and growth responses of different organs (expressed as fresh weights) of

C. quinoa

cv. CICA grown at different NaCl concentrations. The dotted line marks the C

50

value. Each column represents the mean value of three replicates and the bars represent standard deviations. Columns with the same letter are not significantly different at

P

≤ 0.05, Duncan test. (R) root, (S) stem, (Al) adult leaf, (Jl) juvenile leaf, and (In) inflorescence.

Figure 1.2 Representative SEM micrographs of the juvenile leaf surface showing the various stages of bladder hairs development. BH, bladder hair and EC, epidermal cells.

Figure 1.3 Light response curves of

C. quinoa

, CICA cultivar, at different NaCl concentrations. Values are the mean of three independent measurements.

Chapter 2: History of Quinoa: Its Origin, Domestication, Diversification, and Cultivation with Particular Reference to the Chilean Context

Figure 2.1 Position of Chile in South America (right upper corner) where a long Atacama Desert (a) isolates the country from southern Peru and Bolivia. Quinoa is cultivated in places as the eastern Altiplano (b) at 4,000 m high (“salares” ecotypes), in the center (c) and south (d) of the country (“coastal” ecotypes) at sea level or piedmont (1,000 masl).

Chapter 3: Agroecological and Agronomic Cultural Practices of Quinoa in South America

Figure 3.1 (a–c) Examples of quinoa plants in farmer's field showing the vast diversity of colors and the forms of panicles (Province of Omasuyos, bordered to the south and west by Lake Titicaca, Bolivia) (Del Castillo and Winkel, IRD—CLIFA, 2002–2008).

Figure 3.2 (a–c) Close-up view of quinoa grains (Del Castillo and Winkel, IRD—CLIFA, 2002–2008).

Figure 3.3 (a,b) Frost damage in quinoa (−5°C at 60 days after sowing).

Figure 3.4 Quinoa after hail damage (Del Castillo and Winkel, IRD—CLIFA, 2002–2008).

Figure 3.5 (a) Traditional quinoa farming with little soil surface opening and large spaces between plants (SUMAMAD-UMSA team). (b) Mechanized fields (Winkel 2013 ©IRD).

Figure 3.6 (a) Relationship between water use efficiency (WUE) and pre- and postanthesis evapotranspiration rate. (b) Relationship among WUE, yield, and (full and deficit) irrigation requirements. (Source: Geerts et al. 2008b).

Figure 3.7 Two methods of manual harvesting of quinoa: (a,b) pulling out the plants and leaving them in stacks on the field to dry; (c) plants are piled above ground and left to dry (Del Castillo and Winkel, IRD—CLIFA, 2002–2008).

Chapter 4: Trends in Quinoa Yield over the Southern Bolivian Altiplano: Lessons from Climate and Land-Use Projections

Figure 4.1 Drought evolution from 1901 to 2009 on different timescales as assessed by the SPEIs. The series represents the evolution of the SPEIs with time-windows of 3, 6, and 24 months. Dry periods display negative SPEI values and humid ones have positive SPEI values. The dotted lines at SPEI = 1 show the threshold value defining a moderate drought.

Figure 4.2 Seasonal course of the daily relative soil water content averaged over the second time-slice (1981–2000). The grey area shows the standard error.

Figure 4.3 Seasonal time courses of the daily relative soil water content averaged over each of the four time-slices from 1961 to 2100.

Figure 4.4 Seasonal time course of the daily unpredictability index calculated over four time-slices from 1961 to 2100.

Figure 4.5 Interannual variability of the quinoa yield index [0–1] at plot scale across the four time-slices 1961–1980, 1981–2000, 2046–2065, and 2081–2100. Red lines show the trends in each time-slice.

Figure 4.6 Scenarios of land use and land cover changes used in our simulations. (a) The drastic land use change in the

pampa

land unit with projected crop cover reaching 50% of the suitable area at the 2040 horizon. (b) The change in the crop area aggregated for the whole study area, showing a sharp increase in the

pampas

, a moderate increase in the

faldas

, and a slight decline in the

cerros

. (c) Decline in the percent area devoted to pasture in the different land units.

Figure 4.7 Time course of the quinoa yield index at landscape scale across the four time-slices 1961–1980, 1981–2000, 2046–2065, and 2081–2100. Values corresponding to

falda

and

pampa

(grey circles) are pooled and displayed separately from those corresponding to

cerro

(white circles). The trends (red line and red dotted line) have been calculated with spline curves.

Chapter 5: The Potential of Using Natural Enemies and Chemical Compounds in Quinoa for Biological Control of Insect Pests

Figure 5.1 Phytophagous insects associated with quinoa in the Neotropical region. (a) Lepidoptera, larvae feeding on quinoa leaf; (b)

Leptoglossus

sp. in quinoa leaf; (c,d)

Oiketicus kirbyi

, neotenic larvae coming out of bag or basket; (e)

O. kirbyi

bag or basket in quinoa branch; (f) adult

Eurysacca

sp.; (g)

Eurysacca

sp. larvae feeding on quinoa leaf; (h) Pyralidae, larvae; (i)

Nezara viridula

, adult in quinoa panicle; and (j) adult

Epicauta adspersa

in quinoa leaf.

Figure 5.3 Coleoptera species in quinoa crops. (a) Carabidae; (b)

Ancistrosoma vittigerum

; and (C)

Astylus atromaculatus

.

Figure 5.2 Entomophagous insect on quinoa in Amaicha del Valle. (a) Parasitoid

Copidosoma

sp. adult; (b)

Copidosoma

sp. parasitism in

Eurysacca

larvae; (c)

Eurysacca

damaged pupa; (d) parasitoid Ichneumonidae; (e) unidentified parasitoid; (f–l) predator insects; (f)

Eriopis connexa

, immature stage; (g)

Chrysoperla argentina

, adult; (h)

C. externa

, immature stage; (i)

C. externa

, adult; (j)

C. argentina

, preying on

Spodoptera frugiperda

(Lepidoptera) eggs; (k)

C. argentina

, immature stage preying on aphids; and (l)

C. externa

, immature stage preying on aphids.

Figure 5.4 Plant–insect biochemical interactions, with plant chemical responses after attack of phytophagous insects. (a) Function of inducible or constitutive secondary metabolites (SMs) such as phenolics, terpenes, and alkaloids; (b) plant rapid response related to damage, jasmonic acid signal, and herbivory-associated molecular patterns (HAMP); (c) plant slow response, herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs), monoterpenes act as signals to other plants and entomophagous insects.

Figure 5.5

Chrysoperla

species associated with quinoa in Amaicha del Valle, Tucuman, Argentina. The population dynamics of

Chrysoperla externa

Hagen (light grey bar) and

Chrysoperla argentina

González Olazo-Reguilón (dark bar) species for two periods (from November 2008 to March 2010). A: eggs; B: larvae; C: adult.

Chapter 7: Quinoa Cytogenetics, Molecular Genetics, and Diversity

Figure 7.1 Metaphase plates of

Chenopodium quinoa

(a) after C-banding and (b) stained with CMA

3

. Localization of (c)

Arabidopsis

-type telomere repeat and (d) clone 12-13P on metaphase chromosomes of quinoa. Scale bar = 5 µm.

Figure 7.2 Example of SNP assays using the KASPar™ genotyping chemistry on the Fluidigm access array in the quinoa RIL mapping population. (a) The genotyping across the 96.96 IFC chip (96 DNA samples on the vertical, 96 SNP assays on the horizontal). (b) Individual SNP loci in a Cartesian graph. A no template control (NTC) and a synthetic heterozygote are identified (

See color insert for representation of this figure

.).

Chapter 8: Ex Situ Conservation of Quinoa: The Bolivian Experience

Figure 8.1 Profile distribution of the five major quinoa ecotypes in the Andean Region.

Figure 8.2 Geographic distribution of quinoa in the Andean Region. (

See color insert for representation of this figure

.)

Figure 8.3 Number of accessions and genebanks conserving quinoa germplasm in the Andean countries.

Figure 8.4 Geographical distribution of the Bolivian quinoa germplasm collection.

Figure 8.5 Quinoa Growth habit: (a) simple; (b) branched to the lower third; (c) branched to the second third; and (d) branched with undifferentiated main panicle.

Figure 8.6 Panicle shape: (a) glomerulated; (b) intermediate; and (c) amaranth-form.

Figure 8.7 Quinoa grain shapes: (a) lenticular; (b) cylindrical; (c) ellipsoidal; and (d) conical.

Figure 8.8 Variation in protein content of 555 quinoa germplasm accessions.

Figure 8.9 Germination behavior in four groups of cultivated quinoa and two groups of wild quinoa. Q-1, Q-2, Q-3 and Q-4 are the cultivated quinoa groups, while QS-1 and QS-2 are the wild quinoa groups.

Chapter 9: Quinoa Breeding in Africa: History, Goals, and Progress

Figure 9.1 Map of Malawi showing temperature variation across the country and these mainly influenced by mountains and low-lying areas that characterize the country.

Figure 9.2 Yield (kg/ha) of 11 quinoa genotypes and cultivars grown under irrigation from July to October 2012 at the Bunda and Bembeke sites in Malawi.

Chapter 10: Quinoa Cultivation for Temperate North America: Considerations and Areas for Investigation

Figure 10.1 Preharvest sprouting.

Chapter 11: Nutritional Properties of Quinoa

Figure 11.1 (a) Spongy tissue of quinoa cotyledon and (b) endosperm cell showing protein bodies (PBs) with globoid crystal (black arrow) (Prego et al. 1998).

Figure 11.2 Quinoa seed structure. PE, pericarp; SC, seed coat; C, cotyledons; SA, shoot apex; H, hypocotyl–radicle axis; R, radicle; F, funicle; EN, endosperm; P, perisperm. (Prego et al. 1998).

Figure 11.3 Refractive electron image (REI) and element mapping of a quinoa seed (P, perisperm; PC, pericarp; C, cotyledon; R, radicle; H, hypocotyl–radicle axis) (Konishi et al. 2004).

Chapter 12: Quinoa's Calling

Figure 12.1 Shelf at a Whole Foods Store in California shows quinoa prices ranging from $5.50 to $9.00/lb.

Figure 12.2 Land considered suitable for cultivation and pasture in the Altiplano.

Figure 12.4 US quinoa imports in MT per year, organic versus nonorganic. (

See color insert for representation of this figure

.)

Figure 12.7 Bolivian organic quinoa prices per MT price at port of origin.

Figure 12.10 Quinoa exports per country in MT per year.

Figure 12.5 Close-up of white quinoa seeds.

Figure 12.6 Multiple quinoa varieties are planted and harvested in the same fields.

Figure 12.8 Production per country per year in metric tons (MT).

Figure 12.9 Quinoa production, consumption, and exports in MT per year from main producing countries.

Figure 12.11 Raúl Vera Copa, President of APQC, an association of 200 producing family farms in Bolivia.

Figure 12.13 Farm-gate (unprocessed) quinoa prices in Bolivia in $/lb.

Figure 12.12 Unpaved roads leading to quinoa fields.

Figure 12.14 Efigenia Encinas with her lamb.

Figure 12.15 Replanted quinoa in a field where earlier plantings had been eaten by rabbits.

Figure 12.16 Quinoa emerging before first rains.

Figure 12.17 Quinoa field prepared with tractors.

Figure 12.18 Typical quinoa farmer family in the Potosí region of Bolivia.

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Quinoa: An Incan Crop to Face Global Changes in Agriculture

Table 1.1 Protein content (g/100 g DW) of quinoa seeds cultivated in two agroecological sites (Patacamaya, 3,600 masl and Encalilla, 2,000 masl)

Table 1.2 Carbon isotope composition δ

13

C of 10 varieties of quinoa

Table 1.3 Effect of elevated water salinity on the net photosynthesis rate (

P

N

), transpiration rate (

E

), Stomatal conductance (

C

s

), ratio of the internal to the external CO

2

concentration (

C

i

/

C

a

), and photosynthetic water use efficiency (PWUE) of

C. quinoa

cv. CICA. All of these values are at the light saturation point of photosynthesis

Table 1.4 Calculated photosynthetic efficiency (

Φ

c

), dark respiration (

D

r

), light compensation point (

L

c

), and light saturation point (

L

s

) of

C. quinoa

cv. CICA plants grown under various NaCl salinities

Chapter 3: Agroecological and Agronomic Cultural Practices of Quinoa in South America

Table 3.1 Different ecotypes of quinoa, their local names, and their property or principal use

Table 3.2 Phenological stages of quinoa

Chapter 4: Trends in Quinoa Yield over the Southern Bolivian Altiplano: Lessons from Climate and Land-Use Projections

Table 4.1 Summary of results obtained by analyzing the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) with three time-windows of 3, 6, and 24 months

Table 4.2 Changes over three time-slices from 1981 to 2100 in yearly averages ±SD of minimal

t

n

, maximal

t

x

air temperatures, and drought duration DD with soil water storage lower than the wilting point, relative to the control period (1961–1980) retained as baseline

Table 4.3 Changes of the mean yield index at plot scale YI

plot

and its standard deviation over different time-slices from 1961 to 2100

Chapter 5: The Potential of Using Natural Enemies and Chemical Compounds in Quinoa for Biological Control of Insect Pests

Table 5.1 Insect species associated with quinoa crops

Table 5.2 Beneficial insect species (parasitoids and predators) associated with quinoa crops in the Andes

Chapter 6: Quinoa Breeding

Table 6.1 Variation in morphological characters of quinoa (

Chenopodium quinoa

Willd.) described in germplasm from diverse origins

Table 6.2 Agronomical variation and quality characters of quinoa (

Chenopodium quinoa

Willd.) described in germplasm from diverse origins

Chapter 8: Ex Situ Conservation of Quinoa: The Bolivian Experience

Table 8.1 Origin and Number of Accessions in the Quinoa Germplasm Collection Preserved in the INIAF Genebank, Bolivia

Table 8.2 Initial Seed Moisture Content and Final Moisture Content in 14 Accessions of Quinoa Exposed to 20°C for a Period of 24.5 h

Table 8.3 Nutritional and Agro-Food Characteristics and Statistical Parameters for 555 Germplasm Accessions of Quinoa from Bolivia

Table 8.4 Quinoa Germplasm Information Documented in the Manual and Electronic Systems

Table 8.5 Quinoa Accessions Evaluated Using Participatory Techniques Throughout Six Farming Years (2002–2008) and the Participating Communities

Table 8.6 Number of Communities, Courses and Participants in Training Events on New Ways of Preparing Quinoa Food Products (2005–2008)

Table 8.7 Bolivian quinoa varieties obtained through breeding

Table 8.8 Promotion and Dissemination of Quinoa Germplasm Through Urban and Rural Fairs and Mass Media

Table 8.9 Conferences, Lectures, and Talks on the Quinoa Germplasm Collection Held at Schools, Colleges, Universities, Institutions, and for Farmers

Chapter 9: Quinoa Breeding in Africa: History, Goals, and Progress

Table 9.1 Prevalence of undernourishment in selected African countries and in comparison with world overall levels (FAO 2012a)

Table 9.2 Quinoa varieties introduced in Malawi in 2012 for testing and their background information

Table 9.3 An extract of the mean performance of 24 cultivars of quinoa in Nairobi, Kenya, evaluated under the 1999 international quinoa trials

Chapter 11: Nutritional Properties of Quinoa

Table 11.1 Chemical Composition of Quinoa and Cereals (Jancurová et al. 2009)

Table 11.2 Protein Content in Quinoa Seed Fraction (Ando et al. 2002)

Table 11.3 Amino Acids of Quinoa, Soy, Casein, and Wheat (mg/g)

Table 11.4 Essential Amino Acid of Quinoa Protein and FAO/WHO Suggested Requirement (mg/g protein)

Table 11.5 Subgroups of Protein from Quinoa, Maize, Rice, and Wheat (% Total Protein) (Koziol 1992)

Table 11.6 Granule Size of Starch from Quinoa and Other Cereals (Lindeboom et al. 2004)

Table 11.7 Quinoa Starch Characteristics (Ando et al. 2002)

Table 11.8 Sugar Content of Quinoa Flour (mg/100 g sample) (Ogungbenle 2003)

Table 11.9 Properties of Quinoa Lipids (%) (Ogungbenle 2003)

Table 11.10 Fatty Acid Composition of Quinoa (100% Dry Basis) (Ando et al. 2002)

Table 11.11 Comparison of Percent Fatty Acid from Quinoa and Oil from Other Crops

Table 11.12 Vitamin Content in Quinoa, Wheat, Rice, and Barley (mg/100 g)

Table 11.13 Mineral Content of Quinoa Grain Fraction (mg/mg%) (Ando et al. 2002)

Table 11.14 Chemical Structure of the Aglycones in Quinoa (Kuljanabhagavad and Wink 2009)

Table 11.15 Phenolic Acid Content in Quinoa and Other Cereals (µg/g wb)

Chapter 12: Quinoa's Calling

Table 12.1 Production costs, based on actual results from production of Jacha Inti suppliers of organic quinoa grown in the southern Altiplano region of Bolivia

Table 12.2 US quinoa imports in metric tons per year and US imports as a percentage of total world production

Table 12.3 Evolution of hectares farmed, quinoa production costs, and earnings for Bolivian farmers

Quinoa

Improvement and Sustainable Production

Edited by

Kevin Murphy and Janet Matanguihan

Copyright © 2015 by Wiley-Blackwell. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Quinoa : improvement and sustainable production / edited by Kevin Murphy and Glafera Janet Matanguihan.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-62805-8 (cloth)

1. Quinoa. 2. Crop improvement. 3. Sustainable agriculture. I. Murphy, Kevin (Kevin Matthew), 1972- editor. II. Matanguihan, Glafera Janet, editor.

SB177.Q55Q56 2015

664'.7–dc23

2015006917

List of Contributors

Sergio Núñez de Arco

Andean Naturals, Inc., Foster City, CA, USA

Didier Bazile

UPR47, GREEN, Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement Campus International de Baillarguet Montpellier, France

Carmen Del Castillo

Faculty of Agronomy Universidad Mayor de San Andres La Paz, Bolivia

Bruno Condori

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research – International Potato Center, La Paz, Bolivia

Sayed S.S. Eisa

Agricultural Botany Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

Francisco F. Fuentes

Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Casilla 306–22, Santiago, Chile

Magali Garcia

Faculty of Agronomy, Universidad Mayor de San Andres La Paz, Bolivia

Juan Antonio González

Instituto de Ecologia – Area de Botánica Fundación Miguel Lillo Tucumán Tucumán, Argentina

Veronica Guwela

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Lilongwe, Malawi

Sayed Abd Elmonim Sayed Hussin

Agricultural Botany Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University Cairo, Egypt

Eric N. Jellen

Plant and Wildlife Sciences Brigham Young University Provo, UT, USA

Bozena Kolano

Department of Plant Anatomy and Cytology University of Silesia, Poland

Moses F.A. Maliro

Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Bunda College Campus, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources Lilongwe, Malawi

Enrique A. Martínez

Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Áridas La Serena and Facultad de Ciencias del Mar Universidad Católica del Norte Coquimbo, Chile

Janet B. Matanguihan

Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Washington State University Pullman, WA, USA

Peter J. Maughan

Plant and Wildlife Sciences Brigham Young University Provo, UT, USA

Florent Mouillot

IRD, UMR 5175 CEFE Montpellier, France

Kevin M. Murphy

Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Washington State University Pullman, WA, USA

Luz Gomez-Pando

Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina Agronomy Faculty Lima, Peru

Adam J. Peterson

Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Washington State University Pullman, WA, USA

Milton Pinto

PROINPA Foundation 538 Americo Vespucio St., P.O. Box 1078, La Paz, Bolivia

Griselda Podazza

Instituto de Ecología, Fundación Miguel Lillo Tucumán, Argentina

Fernando Eduardo Prado

Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e IML Fisiología Vegetal Tucumán, Argentina

Serge Rambal

CNRS, UMR 5175 CEFE Montpellier, France

Departamento de Biologia Universidade Federal de Lavras Lavras, MG, Brazil

Jean-Pierre Ratte

CNRS, UMR 5175 CEFE Montpellier, France

Carmen Reguilón

Instituto de Entomología, Fundación Miguel Lillo Tucumán, Argentina

Wilfredo Rojas

PROINPA Foundation Av. Elias Meneces km 4 El Paso, Cochabamba, Bolivia

Mariana Valoy

Instituto de Ecología, Fundación Miguel Lillo Tucumán, Argentina

Thierry Winkel

IRD, UMR 5175 CEFE Montpellier, France

Geyang Wu

School of Food Science Washington State University Pullman, WA, USA

Preface

The seeds of this book took root in the summer of 2010, during the first year of our multilocation quinoa trials across three major climatic regions of Washington State. We began growing and evaluating quinoa thanks to generous funding from the Organic Farming Research Foundation, and growers around the state looked on with keen interest. In that first year we tested 44 varieties of quinoa sourced from almost as many diverse geographical locations and we were mildly surprised when only 12 of these actually produced seed in our northern latitude. That first year we were introduced to many of the ongoing challenges we continue to face 5 years later, including susceptibility to preharvest sprouting and downy mildew, photoperiod insensitivity, pollen sterilization resulting from high summer temperatures with little to no rainfall or supplemental irrigation, and the negative effects of aphid and lygus predation. We quickly realized that if quinoa were to become a successfully grown crop in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, it would require a concerted effort of a transdisciplinary cadre of scientists with a range of expertise, a forward-thinking and risk-taking group of innovative farmers, and a strong supporting cast of distributors, processors, and consumers. From that first year, with only one junior faculty and one undergraduate research intern collaborating with three farmers, the quinoa group at Washington State University has grown into diverse team of over 10 faculty and 10 graduate students, each addressing a key component of quinoa breeding, agronomy, sociology, entomology, or food science. This book is intended to lay the groundwork for the latest quinoa research worldwide and to assist faculty and students new to the crop to gain a foothold of understanding into quinoa genomics and breeding, global agronomy and production, and marketing.

In August 2013, Washington State University hosted the International Quinoa Research Symposium (IQRS). One hundred and sixty enthusiastic participants from 24 countries descended on Pullman, Washington and shared knowledge, questions, obstacles, observations, and ideas on the path forward during an intense, vibrant and thought-provoking 3 days of talks, field visits, poster sessions, and quinoa vodka infused social exploration. Many of the co-authors of the various chapters in this book were attendees and/or presenters at the IQRS, and the symposium provided a safe forum for the open discussion of ideas that have found their way into the chapters of this book. Symposium attendees who have contributed to this book include Didier Bazille, Juan Antonio Gonzalez, Luz Gomez Pando, Rick Jellen, Moses Maliro, Enrique Martinez (in absentia), Jeff Maughan, Sergio Núñez de Arco, Adam Peterson, Wilfredo Rojas, Geyang Wu, and co-editors Janet Matanguihan and Kevin Murphy.

Keynote speakers at the IQRS included Sven-Erik Jacobsen, renowned quinoa researcher from University of Copenhagen, Tania Santivanez from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, and John McCamant, a long-time quinoa farmer and researcher from White Mountain Farms in Colorado, USA. Other esteemed presenters not mentioned included Daniel Bertero from the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina, Morgan Gardner of Washington State University, Frank Morton of Wild Garden Seeds in Oregon, and Hassan Munir of the University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan, as well as numerous poster presentations. Finally, the highlight of the symposium for many attendees was the eloquent thoughts delivered by a group of five Bolivian farmers, who traveled to the United States for the first time to join in the international discussion on the many social and political aspects of quinoa cultivation.

This book reflects the many presentations and discussions that took place at the IQRS, and is intended to provide the reader with a comprehensive base knowledge of the current body of knowledge of the ever-expanding, global scientific research of quinoa. In Chapter 1, Gonzalez et al. provide a solid overview of quinoa as an Incan crop, primarily in Peru and Bolivia, now facing a diversity of global challenges. Chapter 2 follows up on this introduction by discussing the origin, domestication, diversification, and cultivation of quinoa from a Chilean perspective.

Chapter 3 by Garcia et al. encapsulates many of the wide-ranging agronomic and agroecological cultural practices of quinoa throughout the major growing regions of South America as a whole. This broad chapter provides a botanical and taxonomical description of quinoa, ecology and phytogeography of quinoa, and many tangible production practices across a wide range of climates, soils, and growing conditions that can be emulated in nontraditional growing regions around the world. Rambal et al. follow this with a description of the historical trends in quinoa yield in the southern Bolivian altiplano, including important lessons from climate and land-use projections in Chapter 4. Valoy et al. then discuss in Chapter 5 the potential of using natural enemies and chemical compounds in quinoa for biological control of pests. This chapter follows up on the agroecological themes discussed in Chapter 3, and compiles and elucidates a vast array of knowledge gained through previous research in this realm of quinoa science, and provides the thoughtful reader many potential ideas for new research in this direction.

In Chapter 6, Peruvian plant breeder Gomez-Pando describes the historical and modern context of quinoa breeding in the Andean regions. Beginning with the effect of farmer selection on seed color, dormancy, seed size and seed coat thickness, salt and drought tolerance, and adaptation to multiple and countless microclimates, Gomez-Pando then moves on to highlight the rise of modern quinoa breeding in the 1960s, the collection of quinoa genetic resources and in situ conservation, and the goals and methodology employed by current quinoa breeders.

Matanguihan et al. follow this with an in-depth discussion on the cytogenetics, genomic structure, and diversity of quinoa in Chapter 7. Information on close genetic relatives of Chenopodium quinoa are discussed, along with DNA-based molecular genetic tools and linkage maps which can facilitate and accelerate the transfer of exotic genes into C. quinoa. Also included in Chapter 7 is a review of phenotypic and genetic diversity studies which show that the genetic variability of quinoa has a spatial structure and distribution. The congruence between genetic differentiation and ecogeography suggests that quinoa all over the southern Andes may be undergoing similar processes of genetic differentiation. Not surprisingly, human activities, specifically seed exchange routes, have significantly affected the genetic structure of quinoa.

In Chapter 8, Rojas and Pinto discuss the ex-situ conservation of quinoa genetic resources from a Bolivian perspective. According to Rojas and Pinto, the Bolivian quinoa germplasm collection has the greatest diversity in the world, and this diversity represents the cultural importance of quinoa in Bolivian customs, indigenous consumption, and production. Chapter 8 also provides insight into the center of origin and diversity of quinoa, the geographical distribution of quinoa, and steps needed for the ex situ management and conservation of quinoa.

Chapters 9 and 10 discuss quinoa cultivation n two continents, Africa and North America, that are considered nontraditional quinoa production environments. In Chapter 9, Maliro and Guwela describe the necessity of stabilizing food security and alleviating malnutrition in Africa, and the potential for quinoa as a novel crop to make a positive contribution to these efforts. The goals of quinoa breeding in Africa and information from recent quinoa trials in Malawi and Kenya are discussed in an effort to address the challenges and considerations for future quinoa research in Africa. Key among these considerations is the acceptability of quinoa into African diets. In Chapter 10, Peterson and Murphy discuss quinoa introduction to the United States as a crop approximately 30 years ago, and the key breeding, research, and production events in the time period after its introduction. Recent research at Washington State University is highlighted in this chapter.

In Chapter 11, Wu describes the nutritional properties of quinoa that have played an important role in bringing the crop to worldwide attention. Finally, in a refreshing departure from the scientific writing in the previous chapters, Nuñez de Arco provides an insider's view into the marketing of quinoa in Chapter 12. Of particular interest are the personal descriptions and snapshots of the lives of smallholder farmers, of which an estimated 35,000 produce quinoa in Bolivia, who discuss their philosophy of marketing quinoa under the current fluctuations in the supply and demand of this increasingly popular crop.

This book is a reflection of the increasing importance of quinoa in the global market. The roster of contributors—from South America, Europe, Africa and North America—also reflects the expansion of quinoa from its origins to new production areas in the world. It was a pleasure to work with colleagues from countries who have grown quinoa for centuries, and with colleagues from countries which are growing quinoa for the first time. We are indebted to these authors for their willingness to share their expertise and for their cooperation in the process of shaping this book. It is our hope that this book will contribute to quinoa knowledge to benefit growers, students, researchers, and professionals from universities and institutes involved in the improvement of quinoa and its sustainable production.

Kevin M. Murphy

Janet B. Matanguihan

Chapter 1Quinoa: An Incan Crop to Face Global Changes in Agriculture

Juan Antonio González1, Sayed S. S. Eisa2, Sayed A. E. S. Hussin2 and Fernando Eduardo Prado3

1Instituto de Ecologia – Area de Botánica, Fundación Miguel Lillo,Tucumán, Argentina

2Agricultural Botany Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University (ASU), Cairo, Egypt

3Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e IML, Fisiología Vegetal, Miguel Lillo 205, 4000, Tucumán,, Argentina

INTRODUCTION

Environmental changes have always occurred in the past but in the last decades these have escalated to critical levels, presenting environmental risk to people, especially in terms of food supply, as it affects crop yield, production, and quality. Rapid population growth leads to increase in demand for land and thus to accelerated degradation and destruction of the environment (Alexandratos 2005; IPCC 2007). Probably the most important change driven by human activity is the increasing accumulation of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), among others (Wallington et al. 2004; Montzka et al. 2011). Greenhouse gases can absorb and emit infrared radiation, and thus a global earth warming occurs, otherwise known as the greenhouse effect. Many scientists agree that even a small increase in the global temperature would lead to significant climate and weather changes, affecting cloud cover, precipitation, wind patterns, the frequency and severity of storms, and the duration of seasons (Solomon et al. 2009). This scenario will lead to scarce natural resources and the reduction of food production.