Radionuclides in the Environment E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: EIC Books
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1564

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Nuclear energy is the one energy source that could meet the world's growing energy needs and provide a smooth transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy in the coming decades and centuries. It is becoming abundantly clear that an increase in nuclear energy capacity will, and probably must, take place.

However, nuclear energy and the use of radionuclides for civilian and military purposes lead to extremely long-lived waste that is costly and highly problematic to deal with. Therefore, it is critically important ot understand the environmental implications of radionuclides for ecosystems and human health if nuclear energy is to be used to avoid the impending global energy crisis. The present volume of the EIC Books series addresses this critical need by providing fundamental information on environmentally significant radionuclides.

The content of this book was developed in collaboration with many of the authors of the chapters. Given the enormity of the subject the Editor and the Authors had to be judicious in selecting the chapters that would appropriately encompass and describe the primary topics, particularly those that are of importance to the health of ecosystems and humans. The resulting chapters were chosen to provide this information in a book of useful and appropriate length. Each chapter provides fundamental information on the chemistry of the radionuclides, their occurrence and movement in the enivornment, separation and analyses, and the technologies needed for their remediation and mitigation. The chapters are structured with a common, systematic format in order to facilitate comparions between elements and groups of elements.

About EIC Books

The Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry (EIC) has proved to be one of the defining standards in inorganic chemistry, and most chemistry libraries around the world have access either to the first of second print editon, or to the online version. Many readers, however, prefer to have more concise thematic volumes, targeted to their specific area of interest. This feedback from EIC readers has encouraged the Editors to plan a series of EIC Books, focusing on topics of current interest. They will appear on a regular basis, and will feature leading scholars in their fields. Like the Encyclopedia, EIC Books aims to provide both the starting research student and the confirmed research worker with a critical distillation of the leading concepts in inorganic and bioinorganic chemistry, and provide a structured entry into the fields covered.

This volume is also available as part of Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, 5 Volume Set.

This set combines all volumes published as EIC Books from 2007 to 2010, representing areas of key developments in the field of inorganic chemistry published in the Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. Find out more.

Leseprobe

RADIONUCLIDES in the Environment

EIC Books

Applications of Physical Methods to Inorganic and Bioinorganic ChemistryEdited by Robert A. Scott and Charles M. LukehartISBN 978-0-470-032176

Nanomaterials: Inorganic and Bioinorganic Perspectives Edited by Charles M. Lukehart and Robert A. Scott ISBN 978-0-470-51644-7

Computational Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry Edited by Edward I. Solomon, R. Bruce King and Robert A. Scott ISBN 978-0-470-69997-3

Radionuclides in the Environment Edited by David A. Atwood ISBN 978-0-470-71434-8

Forthcoming

Energy Production and Storage: Inorganic Chemical Strategies for a Warming World Robert H. Crabtree ISBN 978-0-470-74986-9

Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry

In 1994 John Wiley & Sons published the Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry (EIC). This 8-volume work was well received by the community, and has become a standard publication in all libraries serving the inorganic, coordination chemistry, organometallic and bioinorganic communities. The 10-volume Second Edition of the Encyclopedia was published in print in 2005, and online in 2006, on the major reference platform Wiley InterScience:

http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/eic/

This edition first published 2010© 2010 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry

Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief

Robert H. CrabtreeYale University, New Haven, CT, USA

Section Editors

David A. AtwoodUniversity of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA

R. Bruce KingUniversity of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

Charles M. LukehartVanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA

Robert A. ScottUniversity of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

International Advisory Board

Michael BruceAdelaide, Australia

Fausto CalderazzoPisa, Italy

Tristram ChiversCalgary, Canada

Odile EisensteinMontpellier, France

C. David GarnerNottingham, UK

Malcolm GreenOxford, UK

Wolfgang HerrmannMunich, Germany

Jean-Marie LehnStrasbourg, France

François MatheyUniversity of California Riverside, CA, USA

Akira NakamuraOsaka, Japan

Jan ReedijkLeiden, The Netherlands

Vivian YamHong Kong

Contents

Title

Copyright

Contributors

Series Preface

Volume Preface

Natural RadioactivityDominic Larivière and Nicolas Guérin

1 SUMMARY

2 NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

3 GLOSSARY

4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

5 RELATED ARTICLES

6 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

7 REFERENCES

Anthropogenic RadioactivityJerzy W. Mietelski

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 OCCURRENCE

4 FATE OF ANTHROPOGENIC RADIONUCLIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT

5 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

6 REMEDIATION

7 CONCLUSIONS

8 GLOSSARY

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 FURTHER READING

12 REFERENCES

SpeciationBrit Salbu

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 FRACTIONATION TECHNIQUES

4 PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

5 CONCLUSIONS

6 RELATED ARTICLES

7 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

8 FURTHER READING

9 REFERENCES

TritiumDan Galeriu and Anca Melintescu

1 INTRODUCTION

2 OCCURRENCE

3 CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS

4 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATIONTECHNIQUES

5 SPECIATION

6 POTENTIAL HUMAN EXPOSURE

7 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

8 REMEDIATION

9 CONCLUSIONS

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 REFERENCES

PotassiumTaehong Jun, Olga G. Tsay, and David G. Churchill

1 SUMMARY

2 OCCURRENCE, CHEMISTRY, AND SPECIATION

3 SOILS

4 SOIL-TO-PLANT TRANSFER AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION

5 DISTRIBUTION IN ANIMALS

6 MINERAL WATER AND DRINKING WATER

7 POTASSIUM-40 IN HUMANS AND TOTAL ANNUAL DOSE

8 BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE

9 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION

10 CONCLUSIONS

11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

12 RELATED ARTICLES

13 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

14 REFERENCES

CesiumEnrique Lima

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 OCCURRENCE

4 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

5 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

6 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

7 REMEDIATION

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 GLOSSARY

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 REFERENCES

StrontiumFrancisco Javier Guillén, Antonio Baeza, and Alejandro Salas

1 SUMMARY

2 OCCURRENCE

3 CHEMISTRY

4 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

5 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

6 SPECIATION

7 POTENTIAL HUMAN EXPOSURE

8 REMEDIATION

9 CONCLUSIONS

10 GLOSSARY

11 RELATED ARTICLES

12 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

13 FURTHER READING

14 REFERENCES

RadiumHildegarde Vandenhove, Freddy Verrezen, and Edward R. Landa

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 OCCURRENCE

4 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

5 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

6 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

7 MITIGATION AND REMEDIATION

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 REFERENCES

PhosphorusKibong Kim and David G. Churchill

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 ISOTOPIC ABUNDANCE AND OCCURRENCE

4 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

5 GEOLOGY

6 BIOLOGY

7 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

8 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION, SEPARATION, AND MONITORING TECHNIQUES

9 REMEDIATION AND MITIGATION

10 CONCLUSION

11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

12 RELATED ARTICLES

13 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

14 FURTHER READING

15 REFERENCES

SulfurOlga G. Tsay and David G. Churchill

1 SUMMARY

2 ISOTOPIC ABUNDANCE AND OCCURRENCE

3 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

4 GEOLOGICAL DATING

5 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

6 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

7 MITIGATION

8 CONCLUSION

9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 REFERENCES

SeleniumGeorge Shaw and Daniel Ashworth

1 SUMMARY

2 SELENIUM AND RADIOACTIVE SELENIUM

3 CONCENTRATIONS AND OCCURRENCE

4 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

5 ANALYTICAL SEPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

6 POTENTIAL HUMAN EXPOSURE

7 CONCLUSIONS

8 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 REFERENCES

IndiumRudolf J. Wehmschulte

1 SUMMARY

2 OCCURRENCE

3 CHEMISTRY

4 ANALYSIS

5 REMEDIATION

6 GLOSSARY

7 RELATED ARTICLES

8 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

9 REFERENCES

ThalliumRudolf J. Wehmschulte

1 SUMMARY

2 OCCURRENCE

3 CHEMISTRY

4 TOXICITY

5 ANALYSIS

6 REMEDIATION

7 CONCLUSIONS

8 GLOSSARY

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 REFERENCES

LeadAsnor Azrin Sabuti and Che Abd Rahim Mohamed

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 OCCURRENCE

4 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

5 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

6 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

7 MITIGATION

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 GLOSSARY

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 RELATED ARTICLES

12 REFERENCES

PoloniumLubna Alam and Che Abd Rahim Mohamed

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 OCCURRENCE

4 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

5 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

6 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

7 REMEDIATION

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 GLOSSARY

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 FURTHER READING

13 REFERENCES

ChlorineDaniel Ashworth and George Shaw

1 SUMMARY

2 CHLORINE ISOTOPES

3 ENVIRONMENTAL OCCURRENCE OF 36Cl

4 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

5 PLANT UPTAKE OF 36Cl

6 ANALYSIS OF 36Cl

7 HUMAN EXPOSURE

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

10 REFERENCES

IodineQinhong Hu and Jean E. Moran

1 SUMMARY

2 OCCURRENCE

3 CHEMISTRY

4 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

5 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

6 SPECIATION

7 GEOCHEMICAL BEHAVIOR

8 POTENTIAL HUMAN EXPOSURE

9 CONCLUSIONS

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 REFERENCES

XenonPaul R.J. Saey

1 SUMMARY

2 OCCURRENCE

3 RADIOXENON IN THE ATMOSPHERE

4 SEPARATION AND ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

5 CONCLUSIONS

6 GLOSSARY

7 END NOTES

8 RELATED ARTICLES

9 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

10 REFERENCES

RadonBliss L. Tracy

1 SUMMARY

2 OCCURRENCE AND PROPERTIES

3 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

4 BEHAVIOR OF RADON AND ITS PROGENY IN THE ENVIRONMENT

5 POTENTIAL HUMAN EXPOSURE

6 REMEDIATION

7 CONCLUSIONS

8 GLOSSARY

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 REFERENCES

CobaltEnrique Lima

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 OCCURRENCE

4 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

5 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

6 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

7 REMEDIATION

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 GLOSSARY

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 REFERENCES

TechnetiumQinhong Hu

1 SUMMARY

2 OCCURRENCE

3 CHEMISTRY

4 SPECIATION

5 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

6 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

7 POTENTIAL HUMAN EXPOSURE

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 REFERENCES

RheniumKeiko Tagami and Shigeo Uchida

1 SUMMARY

2 OCCURRENCE

3 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

4 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

5 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

6 REMEDIATION

7 CONCLUSION

8 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

9 REFERENCES

EuropiumXiangke Wang and Jiaxing Li

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION: NATURAL MATERIALS

4 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION IN WATER AND AIR

5 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

6 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

7 REMEDIATION AND MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 GLOSSARY

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 REFERENCES

ThoriumZal Uyun Wan Mahmood and Che Abd Rahim Mohamed

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 OCCURRENCE

4 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

5 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

6 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

7 POTENTIAL ISOLATION TECHNIQUE

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 GLOSSARY

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 REFERENCES

ProtactiniumAsamuddin Abu Hasan and Che Abd Rahim Mohamed

1 INTRODUCTION

2 OCCURRENCE

3 CHEMISTRY AND SPECIATION

4 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

5 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

6 CONCLUSIONS

7 RELATED ARTICLES

8 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

9 REFERENCES

UraniumHildegarde Vandenhove, Christian Hurtgen, and Timothy E. Payne

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 OCCURRENCE

4 CHEMISTRY, SPECIATION, AND MOBILITY

5 BIOLOGICAL UPTAKE

6 ANALYSIS

7 MITIGATION AND REMEDIATION

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 FURTHER READING

12 REFERENCES

NeptuniumWolfgang Runde and George Shaw. Goff

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 GENERAL CHEMISTRY

4 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

5 SPECIATION

6 POTENTIAL HUMAN EXPOSURE

7 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 REFERENCES

PlutoniumMary P. Neu, George Shaw. Goff, and Wolfgang Runde

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 GENERAL CHEMISTRY

4 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

5 SPECIATION

6 POTENTIAL HUMAN EXPOSURE

7 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 REFERENCES

Americium and CuriumWolfgang Runde

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 CHEMISTRY

4 ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

5 SPECIATION

6 POTENTIAL HUMAN EXPOSURE

7 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 RELATED ARTICLES

10 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

11 REFERENCES

Oceans and SeasMichio Aoyama

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 SOURCES OF RADIONUCLIDES

4 AMOUNTS

5 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION FROM FALLOUT

6 HUMAN EXPOSURE

7 CONCLUSIONS

8 GLOSSARY

9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 FURTHER READING

13 REFERENCES

Pacific OceanMichio Aoyama

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 137Cs DISTRIBUTION

4 DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSURANICS

5 90Sr DISTRIBUTION

6 COMPARATIVE BEHAVIOR OF 137Cs, 90Sr, AND 239,240Pu IN SURFACE WATER

7 CONCLUSIONS

8 GLOSSARY

9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 FURTHER READING

13 REFERENCES

Atlantic OceanPeter Kershaw

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

4 SOURCES RELATED TO HUMAN ACTIVITY

5 RADIONUCLIDE DISTRIBUTIONS IN THE ATLANTIC

6 RADIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES

7 CONCLUSIONS

8 RELATED ARTICLES

9 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

10 REFERENCES

Indian OceanPavel P. Povinec

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 HYDROGRAPHY

4 SOURCES

5 SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODS

6 DISTRIBUTION

7 TRANSPORT

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 REFERENCES

Arctic OceanAgata Zaborska and JoLynn Carroll

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 RADIONUCLIDE SOURCES AND TRANSPORT PATHWAYS

4 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS

5 ARCTIC BIOTA AND ECOSYSTEMS

6 THE FUTURE CHALLENGES OF A CHANGING ARCTIC

7 CONCLUSIONS

8 RELATED ARTICLES

9 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

10 REFERENCES

Mediterranean SeaRoberta Delfanti and Carlo Papucci

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

4 SOURCES AND CONTAMINANT ELEMENTS

5 RADIONUCLIDE DISTRIBUTION AND INVENTORIES IN THE WATER COLUMN

6 RADIONUCLIDES IN SEDIMENTS

7 HOT SPOTS

8 RADIONUCLIDE CONCENTRATION IN ORGANISMS

9 RADIONUCLIDE MASS BALANCE

10 CONCLUSIONS

11 RELATED ARTICLES

12 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

13 REFERENCES

Baltic SeaSven P. Nielsen, Maria Lüning, Erkki Ilus, Iisa Outola, Tarja Ikäheimonen, Jukka Mattila, Jürgen Herrmann, Günter Kanisch, and Iolanda Osvath

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 SOURCES OF ANTHROPOGENIC RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

4 RADIONUCLIDES IN SEAWATER

5 RADIONUCLIDES IN SEDIMENTS

6 RADIONUCLIDES IN BIOTA

7 RADIOACTIVITY COMPARED TO OTHER SEA REGIONS

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 GLOSSARY

10 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

11 RELATED ARTICLES

12 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

13 REFERENCES

Black SeaVictor Egorov, Sergey Gulin, Gennady Polikarpov, and Iolanda Osvath

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 RADIONUCLIDE SOURCES AND INPUTS

4 GEOCHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF SOLUBLE AND PARTICLE-REACTIVE RADIONUCLIDES

5 RADIONUCLIDE PARTITIONING

6 GEOCHRONOLOGY OF RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION

7 RADIONUCLIDES IN MARINE BIOTA

8 CONCLUSIONS

9 GLOSSARY

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 REFERENCES

Global Trends in Cesium DistributionYayoi Inomata

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 THE HAM-GLOBAL DATABASE

4 HISTORICAL RECORD OF MEASUREMENT OF 137Cs CONCENTRATIONS DURING THE PERIOD FROM 1950 TO 2005

5 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF 137Cs CONCENTRATIONS IN SURFACE SEAWATER FROM 1957 TO 2005

6 THE MAXIMUM 137Cs CONCENTRATION IN THE GLOBAL OCEAN

7 TEMPORAL VARIATION OF 137Cs CONCENTRATIONS IN THE SIGNIFICANT SOURCE REGIONS

8 COMPARISON OF TEMPORAL VARIATION PATTERNS OF 137Cs CONCENTRATIONS IN GLOBAL OCEAN SURFACE WATERS

9 137Cs CONCENTRATIONS IN THE SURFACE WATER IN THE GLOBAL OCEAN: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

10 GENERAL PATTERN OF SURFACE SEA WATER MASS CIRCULATION USING 137Cs AS CHEMICAL TRACER

11 CONCLUSIONS

12 GLOSSARY

13 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

14 RELATED ARTICLES

15 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

16 FURTHER READING

17 REFERENCES

Civilian Nuclear AccidentsWolfgang Runde, Mary P. Neu, and George Shaw. Goff

1 SUMMARY

2 REACTOR ACCIDENTS

3 ACCIDENTS AT PROCESSING PLANTS

4 CONCLUSIONS

5 RELATED ARTICLES

6 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

7 REFERENCES

Oak Ridge ReservationPhilip M. Jardine, Scott C. Brooks, and David B. Watson

1 SUMMARY

2 INTRODUCTION

3 HISTORICAL MISSION AND THE GENERATION OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES ON THE OAK RIDGE RESERVATION

4 SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL METHODS FOR RADIOLOGICAL WASTE AT ORNL (FORMERLY X-10)

5 DISPOSAL METHODS FOR RADIOLOGICAL WASTE AT THE Y-12 PLANT

6 SUBSURFACE PROCESSES CONTROLLING THE MIGRATION OF WASTE ON THE OAK RIDGE RESERVATION

7 REMEDIATION STRATEGIES ON THE ORR FOR THE CONTAINMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

8 CONCLUSION

9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

10 RELATED ARTICLES

11 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

12 FURTHER READING

13 REFERENCES

Index

Contributors

Asamuddin Abu Hasan

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

• Protactinium

Lubna Alam

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

• Polonium

Michio Aoyama

Meteorological Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan

• Oceans and Seas• Pacific Ocean

Daniel Ashworth

United States Salinity Laboratory, Riverside, CA, USA

• Chlorine• Selenium

Antonio Baeza

University of Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain

• Strontium

Scott C. Brooks

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA

• Oak Ridge Reservation

JoLynn Carroll

Akvaplan-niva, Polar Environmental Centre, Tromsø, Norway

• Arctic Ocean

David G. Churchill

Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea

• Potassium• Phosphorus • Sulfur

Roberta Delfanti

ENEA-Marine Environment Research Centre, La Spezia, Italy

• Mediterranean Sea

Victor Egorov

National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Crimea, Ukraine

• Black Sea

Dan Galeriu

“Horia Hulubei” National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Bucharest-Magurele, Romania

• Tritium

George Shaw. Goff

Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA

• Civilian Nuclear Accidents• Neptunium • Plutonium

Nicolas Guérin

Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada

• Natural Radioactivity

Francisco Javier Guillén

University of Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain

• Strontium

Sergey Gulin

National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Crimea, Ukraine

• Black Sea

Jürgen Herrmann

Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency, Hamburg, Germany

• Baltic Sea

Qinhong Hu

The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA

• Iodine• Technetium

Christian Hurtgen

Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK•CEN), Mol, Belgium

• Uranium

Tarja Ikäheimonen

Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsingfors, Finland

• Baltic Sea

Erkki Ilus

Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsingfors, Finland

• Baltic Sea

Yayoi Inomata

Yayoi Inomata, Meteorological Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan

• Global Trends in Cesium Distribution

Philip M. Jardine

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA

• Oak Ridge Reservation

Taehong Jun

Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea

• Potassium

Günter Kanisch

Johann Heinrich von Thünen-Institute, Hamburg, Germany

• Baltic Sea

Peter Kershaw

The Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science (Cefas) Lowestoft, UK

• Atlantic Ocean

Kibong Kim

Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea

• Phosphorus

Edward R. Landa

US Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA

• Radium

Dominic Larivière

Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada

• Natural Radioactivity

Jiaxing Li

Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, People’s Republic of China

• Europium

Enrique Lima

Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México D.F., Mexico

• Cesium• Cobalt

Maria Lüning

Swedish Radiation Safety Authority, Solna, Sweden

• Baltic Sea

Jukka Mattila

Water and Environment of the River Kymi, Kouvola, Finland

• Baltic Sea

Anca Melintescu

“Horia Hulubei” National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Bucharest-Magurele, Romania

• Tritium

Jerzy W. Mietelski

Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kraków, Poland

• Anthropogenic Radioactivity

Jean E. Moran

California State University, Hayward, CA, USA

• Iodine

Mary P. Neu

Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA

• Civilian Nuclear Accidents• Plutonium

Sven P. Nielsen

Technical University of Denmark, Roskilde, Denmark

• Baltic Sea

Iolanda Osvath

International Atomic Energy Agency, Monaco

• Baltic Sea• Black Sea

Iisa Outola

Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsingfors, Finland

• Baltic Sea

Carlo Papucci

ENEA-Marine Environment Research Centre, La Spezia, Italy

• Mediterranean Sea

Timothy E. Payne

Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Menai, NSW, Australia

• Uranium

Gennady Polikarpov

National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Crimea, Ukraine

• Black Sea

Pavel P. Povinec

Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia

• Indian Ocean

Che Abd Rahim Mohamed

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

• Lead• Polonium• Protactinium• Thorium

Wolfgang Runde

Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA

• Americium and Curium• Civilian Nuclear Accidents• Neptunium • Plutonium

Asnor Azrin Sabuti

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

• Lead

Paul R.J. Saey

Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria

• Xenon

Alejandro Salas

University of Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain

• Strontium

Brit Salbu

Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Aas, Norway

• Speciation

George Shaw

University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

• Chlorine• Selenium

Keiko Tagami

National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Chiba, Japan

• Rhenium

Bliss L. Tracy

Radiation Protection Bureau Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

• Radon

Olga G. Tsay

Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Republic of Korea

• Potassium• Sulfur

Shigeo Uchida

National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Chiba, Japan

• Rhenium

Hildegarde Vandenhove

Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK

•CEN), Mol, Belgium • Radium• Uranium

Freddy Verrezen

Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK

•CEN), Mol, Belgium • Radium

Zal Uyun Wan Mahmood

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

• Thorium

Xiangke Wang

Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, People’s Republic of China

• Europium

David B. Watson

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA

• Oak Ridge Reservation

Rudolf J. Wehmschulte

Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, USA

• Indium• Thallium

Agata Zaborska

Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland

• Arctic Ocean

Series Preface

The success of the Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry (EIC) has been very gratifying to the Editors. We felt, however, that not everyone would necessarily need access to the full ten volumes of EIC. Some readers might prefer to have more concise thematic volumes targeted to their specific area of interest. This idea encouraged us to produce a series of EIC Books, focusing on topics of current interest. These books will continue to appear on a regular basis and will feature leading scholars in their fields. Like the Encyclopedia, we hope that EIC Books will give both the starting research student and the confirmed research worker a critical distillation of the leading concepts and provide a structured entry into the fields covered.

Computer literature searches have become so easy that one could be led into thinking that the problem of efficient access to chemical knowledge is now solved. In fact, these searches often produce such a vast mass of material that the reader is overwhelmed. As Henry Kissinger has remarked, the end result is often a shrinking of one’s perspective. From studying the volumes that comprise the EIC Books series, we hope that readers will find an expanding perspective to furnish ideas for research, and a solid, up-to-date digest of current knowledge to provide a basis for instructors and lecturers.

I take this opportunity of thanking Bruce King, who pioneered the Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, my fellow editors, as well as the Wiley personnel, and, most particularly, the authors of the articles for the tremendous effort required to produce such a series on time. I hope that EIC Books will allow readers to benefit in a more timely way from the insight of the authors and thus contribute to the advance of the field as a whole.

Robert H. Crabtree Yale University Department of ChemistryJanuary 2009

Volume Preface

The vast majority of the world’s energy is being produced unsustainably with fossil fuels for which the global demand is expected to double by 2050. At current rates of usage coal, natural gas and petroleum could be depleted within 60 years. Renewable energy currently provides only about 4% of the world’s electricity and much less for transportation fuels (Scientific American, Sept. 2009, p. 56). While renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power have the potential to meet the world’s growing energy needs in the distant future these technologies will take a substantial amount of time to become established and will not be ready before fossil fuels become too costly or problematic to use. This looming energy crisis will be exacerbated by the known problems associated with fossil fuel consumption such as the likelihood of abrupt climate change, ocean acidification and the fact that hydrocarbons are a crucial feedstock for most of the commodities used in modern society. Future generations may well look back at this time in history and our profligate use of fossil fuels and wonder why we ever thought burning such a precious commodity was a good idea. The political and military costs associated with fossil fuel consumption only add to the critical need for establishing sustainable, large-scale sources of energy.