Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: IFST Advances in Food Science
- Sprache: Englisch
Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing A comprehensive review of algae as novel and sustainable sources of algal ingredients, their extraction and processing This comprehensive text offers an in-depth exploration of the research and issues surrounding the consumption, economics, composition, processing and health effects of algae. With contributions from an international team of experts, the book explores the application of conventional and emerging technologies for algal processing. The book includes recent developments such as drying and milling technologies along with advancements in sustainable greener techniques. The text also highlights individual groups of compounds including polysaccharides, proteins, polyphenols, carotenoids, lipids and fibres from algae. The authors provide insightful reviews of the traditional and more recent applications of algae/algal extracts in food, feed, pharmaceutical and cosmetics products. Offering a holistic view of the various applications, the book looks at the economic feasibility, market trends and considerations, and health hazards associated with algae for industrial applications. This important book: * Provides a comprehensive overview of algal biomolecules and the role of emerging processing technologies * Explores the potential biological and health benefits of algae and their applications in food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetic products * Includes a current review of algal bioactives and processing technologies for food and ingredient manufacturers * Contains contributions from leading academic and industrial experts Written for food scientists, allied researchers and professional food technologists, Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing: Food and Health Perspectives offers a guide to the novel processing and extraction techniques for exploring and harnessing the immense potential of algae.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Acknowledgments
About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series
List of Contributors
Preface
Section I: Composition and Extraction Technologies for Algal Bioactives
1 Algae: A Functional Food with a Rich History and Future Superfood
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Macro- and Microalgae Consumption
1.3 Economic Relevance of Macro- and Microalgae
1.4 Book Objectives
1.5 Book Structure
References
2 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profiles of Macro- and Microalgae
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Biochemical Composition of Micro- and Macroalgae
2.3 Pigments
2.4 Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides
2.5 Fiber Content
2.6 Proteins
2.7 Lipids and PUFAs
2.8 Inorganic Elements and Minerals
2.9 Vitamins
2.10 Phenolic Compounds
2.11 Other Compounds
2.12 Conclusion
References
3 Advances in Drying and Milling Technologies for Algae
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Algal Cell Drying Technologies
3.3 Algal Cell Milling Technologies
3.4 Challenges and Prospects
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 Recent Advances in the Use of Greener Extraction Technologies for the Recovery of Valuable Bioactive Compounds from Algae
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Green Extraction Technologies and Applications
4.3 Combination Techniques
4.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
5 Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Functional Lipids
5.3 Application of Novel Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids
5.4 Future Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
6 Extraction Technologies for Proteins and Peptides
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Proteins and Peptides
6.3 Emerging Technologies for Proteins and Peptides
6.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook
References
7 Extraction Technologies to Recover Dietary Polyphenols from Macro- and Microalgae
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Polyphenols
7.3 Innovative Extraction Technologies for Isolation of Polyphenols from Macroalgae
7.4 Factors Affecting Extraction
7.5 Challenges and Future Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
8 Extraction Technologies for Bioactive Polysaccharides
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Polysaccharides in Seaweed
8.3 Conventional Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction
8.4 Advanced Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction
8.5 Conclusion
References
Section II: Biological Properties of Algal Derived Compounds
9 Potential Biological Activities Associated with Algal Derived Compounds
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Antioxidant and Anticarcinogenic Activities of Macro- and Microalgal Constituents
9.3 Antiobesogenic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents
9.4 Antidiabetic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents
9.5 Prebiotic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents
9.6 Immune System Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents
9.7 Conclusion and Future Work
Acknowledgments
References
10 Algal Polysaccharides and Their Biological Properties
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Structure of Marine Algae Polysaccharides
10.3 Isolation and Purification of Polysaccharides from Algae
10.4 Health-Promoting Activities of MAP
10.5 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
11 Marine Algal Derived Phenolic Compounds and their Biological Activities for Medicinal and Cosmetic Applications
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Types and Structures of Phenolic Compounds from Algae
11.3 Isolation and Purification of Phenolic Compounds from Algae
11.4 Biological Properties of Phenolic Compounds in Health, Well-Being, and Cosmetics
11.5 Potential Commercial Applications
11.6 Conclusions and Future Trends
Acknowledgments
References
Note
12 Algal Carotenoids: Recovery and their Potential in Disease Prevention
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types and Structure of Carotenoids in Microalgae
12.3 Isolation and Purification of Carotenoids from Algae
12.4 Biological Properties of Carotenoids and Possible Health Effects
12.5 Potential Commercial Applications
12.6 Conclusions and Future Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
13 Algal Derived Functional Lipids and their Role in Promoting Health
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Types and Structures of Fatty Acids from Algae
13.3 Isolation and Purification of FAs from Algae
13.4 Health Properties of FAs
13.5 Potential Commercial Applications
13.6 Conclusion and Future Trends
Acknowledgments
References
14 Algal Proteins and Peptides: Current Trends and Future Prospects
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Isolation and Purification of Proteins from Algae
14.3 Structural Characteristics of Micro- and Macroalgae Peptides
14.4 Protein and Peptide Extraction Methods from Algae
14.5 Biological Properties of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Possible Health Effects
14.6 Potential Commercial Applications of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Proteins
14.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
15 Algal Dietary Fiber and its Health Benefits
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Dietary Fiber
15.3 Physical Properties of Dietary Fiber (Dispersibility, Viscosity, Binding Capacity, Fermentability)
15.4 Therapeutic Effect of Algal Dietary Fibers
15.5 Potential Commercial Applications
15.6 Conclusions and Future Recommendations
References
Section III: Application of Algae and Algal Components
16 Applications of Algae and Algae Extracts in Human Food and Feed
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Nutritional Composition of Algae
16.3 Application of Whole Algae in Food Products
16.4 Application of Whole Algae in Feed
16.5 Algal Extracts as Ingredients in Food Products
16.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations
References
17 Role of Algal Compounds for Human Health
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Classification of Algae
17.3 Proximate Composition of Algae
17.4 Commercial Importance of Macroalgae in Human Nutrition
References
18 Advancements in Algae in Nutraceutical and Functional Food
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Algal Derived Molecules
18.3 Perspectives
References
19 Role of Algal Derived Compounds in Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Pharmaceutical Products
19.3 Potential Pharmaceutical Formulations from Algae
19.4 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Cosmeceuticals
19.5 Potential Cosmeceutical Formulations from Algae
19.6 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
20 Economic Status of Seaweed: Production, Consumption, Commercial Applications, Hazards, and Legislations
20.1 Introduction
20.2 World Seaweed Utilization
20.3 Commercial Usage of Seaweed and Seaweed Functional Components
20.4 Hazards Associated with Seaweed Applications
20.5 Legislation
20.6 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Chemical composition of various algae (% dry weight).
Table 2.2 A summary of algal pigments.
Table 2.3 Amino acid content of algae compared with egg and soybean (mg g
−1
...
Table 2.4 Macro (g.100 g
−1
DW), micro and trace elements (mg.100 g
−1
...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Comparison of energy consumptions, lipid yield, and processing time...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Critical properties of solvents used in
supercritical fluid extracti
...
Table 4.2 Summary of the extraction conditions used in the recent literature ...
Table 4.3 Summary of the extraction conditions used in the recent literature ...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Comparison of advantages and disadvantages of conventional and nove...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Conventional methods of algal protein extraction reported in differ...
Table 6.2 Emerging technologies of algal protein extraction and their differe...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1
Enzyme assisted extraction
(
EAE
) of polyphenols from seaweeds.
Table 7.2
Microwave assisted extraction
(
MAE
) of polyphenols from seaweed.
Table 7.3
Pressurized liquid extraction
(
PLE
) of polyphenols from micro- and macr...
Table 7.4
Subcritical water extraction
(
SWE
) of polyphenols from seaweeds and the...
Table 7.5
Supercritical CO
2
(
SC-CO
2
) extraction of polyphenols from seaweeds and ...
Table 7.6
Ultrasound assisted extraction
(
UAE
) of polyphenolic compounds from sea...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 The most frequent conventional extraction parameters used for the r...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Polysaccharides reported in Phaeophyta, Rhodophyta, and Chlorophyt...
Table 10.2 Algal polysaccharides isolated using different extraction procedur...
Table 10.3 List of some bioactive algal polysaccharides with health-promoting...
Table 10.4
In vitro
anticancer activity of fucoidans.
Table 10.5 List of some polysaccharides derived from marine algae with antivi...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Examples of green extractions to obtain extracts enriched in phlor...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Biological functions, common algal sources, health benefits, and a...
Table 12.2 Summary of astaxanthin extraction methods and yields from
Haematoco
...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Approximate amount of total lipids,
docosahexaenoic acid
(
DHA
), and...
Table 13.2 Fatty acid distribution characteristics of macroalgal phyla
Table 13.3 Examples of cell death signaling pathways triggered by n-3
polyunsa
...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Extraction and isolation of protein from macroalgae using differen...
Table 14.2 Peptides from microalgae and their potential bioactivities.
Table 14.3 Peptides from macroalgae and their potential bioactivities.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 A comparison of percentage of dietary fiber of various algal speci...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Examples of algae incorporation in dairy products
Table 16.2 Examples of algae incorporation in cereal-based products
Table 16.3 Comparison of total protein content (% of dry weight) in seaweed a...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Proximate composition of some frequently investigated algae specie...
Table 17.2 Amino acid profile of some selected brown, red, and green algae ha...
Table 17.3 Some selected proteinaceous enzyme atic hydrolysates and their alg...
Table 17.4 Fatty acid profiles of some selected brown, red, and green algae h...
Table 17.5 Mineral profile and heavy metal content of some selected brown, re...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Biological activities and potential pharmaceutical uses of micro- ...
Table 19.2 Bioactive compounds from macroalgae and microalgae and their poten...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 World seaweed output (wild and cultured), by species, 2015.
Table 20.2 World seaweed output (wild and cultured), by country, 2015.
Table 20.3 Seaweed imports into the top 35 countries, 2013–2016.
Table 20.4 Top four importers of dried seaweed and hydrocolloid products, 201...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 “Seaweed Gatherers” (a) Loading trailers on the shore; (b) Beach ...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic processes for algal products.
Figure 3.2 Process options for algae drying.
Figure 3.3 Total and specific energy demands by oven drying.
Figure 3.4 Specific energy demand of different algae drying methods. Source:...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Valorization strategies of microalgal biomass, including direct v...
Figure 4.2 Microalgal cells of
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
visualized using va...
Figure 4.3 Schematic representation of
supercritical fluid extraction
(
SFE
) ...
Figure 4.4 Schematic representation of
pressurized liquid extraction
(
PLE
) a...
Figure 4.5 Schematic representation of
microwave assisted extraction
(
MAE
) e...
Figure 4.6
Ultrasound assisted extraction
(
UAE
) systems: (A) schematic repre...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic view of novel techniques for the extraction of function...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Overview of the conventional and emerging methods (highlighted in...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Enzyme assisted extraction of polyphenols from seaweeds. Source: ...
Figure 7.2 Microwave processing system. Source: Balasubramanian et al. (2011...
Figure 7.3 Operational schematic principle and mechanism of
pressurized liqu
...
Figure 7.4 Schematic diagram of laboratory-scale subcritical water apparatus...
Figure 7.5 Schematic diagram of
supercritical fluid extraction
(
SFE
). Source...
Figure 7.6 Schematic diagram of
ultrasound assisted extraction
(
UAE
). Source...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Chemical structure of polysaccharides (a) ulvan, (b) agar, (c) ca...
Figure 8.2 The schematic diagram for the extraction of agar. Source: Armisen...
Figure 8.3 Schematic diagram for the extraction of carrageenan. Source: Hern...
Figure 8.4 Schematic diagram for the extraction of alginic acid in brown sea...
Figure 8.5 Schematic diagram of polysaccharide extraction and purification f...
Figure 8.6 Essential steps involved in the ultrasound-assisted extraction an...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1
Mycosporine-like amino acid
s (
MAA
s) identified in macroalgal Rhod...
Figure 9.2 Scytonemins identified in microalgal Cyanobacteria. Source: Patha...
Figure 9.3 Biopterin and related pterin glycosides identified in microalgal ...
Figure 9.4 Xanthophylls identified in macro- and microalgae. Source: Ranga R...
Figure 9.5 Alginates, fucoidans, and sulfated fucans from Phaeophyceae macro...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Schematic diagram of isolation, purification, potential function...
Figure 10.2 Chemical structures of agar repeating units of 3-linked β-
D
-gala...
Figure 10.3 Structural characteristics of alginates and block distribution. ...
Figure 10.4 Major repeating disaccharides of (A) kappa
-c
arrageenan, (B) iota...
Figure 10.5 Chemical structure of cellulose derived from marine algae. Sourc...
Figure 10.6 Typical structure of fucoidan obtained from some brown seaweed s...
Figure 10.7 Chemical structures of glucose (A) and mannitol chains (B) of la...
Figure 10.8 The structure of mannan derived from red seaweed
Nothogenia fast
...
Figure 10.9 Typical chemical structure of rhamnan sulfate isolated from
Mono
...
Figure 10.10 Structure of the main repeating disaccharide units in ulvans. (...
Figure 10.11 Linear β-(1→3), β-(1→4)-linked mixed polymer of xylan. Source: ...
Figure 10.12 Reactive oxygen species-induced tissue damage. Summarized signa...
Figure 10.13 Schematic presentation of the immune system activated by marine...
Figure 10.14 Marine algae polysaccharides exert antiviral activities by inte...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Phylogenetic tree showing the taxonomical position of each algal...
Figure 11.2 Examples of chemical structures of the different types of phenol...
Figure 11.3 Conceptual model showing the impacts of several environmental pa...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Structure of carotenes isolated from seaweeds
Figure 12.2 Structures of xanthophylls isolated from seaweeds
Figure 12.3 Recovery of total astaxanthin (free plus esters) as a function o...
Figure 12.4 Recovery of total β-carotene as a function of CO
2
amount with (▪...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Chemical structure examples of
saturated fatty acid
(
SFA
),
monou
...
Figure 13.2 Chemical structure of nonmethylene-interrupted fatty acids and c...
Figure 13.3 Branched and functionalized fatty acids. 3,7,11,15-tetramethylhe...
Figure 13.4 Oxylipins in algae. 13-HpODE is identified in
Chondrus crispus
(...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Application of membrane technologies in isolating and enriching ...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Distribution of total seaweed production (wild + cultivated) in ...
Figure 15.2 Worldwide production volume (x × 100 metricton) of cultivated al...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Sweet kelp (
Saccharina lattisima
) previously known as
Laminaria
...
Figure 18.2 Pilot-scale cultivation of several microalgae for lipid producti...
Figure 18.3
Palmaria palmata
(dulse seaweed). Source: Courtesy of Merinov Qu...
Figure 18.4
Haematoccocus pluvialis
growing under standard conditions produc...
Figure 18.5
Haematoccocus pluvialis
growing under stress conditions producin...
Figure 18.6 Large-scale cultivation of
Spirulina platensis
in raceways for f...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing
Food and Health Perspectives
Edited by
Gaurav Rajauria
University College Dublin, Ireland
Yvonne V. Yuan
Ryerson University, Canada
This edition first published 2021
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Rajauria, Gaurav, editor. | Yuan, Yvonne V., editor.
Title: Recent advances in micro and macroalgal processing : food and health
perspectives / edited by Gaurav Rajauria, University College Dublin,
Ireland, Yvonne V. Yuan, Ryerson University, Canada.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2021. |
Series: IFST advances in food science book series | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020048355 (print) | LCCN 2020048356 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119542582 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119542629 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119542612 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Algae–Biotechnology. | Algae as food. |
Microalgae–Industrial applications.
Classification: LCC TP248.27.A46 R43 2021 (print) | LCC TP248.27.A46
(ebook) | DDC 660.6–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020048355
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020048356
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: Lab & Science Vector Icon Set, © fleaz / iStockphoto, Beautiful tropical seascape. Sky and sea © Efired / Shutterstock, farming icons © bioraven / Shutterstock, Coal industry icons black set with train truck factory isolated vector illustration © Macrovector / Shutterstock, Green Seaweed © divedog / Shutterstock, Single-cell algae with lipid droplets. Biofuel production. Illustration of microalgae under the microscope, isolated on white © Perception7 / Shutterstock
Acknowledgments
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About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series
The Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) is the leading qualifying body for food professionals in Europe and the only professional organization in the UK concerned with all aspects of food science and technology. Its qualifications are internationally recognized as a sign of proficiency and integrity in the industry. Competence, integrity, and serving the public benefit lie at the heart of the IFST philosophy. IFST values the many elements that contribute to the efficient and responsible supply, manufacture, and distribution of safe, wholesome, nutritious, and affordable foods, with due regard for the environment, animal welfare, and the rights of consumers. IFST Advances in Food Science is a series of books dedicated to the most important and popular topics in food science and technology, highlighting major developments across all sectors of the global food industry. Each volume is a detailed and in-depth edited work, featuring contributions by recognized international experts, and which focuses on new developments in the field. Taken together, the series forms a comprehensive library of the latest food science research and practice, and provides valuable insights into the food processing techniques that are essential to the understanding and development of this rapidly evolving industry. The IFST Advances series is edited by Dr. Brijesh Tiwari, who is Senior Research Officer at Teagasc Food Research Centre in Ireland.
List of Contributors
Ahmad Adnan
, Department of Chemistry, GC University, Lahore, Pakistan
Sumia Akram
, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education, Lahore, Pakistan
Sara Amiri Samani
, Department of Food Science and Technology, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran
Lucie Beaulieu
, Institut sur la nutrition et les aliments fonctionnels (INAF), Département des Sciences des aliments, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
Gilles Bedoux
, Laboratoire de Biotechnologie et Chimie Marines EA 3884, Université Bretagne Sud, IUEM, Vannes, France
Rajeev Bhat
, RA-Chair in VALORTECH, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
Nathalie Bourgougnon
, Laboratoire de Biotechnologie et Chimie Marines EA 3884, Université Bretagne Sud, IUEM, Vannes, France
Benoît Chénais
, Mer Molécules Santé EA2160, Le Mans Université, Le Mans, France
Kit-Leong Cheong
, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, STU-UNIVPM Joint Algal Research Center, Department of Biology, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, China
Solène Connan
, Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
Hong Du
, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, STU-UNIVPM Joint Algal Research Center, Department of Biology, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, China
Sidra Ehsan
, Department of Chemistry, GC University, Lahore, Pakistan
Froylán Mario Espinoza Escalante
, Department of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Guadalajara, Zapopan, Mexico
Mathilde Fournière
, Laboratoire de Biotechnologie et Chimie Marines EA 3884, Université Bretagne Sud, IUEM, Vannes, France
Leslie Gager
, Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
Abirami Ramu Ganesan
, Department of Food Science and Home Economics, School of Applied Sciences, College of Engineering, Science and Technology, Fiji National University, Nasinu, Fiji Islands
Marco Garcia-Vaquero
, Section of Food and Nutrition, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Francesco Gentili
, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
Carmen P. Gómez
, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Sea Sciences, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain
Maryam Jafari
, Research Center of Nutrition and Organic Products, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran
Valentina Jesumani
, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, STU-UNIVPM Joint Algal Research Center, Department of Biology, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, China
Bilal Muhammad Khan
, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, STU-UNIVPM Joint Algal Research Center, Department of Biology, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, China
K. Suresh Kumar
, Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
Sushma Kumari
, Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
Pratibha Kushwaha
, Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
Fanny Lalegerie
, Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
Duu-Jong Lee
, Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
José L. Legido
, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Sea Sciences, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain
Yang Liu
, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, STU-UNIVPM Joint Algal Research Center, Department of Biology, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, China
Shingo Matsukawa
, Department of Food Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Kannan Mohan
, Postgraduate and Research Department of Zoology, Sri Vasavi College, Erode, India
María Lourdes Mourelle
, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Sea Sciences, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain
Shanmugam Munisamy
, Research and Development Division (DSIR-Lab), Aquagri Processing Private Limited, Manamadurai, India
S. Murugesan
, Unit of Algal Biotechnology Bio-nanotechnology, Postgraduate and Research Department of Botany, Pachaiyappa’s College, Chennai, India
Muhammad Mushtaq
, Department of Chemistry, GC University, Lahore, Pakistan
Calle Niemi
, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
John O
’
Doherty
, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Lyons Research Farm, Celbridge, Ireland
Daniel A. Pérez-Rico
, Department of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Guadalajara, Zapopan, Mexico
Muhammad Pervaiz
, Department of Chemistry, GC University, Lahore, Pakistan
Akanksha Priyadarshini
, UCD Michael Smurfit Graduate Business School, University College Dublin, Blackrock, Ireland
Anushree Priyadarshini
, College of Business, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Rashida Qari
, Department of Maritime Sciences, Bahria University, Karachi, Pakistan
D. Radhika
, Postgraduate and Research Department of Zoology, V.O.Chidambaram College, Tuticorin, India
Gaurav Rajauria
, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
Shakeel Ramzan
, Department of Chemistry, GC University, Lahore, Pakistan
Rajeev Ravindran
, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
Shahin Roohinejad
, Burn and Wound Healing Research Center, Division of Food and Nutrition, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
Zohaib Saeed
, Department of Chemistry, GC University, Lahore, Pakistan
Sayed Mohammad Sahafi
, Department of Food Science and Technology, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
Palaniappan Seedevi
, Department of Enviromental Science, Periyar University, Salem, India
K.Y. Show
, Puritek Research Institute, Puritek Co. Ltd., Nanjing, China
Kamleshwar Singh
, Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
V. Sivamurugan
, Postgraduate and Research Department of Chemistry, Pachaiyappa’s College, Chennai, India
Valerie Stiger-Pouvreau
, Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
Torres Sweeney
, School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Sciences Centre, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
Nolwenn Terme
, Laboratoire de Biotechnologie et Chimie Marines EA 3884, Université Bretagne Sud, IUEM, Vannes, France
Ariane Tremblay
, Institut sur la nutrition et les aliments fonctionnels (INAF), Département des Sciences des aliments, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
Y.G. Yan
, Puritek Research Institute, Puritek Co. Ltd., Nanjing, China
Yvonne V. Yuan
, School of Nutrition, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Preface
Micro- and macroalgae are among the most ancient functional foods or “superfoods” known to mankind given the origin of cyanobacteria on Earth approx. 3 billion years ago. For example, consumption of marine macroalgae was identified at the Monte Verde II archeological site dating approx. 14 000 years ago; the Aztecs were known to consume the microalga Spirulina platensis; and micro- and macroalgae have long been consumed by coastal communities across the globe. Not only are micro- and macroalgae valorized for their macronutrient contents (proteins, soluble and insoluble carbohydrates, long-chain marine polyunsaturated fatty acids), and micronutrients (minerals, vitamins), but also for a plethora of non-nutritive secondary metabolites or phytochemicals (mycosporine-like amino acids, fucoidans, carotenes, tocols, polyphenols, phenolic acids, phlorotannins, lignans, pterins, scytonemins, etc.). The valorization of edible micro- and macroalgae includes intact dehydrated or rehydrated plant material consumed in macrobiotic diets, as well as salads, soups, stews, sushi wraps, and condiments. Aqueous extracts from algae are often used in gelled desserts and beverages, and more widely as hydrocolloids; as well, crude and purified isolates of potentially biologically active phytochemicals have been used to develop nutraceuticals. It is this latter group of phytochemicals, identified above, with the potential to reduce chronic disease risk factors, which has resulted in micro- and macroalgae being described as functional foods or “superfoods.” Coincident with the term superfood being a part of the marketing and broader vernacular since 2004 (referring to foodstuffs with in vitro antioxidant capacity and potential positive effects to reduce diet-related chronic disease risk factors), consumer and lay press interest in adding micro- and macroalgae to the diet has been steadily growing as evidenced by magazine articles and the addition of seaweeds to restaurant menus and grocery store shelves.
As photosynthetic organisms, whether prokaryotes or eukaryotes, the composition of micro- and macroalgae is highly variable as a function of tidal zone habitat, nutrient availability, light irradiance, latitude, temperature, and seasonality, and thereby is susceptible to oxidative stress. Thus, despite the fact that 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans, in addition to less than 1% as freshwater for potentially wild-harvesting many algal species, there is a burgeoning mariculture industry for the cultivation of many micro- and macroalgal species of commercial interest. Cultivation of micro- and macroalgae allows for biomass to be sustainably produced with consistent morphology and composition by controlling seed stock, nutrients, light irradiance, temperature, and agitation. Thus, the scientific literature has been greatly enriched by basic and applied research focused on the nutritional, functional food, and nutraceutical benefits of micro- and macroalgae. As well, the potential biological activities of micro- and macroalgal extractables in vitro, in situ, and in vivo from animal model studies, case-control, and epidemiological studies are being extensively explored. Moreover, applied phycological research has been expanded by studies focused on micro- and macroalgal growth and metabolism, mariculture cultivation, and processing for extraction and isolation of biologically active constituents.
It is noteworthy that capturing this diversity and controlling variability in algal chemical composition and linked bioactivities are key challenges for future commercial applications, particularly in the mariculture industries. Additionally, processing and extraction of active fractions that are bioavailable upon consumption, and further understanding the biological activity of these extracts, their potential roles in chronic disease risk reduction, and potential applications in the functional food and nutraceutical sectors are critical. Superimposed upon these considerations are the effects of harvesting, storage, and novel processing techniques that can dramatically influence the potential nutritive value and bioactivity of algal derived foods. There are many emerging technologies available to process algae, but optimization and greater efficiency of processing techniques are still required. Therefore, a sustainable supply (without impacting the environment) along with an increasing requirement for novel processing and extraction techniques to explore and harness the immense potential of algae form the premise of this book. There is a need to document not only the conventional methods to extract algal bioactives, but also to know how novel processes can be exploited industrially. The challenge to find all of this information in one expert monograph has been unmet to date, which explains why hitherto there has been limited availability of a comprehensive book that covers the health and nutraceutical aspects of micro- and macroalgae.
This volume offers readers a broad review of the applications of conventional and new processing/extraction techniques for algal bioactive compounds and their potential health impacts. With book chapter contributions authored and co-authored by researchers from India, Taiwan, Ireland, Sweden, Canada, Fiji, Pakistan, China, France, Estonia, Japan, Iran, Mexico, and Spain, the present volume focuses on Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing in a truly international collaboration. What makes this work of particular note is its intentional discussion of not only well-known and lesser-known microalgal species, but also macroalgal species of economic and nutritional importance across the globe. Our sincere hope is that this volume will be a valuable and comprehensive resource for students, teachers and researchers across academia and industry. We owe a deep debt of gratitude to all the authors and co-authors who have contributed their works in a comprehensive and timely manner for publication, as well as the editorial staff of Wiley.
Yvonne V. Yuan and Gaurav Rajauria
June 2020
Section IComposition and Extraction Technologies for Algal Bioactives
1Algae: A Functional Food with a Rich History and Future Superfood
Gaurav Rajauria1 and Yvonne V. Yuan2
1School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Lyons Research Farm, Celbridge, Ireland
2School of Nutrition, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
1.1 Introduction
With increased consumer interest in simple, clean, minimally processed, and additive- or preservative-free food products and ingredients, it is only natural that interest in macro- and microalgae as foodstuffs has grown exponentially in recent years. This consumer interest in macro- and microalgae-based foods is supported by lay press sources including fashion and beauty industry magazines such as Elle Magazine (Davidson 2019); television and media personality websites such as that of Dr. Mehmet Oz (Ni 2018); daily newspapers (Liu 2020); as well as food and beverage industry trade publications (Hein 2016). Specific examples of this burgeoning consumer demand and interest include seaweed salads appearing on menus of mainstream seafood (non-Asian) restaurants; roasted seaweed snacks being sold in many mainstream supermarkets (Sloan 2018); dried seaweed flakes being offered as condiments in restaurants; dehydrated seaweeds and seaweed salad kits being sold in mainstream and specialty grocery stores; and nutritional supplement products such as GREENS+™, which include microalgae such as Spirulina sp., Chlorella sp., Dunaliella salina, the macroalga dulse (Palmaria palmata) (https://www.greensplus.com/superfood-powders), and numerous microalgae powders containing Spirulina sp. and Chlorella sp.
Moreover, there is a steadily increasing body of knowledge in the scientific literature about the potential nutritional, functional food, and nutraceutical benefits of whole micro- and macroalgae consumption as well as the potential biological activities of micro- and macroalgal extracts and extractable constituents in vitro, in situ, and in vivo from animal model studies, case-control, and epidemiological studies in reducing chronic disease risk factors, as well as inflammation. Key areas of investigation continue to be the chemical characterization of unique micro- and macroalgal specimens collected and isolated from terrestrial as well as fresh-, brackish, and marine environments due to the influence of oxidative stress on these algae from exposure to varying nutrient levels, temperatures, tides and/or desiccation, and UV irradiation. Oxidative stress experienced by these photosynthetic organisms can ultimately influence growth rates, metabolism, and synthesis of secondary metabolites, with many of the latter compounds of interest as potential nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, or in pharmacognosis. While bench-top and in vitro cell culture studies are key to understanding the mechanisms of action of extracts and/or their constituent purified compounds, the in vivo bioaccessibility and ultimately bioavailability and metabolism of these molecules are key to determining their potential to influence and protect human health. A particularly intriguing avenue of investigation is evaluating the efficacy of UV-absorbing compounds from micro- and macroalgae as potential nutraceuticals, antioxidants, and sunscreen molecules in cosmeceuticals.
1.2 History of Macro- and Microalgae Consumption
Edible marine macroalgae, often referred to as seaweeds or sea vegetables, as well as marine and freshwater microalgae have a long history in the diets of ancient cultures and increasingly in modern, health-conscious, and environmentally sustainable cuisines as recently reviewed (Pérez-Lloréns et al. 2020; Tou et al. 2020; Gomez-Zavaglia et al. 2019; Mac Monagail et al. 2017; Talero et al. 2015; Athukorala and Yuan 2013; Yuan and Athukorala 2012; Christaki et al. 2011; Lordan et al. 2011). For example, the importance of edible seaweeds in East and Southeast Asian (e.g. China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines) cultures is commonly known, as well as in Pacific (e.g. Hawai’i, Maori of New Zealand), Caribbean (e.g. Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Grenadines), Central (e.g. Belize, Honduras, Panama) and South American cultures (e.g. Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela) (Figure 1.1). Conversely, seaweeds are not as common in Northern American or European cultures with some local exceptions such as Atlantic Canada and the USA, Mexico as well as Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Wales, Spain, and more recently France. Many of these cultures have incorporated macro- and microalgae as well as seaweed extracts throughout the diet in salads, soups, stews, sushi wraps, condiments, gelled desserts, and beverages (Tou et al. 2020; Yuan 2008; Robledo and Freile Pelegrín 1997).
The edible marine macroalgae comprise the Ochrophyta (containing those of the Phaeophyceae class [brown (B)]), Chlorophyta (the Chlorophyceae class [green (G)]), and Rhodophyta (the Rhodophyceae class [red (R)]) phyla or divisions, with species valued, and therefore, wild-harvested or cultivated as sources of hydrocolloids (e.g. agar agar, alginates, carrageenans), other soluble (e.g. Floridean starch, fucoidans) and insoluble dietary fibers (e.g. cellulose, mannans, xylans), proteins, minerals, vitamins, small amounts of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), as well as a host of nutraceutical compounds including mycosporine-like amino acids, fucoidans, carotenoids, tocols, polyphenols, phenolic acids, phlorotannins, and lignans with potential biological activities (Tou et al. 2020; Athukorala and Yuan 2013; Plaza et al. 2008; Yuan 2008). It is noteworthy that the medicinal or functional food properties of edible macroalgae in the treatment or prevention of chronic disease risks such as breast cancer were noted as far back as approx. 1534 BCE in the Egyptian “Ebers Papyrus.” Moreover, nine species of marine algae were recovered from the hearths of homes in the archeological site of Monte Verde II in southern Chile dating from approx. 14 000 years ago, indicating the use of seaweeds from coastal and estuarine environments for food and medicine by these peoples.
Figure 1.1 “Seaweed Gatherers” (a) Loading trailers on the shore; (b) Beach collection of Gracilaria after wash up, Bahia Bustamante, Argentina, (1960). Source: Adopted from (with permission) Mac Monagail et al. (2017).
Unicellular microalgae are similarly diverse including Dinoflagellata (eukaryotic, photosynthetic, marine and freshwater dinoflagellates or plankton), Cryptophyta (eukaryotic, freshwater algae, but also in marine and brackish waters), Raphidophyta (eukaryotic, marine and freshwater algae), and Cyanophyta (prokaryotic, photosynthetic blue-green algae, e.g. Cyanophyceae) phyla or divisions (Tou et al. 2020; Garcia et al. 2017). Microalgae, wild-harvested worldwide or even grown in culture, have been valued as part of macrobiotic diets and dietary supplements for nutritional (e.g. protein, PUFAs, carotenoids, carbohydrates) or nutraceutical benefits in modern times (Garcia et al. 2017), but also have an ancient history, such as with the Aztecs harvesting Spirulina platensis (or Arthrospira platensis) (Cyanophyceae) from Lake Texcoco as tecuitlatl, which was eaten with roasted corn or tortillas; or the consumption of S. platensis in Chad from Lake Kossorom, where it is known as dihé; or the consumption of Nostoc commune (Cyanophyceae) in China, where it is known as fah-tsai or dacai; or Spirogyra varians (eukaryotic, Charophyta division, Zygnematophyceae class) known as Tao or water silk, pond silk or mermaid’s tree in Thailand (Tou et al. 2020; Garcia et al. 2017).
1.3 Economic Relevance of Macro- and Microalgae
With 71% of the Earth’s surface covered by oceans, comprising 97% of the Earth’s water, and with less than 1% of the Earth’s water as freshwater with the remaining 2–3% contained in glaciers and ice caps, it is no surprise that wild harvesting of macroalgae for food, animal feed, fertilizer, and even fuel has been instrumental in the establishment of coastal communities across the globe. Countries including Chile, Norway, France, Ireland, Iceland, the Russian Federation, Spain, Italy, Denmark, Portugal, Indonesia, Korea, South Africa, Japan, China, the UK, Canada, and the USA are among those playing a role in wild-harvesting of macroalgae historically and today. Statistics from 2014 indicate that global macroalgal harvests have increased approx. 5.7% annually with Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South America, and Oceania accounting for 1.3, 1.9, 0.10, 2.4, and 0.015 million t, respectively (Mac Monagail et al. 2017). Approximately 20 countries are harvesters of brown macroalgae, including Norway, Chile, and Ireland, with 0.6 million t of kelps harvested for alginates annually. On the other hand, 32 countries are harvesters of Rhodophyceae with 0.22 million t harvested annually, dominated by Chile and Indonesia representing 76% of the harvest, while 11 countries harvest Chlorophyceae with 1661 t collected annually, mostly by Korea (Mac Monagail et al. 2017). Interestingly, while there are more than 10 000 species of macroalgae that have been reported to exist, of these, only approx. 200 species are consumed across the globe as discussed above. However, today, wild harvesting of macroalgae comprises only approx. 4% of the total annual global production in 2014 of 28.5 million t, with 96% of production from mariculture cultivation. Current global macroalgae production for all uses is worth approx. US$11.7 billion.
Because the composition of macroalgae within the same species may be highly variable when wild-harvested as a function of growth conditions, UV- and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) exposure and desiccation, it is noteworthy that mariculture researchers and producers are cultivating macroalgae from uniform seed stocks in tanks with filtered seawater and fertilizer and/or other essential nutrients as well as controlled exposure to light (Athukorala et al. 2016; Ceccoli et al. 2008; Shacklock and Craigie 1986). These management techniques thereby ensure a reliable, year-round supply of biomass with the desired attributes, but also generate genetic variants of target species. A prime example of the innovation of mariculture industries such as these is Acadian Seaplants Limited (Nova Scotia, Canada), which generates approx. US$133 million in annual revenue from products including Hana Tsunomata™, a cultivated Irish moss (Chondrus crispus [R]) sold to the Japanese market. Cultivation of macroalgae contributes to the profitability and sustainability of the industry given that historically wild harvesting of macroalgae has involved labor-intensive hand-harvesting using sickles to selectively cut plants, or gathering “storm-cast” fronds on beaches, or on a larger scale using nets, horse-drawn rakes, bulldozers, tractors, diving, or mechanical methods including suction harvesters. However, this latter technology was discontinued in the Canadian Maritimes in 1994 due to overexploitation of natural stocks of Irish moss (Ascophyllum nodosum) and kelps in favor of a return to manual or rake harvesting (Mac Monagail et al. 2017). Indeed, the overexploitation of Irish moss in Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia (Canada) resulted in the C. crispus beds being dominated and overtaken by Furcellaria lumbricalis (R). Other consequences of overexploitation include effects on the food, habitat, and shelter of intertidal species such as sea urchins and fish, or even effects on tidal surges and wave action and thereby erosion of coastlines, cliffs, and sedimentation.
One recent estimate suggested that approx. 5000 metric t of dry microalgal biomass processed for bioproducts including food, functional foods and nutraceuticals, nutritional supplements, and animal feed could be valued at approx. US$1.25 billion (Khan et al. 2018). As mentioned above, microalgae represent a locally available, renewable, sustainable, reliable source of nutrition, functional foods and nutraceuticals, bioactives, and food ingredients. For example, under optimal conditions, microalgae are theoretically capable of transforming approx. 9% of solar irradiance into 77 g biomass m−2 day−1 equivalent to 280 t ha−1 year−1; this yield would be reduced in culture conditions due to loss of absorbed radiation (Khan et al. 2018). The environmental sustainability of culturing microalgae is supported by the technology’s CO2 utilization, in that 1 kg of algal biomass can fix approx. 1.83 kg CO2. Large-scale cultivation of microalgae requires light (200–400 μM photons m−2 second−1); major nutrients including carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus; macronutrient minerals such as Na, Mg, Ca, and K; micronutrient minerals including Mo, Mn, B, Co, Fe, and Zn; as well as temperature control, typically in the range of 20–30 °C. Conditions can be optimized, including the mixing of the culture in the photobioreactor to ensure uniform exposure to the light source for photosynthesis. It has been estimated that a feasible operation should have a production output in the range of greater than 30 g biomass m−2 day−1.
Another way of valuing the microalgal cultivation industry is to look at the value of microalgal products, such as the carotenoids: the global carotenoid market was valued at US$1.24 billion in 2016 and is projected to reach $1.53 billion by 2021 (Novoveská et al. 2019). Similarly, microalgal derived long-chain marine PUFAs, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are valued at US$10 billion annually. Thus, it is of vital importance to carefully choose the microalgal species of interest and culture conditions to optimize the production of the primary or secondary metabolites of interest.
1.4 Book Objectives
The overarching objective of Recent Advancements in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing: Food and Health Perspectives is to provide a bird’s eye view of algal biomolecules, the role of emerging processing techniques, biological and health benefits and their applications in food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic products. A key objective of the book is to critically evaluate the role of emerging technologies in algal processing. Recent developments in drying and milling technologies are discussed along with advances in greener techniques in the extraction of bioactives from algae, which is critical for the industry. Determination of recent applications of algae for food, feed, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products as well as economic feasibility, market trends and considerations, and health hazards associated with algae for its commercial applications, can provide a holistic picture to the industrial community. Compiling all this information in one expert monograph, this comprehensive book covers almost all aspects of algae and will establish itself as a standard reference book on the advancements in algal processing for food and health.
1.5 Book Structure
The book contains 20 chapters, which are divided into three sections. Section I explores the composition and conventional and emerging extraction technologies for algal bioactives; Section II focuses on potential biological properties and the role of algal derived compounds in promoting health; while Section III covers the advancements of algae and algal components in pharmaceutical and cosmetics products as well as application in functional foods or as nutraceuticals.
Section I, which has a stress on relevance and processing of algae, comprises eight chapters, wherein Chapter 2 aims to offer insights on the influence of seasonality on the chemical composition and nutritional profile of micro- and macroalgae for their better utilization. Apart from being influenced by species and geography, the biochemistry of algae, and their nutritive and bioactive profiles, is influenced by factors such as seasons and the changing physical and chemical parameters (wave exposure, depth, temperature, irradiation, salinity, pH, etc.). Understanding seasonal differences in biochemical constituents of algae would help determine the optimal algal-harvesting time to obtain a specific composition. Chapter 3 gives a brief overview on recent advancements in algal cell drying and milling technologies. Production of value-added products requires algal cultivation and harvesting, drying, and disruption of the algal cells for subsequent extraction and processing of the intended products. A major hurdle to the utilization of algal biomass for large-scale commercial applications is the high processing costs. Increasing the recovery of intracellular substances from algal cells could result in greater product yields and lower production costs. Drying and milling are two integral processes for effective production of value-added products from algae. Technology development, energy requirements, and comparisons in the processing methods along with challenges and prospects of algae drying and milling for sustainable and viable algal biorefineries are outlined in this chapter. After the drying and milling, the recovery or extraction of valuable bioactive compounds is the next key step. These interesting compounds are often tightly entrapped inside the algal cells; hence they need to be extracted and collected, which is covered in Chapter 4. This chapter focuses on recent advances in the use of greener extraction technologies for the recovery of valuable bioactive compounds from algae. Algae synthesize a range of bioactive compounds including polysaccharides, proteins and peptides, lipids, polyphenols, and carotenoids with potent biological activities. The exploitation of these molecules requires the development of extraction protocols that should ideally be food-safe/nontoxic, selective, achieve high yields of compounds, minimize the generation of waste, and reduce the use of solvents and energy during the process. This chapter summarizes the main innovative technologies (pulsed electric fields, supercritical fluid extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, microwave assisted extraction, and ultrasound assisted extraction) used to extract high-value compounds from algae. The concepts of green chemistry and biorefinery together with the principles, advantages, applications, future trends, and challenges of novel green extraction technologies are discussed in detail. Extraction methods can be divided into conventional and nonconventional or advanced extraction methods. Conventional methods are based on traditional organic solvents, while novel methods include new greener and environmentally friendly solvents such as ionic liquid and/or method. Chapters 5–8 together explore the roles and applications of conventional and advanced extraction technologies for the recovery of individual compounds such as lipids, proteins and peptides, polyphenols, and polysaccharides from algae. Conventional extraction technologies can lead to longer processing, high energy consumption, slow extraction rate, can be time-consuming, and may cause degradation or lower yields of algal extractives. To overcome those disadvantages, extraction technologies with relatively lower energy inputs, rapid treatment times, and avoidance of hazardous solvents, increasing yields and purity levels have been developed. The future outlook, including challenges and recommendations for further development and optimization of extraction technologies for individual compounds needed to extend industrial applications, is widely discussed in these chapters.
There are ancient histories of macro- and microalgae consumption, while dietary patterns between populations are coincident with differences in diet-related chronic disease risks in populations. Marine algae have attracted a great deal of interest as excellent sources of nutrients. There is a growing global interest in the idea that algal derived bioactive compounds can play a major therapeutic role in disease prevention in humans. The fact that most of these bioactives are known to exhibit antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-proliferative, antidiabetic, antitumor, anticoagulant, and apoptosis-inducing effects demonstrates their potential use in nutraceuticals, functional foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Therefore, Section II of the book, which contains seven chapters emphasizing bioactivities, largely focuses on the potential biological properties of algal derived compounds and their role in promoting health and disease prevention. This section is focused on individual groups of compounds such as polysaccharides, proteins, polyphenols, carotenoids, lipids, and fiber from algae and has covered purification and characterization strategies along with their biological properties and possible health effects. Chapter 9 critically examines the existing scientific knowledge on secondary metabolites and their biological activities ascribed to macro- and microalgae including anticarcinogenic, antiobesogenic, modulation of blood glucose, lipids, and antioxidant capacities. The chapter reviews the evidence underlying the biological activities of macro- and microalgal constituents and the proposed mechanisms of action. Chapter 10 is primarily focused on polysaccharides, the main constituents in marine algae, which have numerous beneficial health effects on human health. The biological activities including antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anticancer, antiviral, hypolipidemic, anticoagulant, and antimicrobial effects are discussed. This contribution is an overview of the biological activities and potential health benefits, along with the chemical structure, extraction, and purification approaches used for marine algal polysaccharides. Chapter 11 investigates the phenolic compounds encountered in micro- and macroalgae, their chemical structures together with their biological activities and potential valorization for medical and cosmetic industries. For example, phenolic compounds in marine algae are known to be synthesized in response to different environmental conditions. Polyphenols protect these organisms against herbivores or epiphytes, bacterial infection, or UV radiation. Once consumed, they may be beneficial to human health and assist with chronic disease risk prevention since they have a wide range of bioactivities. They can exhibit antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antiaging, pro-mineralogenic activities or can act as modulators of cardiovascular disease risk. Chapter 12
