Rechargeable Batteries E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Battery technology is constantly changing, and the concepts and applications of these changes are rapidly becoming increasingly more important as more and more industries and individuals continue to make "greener" choices in their energy sources. As global dependence on fossil fuels slowly wanes, there is a heavier and heavier importance placed on cleaner power sources and methods for storing and transporting that power. Battery technology is a huge part of this global energy revolution. Rechargeable battery technologies have been a milestone for moving toward a fossil-fuel-free society. They include groundbreaking changes in energy storage, transportation, and electronics. Improvements in battery electrodes and electrolytes have been a remarkable development, and, in the last few years, rechargeable batteries have attracted significant interest from scientists as they are a boon for electric vehicles, laptops and computers, mobile phones, portable electronics, and grid-level electricity storage devices. Rechargeable Batteries: History, Progress, and Applicationsoutlines the history, development, future, and applications for rechargeable batteries for energy storage applications. It also provides an in-depth description of various energy storage materials and is an invaluable reference guide for electro-chemists, chemical engineers, students, faculty, and R&D professionals in energy storage science, material science, and renewable energy. This is a must-have for any engineer's library who works with batteries and energy storage.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface
Key Features
1 Progress in Separators for Rechargeable Batteries
1.1 Separator Overview
1.2 Polymer Membrane
1.3 Non-Woven Fabric Separator
1.4 Polymer Electrolyte
1.5 Conclusions
References
2 Pb Acid Batteries
2.1 History of Batteries
2.2 Primary Batteries
2.3 Secondary Batteries
2.4 Flow Batteries
2.5 Lead-Acid Batteries
List of Abbreviations
References
3 Flexible Batteries
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Battery Types
3.3 Storage Mechanism
3.4 Graphene Base Flexible Batteries
3.5 Metal Oxide-Based Flexible Batteries
3.6 Fiber-Shape Designed Flexible Batteries
3.7 Natural Fiber Base Flexible Batteries
3.8 Flexible Electrolytes
3.9 Conclusion
References
4 Polymer Electrolytes in Rechargeable Batteries
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Solid Electrolytes for Rechargeable Batteries
4.3 Polymer-Based Electrolytes
4.4 Classification of Polymer-Based Electrolytes
4.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
5 Advancement in Electrolytes for Rechargeable Batteries
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Aqueous Electrolytes
5.3 Non-Aqueous Electrolytes
5.4 Polymer Electrolytes
5.5 Ionic Liquids Electrolytes (ILE)
5.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
6 Fabrication Assembly Techniques for K-Ion Batteries
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Battery and Its Types
6.3 Ni-Cd Batteries
6.4 Li-Ion Batteries
6.5 Advantages of Rechargeable Batteries
6.6 Disadvantages of Rechargeable Batteries
6.7 K-Ion Batteries
6.8 Advantages
6.9 Disadvantages
6.10 Honeycomb Structure of K-Ion Batteries
6.11 Negative Electrode Materials for K-Ion Batteries
6.12 K-Ion Batteries Based on Patterned Electrodes
6.13 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
7 Recent Advances in Ni-Fe Batteries as Electrical Energy Storage Devices
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Structure of Ni-Fe Batteries
7.3 Discussion on Electrochemical Parameters of Various Materials for Ni-Fe Batteries
7.4 Conclusions
References
8 Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Batteries
8.1 Introduction
8.2 History
8.3 Invention of the Rechargeable Battery
8.4 Metal Hydrides (MH)
8.5 Thermodynamics and Crystal Structures of Ni-MH Battery Materials
8.6 Ni-MH Batteries
8.7 Mechanism of Ni-MH Batteries
8.8 Materials
8.9 Charging Nickel-Based Batteries
8.10 Performance
8.11 Factors Affecting Life
8.12 Advantages
8.13 Applications
8.14 Recent Developments and Research Work
8.15 Shortcomings
References
9 Ni-Cd Batteries
9.1 Introduction
9.2 History
9.3 Characteristics
9.4 Construction and Working
9.5 Types of NiCd Batteries
9.6 Memory Effect
9.7 Maintenance and Safety
9.8 Availability and Cost
9.9 Applications
9.10 Advantages and Disadvantages
9.11 Recycling of NiCd Batteries
9.12 Comparison With Other Batteries
9.13 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
10 Ca-Ion Batteries
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Selection of Anodic and Cathodic Materials
10.3 Electrochemical Arrangement
10.4 Electrode Materials
10.5 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
11 Analytical Investigations in Rechargeable Batteries
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Components of a Battery
11.3 Principle of Rechargeable Battery
11.4 Aging of Rechargeable Battery
11.5 Analysis Techniques Used for Rechargeable Batteries
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 Remediation of Spent Rechargeable Batteries
12.1 Introduction
12.2 A Brief History of Battery Origin
12.3 The Types of Batteries
12.4 Recharge the Battery
12.5 Battery Life
12.6 A Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB)
12.7 Impact of Batteries on Health
12.8 Mercury (Hg)
12.9 Remediation of Spent Rechargeable Batteries
12.10 Conclusions
References
13 Classification, Modeling, and Requirements for Separators in Rechargeable Batteries
Acronyms
13.1 Introduction and Area
13.2 Separators in Rechargeable Batteries
13.3 Classification of Separator in Rechargeable Batteries
13.4 Properties of Separator in Rechargeable Batteries
13.5 Requirements for Separator in Rechargeable Batteries
13.6 Modeling of Separator in Rechargeable Batteries
13.7 Results and Discussions
13.9 Conclusion
References
14 Research and Development and Commercialization in Rechargeable Batteries
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Research and Development in Rechargeable Batteries
14.3 Commercialization Aspects of Rechargeable Batteries
14.4 Future Prospects of RBs
14.5 Conclusion
References
15 Alkaline Batteries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 History
15.3 Advantages
15.4 Disadvantages
15.5 Spent ARBs
15.6 Classification of ABs
15.7 Application of ABs
15.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
16 Advances in “Green” Ion-Batteries Using Aqueous Electrolytes
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Monovalent Ion Aqueous Batteries
16.3 Multivalent Ion Aqueous Batteries
16.4 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
17 K-Ion Batteries
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Fundamentals of K-Ion Batteries
17.3 Mechanism
17.4 Anode Materials: Graphite Anodes
17.5 Key Performance
17.6 Summary and Outlook
References
18 Li-S Batteries
18.1 What are Li-S Batteries?
18.2 Advances and Challenges in Carbon-Sulfur Electrodes
18.3 Role of Additives in Sulfur Electrodes
18.4 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
19 Aqueous Na-Air Batteries
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Characteristics of Sodium
19.3 Electrochemical Reactions in Aqueous Na-Air Batteries
19.4 Main Components of Aqueous SABs
19.5 Harmful Factors for the Aqueous SABs Stability
19.6 Price Comparison Among Different Types of Batteries
19.7 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Energy and power characteristic and energy cost of various batterie...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Ionic conductivities of solid oxide electrolytes [5].
Table 4.2 Some important ion conducting polymer-based electrolyte materials a...
Table 4.3 Some important Mg
2+
-ion conducting SPE/Gel Polymer Electrolyte (GPE...
Table 4.4 Some ionic liquid based polymer electrolytes.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Types of batteries.
Table 6.2 Advantages of rechargeable batteries.
Table 6.3 Disadvantages of rechargeable batteries [7, 8].
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 The electrochemical parameters of various materials for Ni-Fe batte...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Intermetallic compounds and their hydrogen storage properties [41].
Table 8.2 Selected classical hydrides with their hydrogen capacities and plat...
Table 8.3 Development in the mobile phone batteries [165].
Table 8.4 Comparison between Ni-Cd, Ni-MH, and Li-ion sealed cells [167].
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Number of days for battery to be changed based on application.
Table 9.2 A comparative study of NiCd batteries with other commercially avail...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 The main separator requirements, impact, and solutions [4].
Table 13.2 The global separator applications for various battery types [3, 14...
Table 13.3 Different types of post-treatment methods as well as their benefit...
Table 13.4 The characteristic of mercantile polyolefin-based microporous memb...
Table 13.5 Majority of Li-ion battery manufacturers [13].
Table 13.6 The process and comparison of dry and wet methods [13].
Table 13.7 The properties of composite separators [2].
Table 13.8 Some characteristic of separators and batteries.
Table 13.9 Summary of all models.
Table 13.10 Comparison of rechargeable battery separators [4].
Table 13.11 Key differences between membrane and nonwoven separators [4].
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Developmental stages and milestones of various rechargeable batteries...
Table 14.2 Aqueous rechargeable batteries functioning in wide pH range [32].
Table 14.3 Relationships of surface area, structural dimensions, and the functio...
Table 14.4 Recent development and functioning of various Mg-air batteries [96...
Table 14.5 Recent advances and functioning of various Mg/Li hybrid batteries ...
Table 14.6 The recent advancements of various aqueous RBs/aqueous hybrid RBs,...
Table 14.7 Recent developments of various additives on performance of Li-S RB...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Periodical history of battery development.
Table 15.2 Comparisons of Ni/transition metal ARBs.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Comparison of the basic physical and chemical properties of Li, Na...
Table 17.2 Reaction mechanisms, molecular weights (Mw [g mol
-1
]), and dischar...
Table 17.3 Comparison of the electrochemical performance of reported cathodes...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 The properties and characteristic of sodium and lithium.
Table 19.2 Different characteristics of studied aqueous SABs.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Microstructure of the microporous polyolefin membranes made by dr...
Figure 1.2 Microstructure of the microporous polyolefin membranes made by we...
Figure 1.3 Schematic illustration of PVDF structure diagram, Plot from ChemD...
Figure 1.4 Schematic illustration of PTFE structural unit, Plot from ChemDra...
Figure 1.5 Comparative schematic illustration of Li-O2 cells with (a) conven...
Figure 1.6 Schematic illustration of PET structural unit, Plot form ChemDraw...
Figure 1.7 Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of high-safety M-...
Figure 1.8 Schematic illustration of PI structural unit,Plot from ChemDraw....
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 A simple battery cell.
Figure 2.2 Schematic representation of a redox flow battery.
Figure 2.3 Zinc-bromine unit cell.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic illustration of charging and discharging/storage mechan...
Figure 3.2 (a) Schematic of the fabrication process of lithium-titanium oxid...
Figure 3.3 (a) Schematic of 3D zinc cobalt oxide nanowire grows on carbon cl...
Figure 3.4 (a) Schematic representation of fabrication of SnO
2
at carbon clo...
Figure 3.5 (a) Schematics of the flexible battery. (b) Charge-discharge prof...
Figure 3.6.1 Schematic representation of the synthesis of carbon nanotube gr...
Figure 3.6.2 (a) Carbon nanotube yarns SEM image. (b) SEM of carbon nanotube...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 (a) Battery with liquid electrolytes and (b) solid-state battery ...
Figure 4.2 Structure of solid electrolytes [5].
Figure 4.3 Different polymer electrolytes and their development for Li-based...
Figure 4.4 Chemical structures of some polar polymers widely used for polyme...
Figure 4.5 Overview of GPEs [49].
Figure 4.6 Transformation of a soft matter solid electrolyte [11].
Figure 4.7 Historical developments of solid composite electrolytes [55].
Figure 4.8 Various types of polymer composites.
Figure 4.9 Composite polymer electrolytes [55].
Figure 4.10 Designing of LLTO incorporated-PAN-based composite polymer elect...
Figure 4.11 Anions and cations and used in the formation of ILs.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Construction of a rechargeable battery.
Figure 5.2 LISCON film.
Figure 5.3 Electrochemical performance PMA/PEG: (a) discharge-charge, (b) cy...
Figure 5.4 SEM PVDF-HFP GPEs.
Figure 5.5 Ether-functionalized trialkylimidazolium ILEs structure.
Figure 5.6 Synthesis route to obtain SiO2-SpmImTFSI.
Figure 5.7 IPCPSE electrolyte design.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Advantages of using K-ion batteries.
Figure 6.2 Ways to solve problems arising in using K-ion batteries.
Figure 6.3 Negative electrode materials for K-ion batteries.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 The structure of Ni-Fe battery.
Figure 7.2 Photographs of Ni-Fe batteries of 1.2 V.
Figure 7.3 Photographs of usage of Ni-Fe batteries in vehicles, devices, and...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Hydrogen pressure vs. hydrogen content in La
0.9
Gd
0.1
Ni
5
after 10,...
Figure 8.2 Hydrogen pressure vs. hydrogen content in LaNi
4.8
Sn
0.2
. Compound ...
Figure 8.3 Crystal structures of LaNi
5
and LaNi
5
H
7
.
Figure 8.4 The cubic (C15) and hexagonal (C14) Laves phase structures are sh...
Figure 8.5 Projections onto the (1_20) plane of crystal structures observed ...
Figure 8.6 Change in production of small-sized rechargeable batteries in Jap...
Figure 8.7 The sales amount and export volume of Ni-MH batteries from 2012 t...
Figure 8.8 Schematic diagram of the electrochemical reaction process of a Ni...
Figure 8.9 Key materials and technologies for Ni-MH batteries.
Figure 8.10 Pure EVs propelled by a Ni-MH battery.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Outline of a typical nickel-cadmium battery.
Figure 9.2 Charging-discharging reactions in a NiCd cell.
Figure 9.3 A normal discharge curve of NiCd battery and with memory effect....
Figure 9.4 Memory effect.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Representation of calcium-ion battery and its physiognomies.
Figure 10.2 Model for representing flow of ionic current by the counterion C...
Figure 10.3 Some decisive variables depicting the electrodeposition process....
Figure 10.4 Framework of PB analogs.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Basic components of battery.
Figure 11.2 Parallel arrangement of battery.
Figure 11.3 Serial arrangement of battery.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Daniel cells, 1836 [17].
Figure 12.2 Alkaline batteries that are alternative to zinc and carbon batte...
Figure 12.3 A cross-section of a carbon-zinc battery shows the composition o...
Figure 12.4 Lithium-ion battery, where lithium ions move between anode and c...
Figure 12.5 The advantage of NiCd batteries in the use of a “gel wrap” that ...
Figure 12.6 The lead acid battery [41].
Figure 12.7 Curves represented the demand for primary and secondary batterie...
Figure 12.8 How lithium-ion batteries work. Lithium ions travel from the pos...
Figure 12.9 The average composition of the primary carbon-zinc battery and h...
Figure 12.10 The anodic (ja) and cathodic (jc) current densities are shown f...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Schema of separator in Li-ion battery [2].
Figure 13.2 The concept and manufacture development activities for novel bat...
Figure 13.3 Separator stacks (a) is a button cell; (b) is a stack lead-acid;...
Figure 13.4 Main part of the big surface area located at the connection betw...
Figure 13.5 (a) Charge and discharge and voltages of Li-S batteries; (b) Rel...
Figure 13.6 Schema of various stages of the nonwoven production [4].
Figure 13.7 PE separators utilized in Li-ion batteries [13].
Figure 13.8 Scanning of monolayer surface of Celgard membrane separators uti...
Figure 13.9 (a) PE membrane separator, (b) improved PE membrane separator [3...
Figure 13.10 Thermal evolution of Li solid electrolytes, polymer electrolyte...
Figure 13.11 General procedure for microporous membrane separator production...
Figure 13.12 The prepared PE membrane separators with polymer concentrations...
Figure 13.13 Wet multilayer separator preparation method [32].
Figure 13.14 SEM and FESEM views of: (a) SNT separators; (b) PET nonwoven se...
Figure 13.15 Lesser impedance of improved PE separators compared with PE sep...
Figure 13.16 Schema of the electrolyte and electrode interfaces (red) in (a)...
Figure 13.17 Schema of the ion-exchange membrane separators [3].
Figure 13.18 (a) An
Al
2
O
3
/PVDF-HFP copolymer hosts coating layer on a microp...
Figure 13.19 Schema of different stages of the ion-exchange membrane separat...
Figure 13.20 Schema of nanoporous membrane separators [89].
Figure 13.21 (a) The stress vs. Hencky strain of nanoporous membranes after ...
Figure 13.22 The optimal battery operation modeling [6].
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Schematic representation of various rechargeable batteries and t...
Figure 14.2 Schematic representation of magnesium RBs (Copyright© Elsevier 2...
Figure 14.3 Schematic representation of Zn-air RB (Copyright© Elsevier 2019 ...
Figure 14.4 Overview of PCNs synthesis pathway and their applicability in en...
Figure 14.5 History of the development of various types of Zn-based batterie...
Figure 14.6 A schematic representation for S, N dopants to hierarchical carb...
Figure 14.7 A schematic representation of advancements of Mg-RBs, anode/cath...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Classification of ABs.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 (a) Mechanism of hybrid aqueous battery(b) anode and cathode...
Figure 16.2 (a) Redox mechanism of battery with polyacrylamide hydrogel elec...
Figure 16.3 (a) Working of the battery (Zn: olive-green; Mn
2+
& Fe
2+
: dark y...
Figure 16.4 (a) Crystal structure of NiHCF(b) schematic indicating the w...
Figure 16.5 Mechanism of (a) Zn/MnO
2
battery in CF
3
SO
3
−
-based aqueous ...
Figure 16.6 (a) Birnessite crystal structure with a water monolayer between ...
Figure 16.7 (a) Cryptomelane crystal depicting Al
3+
ion intercalation chemis...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Schematic illustration of a “rocking-chair” potassium-ion batter...
Figure 17.2 (a) Structure and (b) rate performance of the K
1.89
Mn[Fe(CN)
6
]
0.
...
Figure 17.3 Schematic illustration demonstrates the reversible structural tr...
Figure 17.4 Cycling performance of P
2
-K
0.6
CoO
2
║hard carbon for KIBs [58].
Figure 17.5 (a) Reaction mechanism of PTCDA. (b) Discharge/charge profiles o...
Figure 17.6 An organic cathode for potassium dual-ion full battery [61].
Figure 17.7 (a) Reactions in the KSBs, (b) schematic of electrode reactions ...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Plausible arrangement of Li-S battery based on graphene-sulfur c...
Figure 18.2 Plausible rechargeable Li-S batteries: (A) Shuttle effect and Li
Figure 18.3 Representation of C/C cathode material by using a bimodal porous...
Figure 18.4 Representation of various lithiation procedure of sulfur propose...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Energy cost of various batteries [81].
Guide
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Rechargeable Batteries
History, Progress, and Applications
Edited by
Rajender Boddula, Inamuddin, Ramyakrishna Pothu and Abdullah M. Asiri
This edition first published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781119661191
Cover image: Pixabay.comCover design by Russell Richardson
Editors are honored to dedicatethis book toBoddula Laxmibai & Laxman(Mother & Father of Dr. B. Rajender)
Preface
The gradual depletion of fossil fuels led humans to explore high-performance continuous renewable energy sources, especially rechargeable batteries. In 1859, French physicist Gaston Plante invented the lead acid cell as a rechargeable battery, and since 1991, lithium-ion batteries have been introduced commercially and exploited in electric vehicles as portable energy devices. These are becoming an interesting method due to their adjustable shapes and sizes, high energy efficiencies and densities, pollution-free operations, long-cycle life, and affordability as an energy-storage system. In 2019, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded for work on lithium-ion batteries. Rechargeable battery technologies have been a milestone for modern fossil-fuel-free society; they include groundbreaking changes in energy storage, transportation, and electronics. Improvements in battery electrodes and electrolytes have been a remarkable development. In the last few years, rechargeable batteries have attracted significant interest from scientists as they are a boon for electric vehicles, laptops and computers, mobile phones, portable electronics, and grid-level electricity storage devices.
Rechargeable Batteries: History, Progress, and Applications describes an up-to-date and comprehensive viewpoint of electrochemical power sources. Rechargeable batteries have made a tremendous impact on our society. The book discusses innovative rechargeable batteries constructed using bounteous elements such as Li+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Zn2+, Mg2+, Al3+, etc., which show countless attractive options for energy-storage devices. This book provides a complete outline of rechargeable batteries. It is intended for undergraduates, postgraduates, researchers, professionals, and scientists working in areas such energy science, chemical engineering, material science, and industries. Based on thematic topics, the book contains the following nineteen chapters:
Chapter 1 reviews the history and progress of separators for rechargeable batteries, involving polymer separators, non-woven fabric separators, and polymer electrolytes. The advantages and drawbacks of these separator materials are discussed. A viewpoint on the state of current research and future research directions of separators is presented.
Chapter 2 describes the improvements in secondary batteries with a focus on Pb-Acid rechargeable batteries. In this chapter, the backgrounds, principles, theoretical aspects, and basic components of this type of batteries are described. Another important part of this chapter is the definition of failure mechanisms in Pb-Acid batteries, i.e., sulfation, corrosion, and degradation.
Chapter 3 discusses different electrode materials that are commonly used for flexible batteries. A brief description of carbon-based flexible nano-materials, metal oxides, graphene composites, and natural fiber-based electrode materials as a binder is presented. Moreover, the storage mechanism, types of batteries, and flexible electrolytes are studied.
Chapter 4 discusses solid polymer electrolytes used in rechargeable batteries. Different types of solid polymer electrolytes, their classifications, structures, and properties are discussed. It is predicted that the future development in this area may be a combination of fast ion conductors and polymers.
Chapter 5 discusses different types of electrolytes for rechargeable electrochemical batteries. The focus is especially on the aqueous, non-aqueous, polymer, ionic, and hybrid electrolytes for the rechargeable electrochemical battery applications.
Chapter 6 deals with the introduction of ion batteries along with their types and leading to how conventional batteries have made it possible to leave behind the different traditional batteries like Li-ion batteries. Further, the chapter focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of using conventional K-ion batteries with suitable solutions to the bottlenecks listed as well as on fabrication techniques of K-ion batteries.
Chapter 7 discusses the materials for Ni-Fe batteries and their applications towards electrochemical performance. It also reviews the formation and structure of Ni-Fe batteries. Also, various organic, inorganic, polymer and composite materials are extracted in order to evaluate their electrochemical performance for energy storage applications in the case of nickel-iron batteries.
Chapter 8 deals with Ni-MH batteries. Different types of metal hydrides and their structures are discussed in detail. In addition to the merits and demerits, the mechanism, performance, and various applications of Ni-MH batteries are also discussed. This chapter also focuses on recent progress in the field of Ni-MH batteries.
Chapter 9 summarizes the history, characteristics, constructions, and working of NiCd batteries. It also focuses on including the types of NiCd batteries and their applications in various fields.
Chapter 10 confers the emergence of high energy density rechargeable Ca-ion batteries as a boon for various electrical systems. Theoretical calculations have been used to select the best possible cathodes for these anodic Ca-ion batteries (CIBs). Additionally, various pros and cons, applications, fabrication techniques, as well as future aspects of CIBs have been scrutinized with respect to previously mentioned battery structures.
Chapter 11 narrates a blueprint for approaching an ageing process by explaining various analytical techniques based on X-ray, neutron, electron, gravimetric mass spectroscopy, and many more. This chapter begins with the exploration of various rechargeable batteries, its ageing process and various analytical techniques along with key scientific questions in the sphere, followed by their successful application to answer basic questions.
Chapter 12 highlights a brief history of the origin of the battery and its types. It also addresses the impact of batteries on health, along with the future and challenges in the use of nanotechnology and clean chemistry in battery manufacturing and safety requirements in manufacturing and charging.
Chapter 13 deals with various types of separators used in rechargeable batteries. The properties, requirements, and modeling of separators are reviewed. The major focus is on manufacturing process according to characteristics. The future approach is offered in accordance with positive and negative properties reported in this literature review.
Chapter 14 presents a brief overview of the research, development, and commercialization aspects of various rechargeable batteries. Several challenges confronted by rechargeable batteries are reviewed in detail. Additionally, this chapter details the future outlook of rechargeable batteries for wide-scale applications in electrical and electronic devices towards a sustainable system.
Chapter 15 discusses the different alkaline batteries and the history of the development of alkaline batteries. The chapter discusses how alkaline rechargeable batteries (ARBs) work, advantages and disadvantages, applications, and developments in the area of alkaline batteries. In addition, Zn/ Mn alkaline batteries, Ni/Co and Ni/Ni alkaline batteries are also discussed.
Chapter 16 discusses the aqueous batteries as renewable and sustainable energy storage devices. Aqueous batteries have cathode, anode, and aqueous electrolyte with a mixed metal ion charge carrier. The major focus is given to communicate the recent advancements made in aqueous batteries, with a focus on their mechanism of operation and working.
Chapter 17 reveals the spontaneity of KIBs anode materials and their fundamental properties, mechanisms, and key performance factors and their comparison with LIBs and/or SIBs.
Chapter 18 highlights the challenges of carbon-sulfur electrodes and the role of additives in sulfur electrodes used in Li-S batteries.
Chapter 19 counts the cons and pros of aqueous NA-Air batteries. In addition to a short discussion about historical background, a comparison is made between this type of battery and other convenient batteries. Finally, characteristics, main reactions, different components and harmful factors for stability of these batteries are discussed.
Key Features
Focuses on the wide range of energy storage materials
Provides an understanding of electrodes, electrolytes, and separators
Coverage of Pb-acid batteries to modern, flexible batteries
Emphasis on fundamental principles, mechanisms, challenges, and prospective
EditorsRajender BoddulaInamuddinRamyakrishna PothuAbdullah M. Asiri
1Progress in Separators for Rechargeable Batteries
Cheng-song Yang, Dian-hui Han and Meng Zhang*
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
Abstract
This article introduces the research progress of rechargeable battery separators. At present, rechargeable battery separators are mainly divided into polyolefin-based separators, non-woven separators, and ceramic composite separators. In recent years, separators have been adopted on the basis of these three categories. Different preparation methods and the replacement of the separator's role have led to some new types of separators, such as polymer electrolyte separators. It is divided into solid polymer electrolytes and gel polymer electrolytes. This electrolyte can separate the cathode and anode to prevent short circuits, while ensuring lithium Ions can shuttle. This article details the development of rechargeable battery separators, including some new ones in recent years.
Keywords: Rechargeable battery separators, polyolefin-based separators, non-woven fabric separators, composite separators, solid electrolyte separators, electrolyte separators, gel polymer separators
1.1 Separator Overview
The separator is an important part of the battery. It separates the positive electrode and negative electrode in the battery, prevents the positive and negative electrodes from directly contact which may cause short circuit, and has a porous structure to provide a passage for the lithium ions, realizing lithium ions transport between the positive and negative electrodes. The separator itself does not participate in the reaction of the battery, but it plays a vital role in the battery. The separator affects the battery capacity, rate performance, cycle performance, and safety performance to a certain extent. Currently, polyolefin separators (PP, PE) and non-woven fabric separators are widely used commercially.
The main factors of the separator include chemical stability, mechanical strength, porosity, wettability, and heat resistance. Considering the above factors to select the appropriate separator material, the main diaphragm materials of lithium-ion batteries are polyolefin separators, non-woven membranes, and ceramic composite separators. Through the analysis of existing diaphragm materials, the new ideas of improving separator performance are developed.
1.2 Polymer Membrane
1.2.1 Polyolefin Separators
In polyolefin separators, the main materials are polyethylene and polypropylene, which have low cost, good chemical stability, excellent mechanical properties, and high electrochemical insulation. At higher temperatures, the holes in the diaphragm will self-close and form an open circuit, thus ensuring the safety performance of the secondary battery.
Polyethylene (PE) microporous films began in the early 1960s, and both melt-stretching (dry method) and thermally induced phase separation (wet method) methods were produced. Polypropylene (PP) microporous membrane research began in the early 1970s and was mainly produced by melt drawing [1].
The main preparation processes of the melt-spinning-cold stretching method include melt extrusion, heat treatment, and stretching. The microstructure of the microporous polyolefin membranes made by dry process is shown in Figure 1.1. In the process of melt extrusion, under the effect of large stress field, a hard elastic precursor membrane with a lamellar crystal structure perpendicular to the extrusion direction is obtained. During the heat treatment, under the effect of high-stress field at a temperature slightly lower than the melting point, annealing is performed to increase crystallinity, and then, heat treatment can obtain a hard elastic membrane [2]. Finally, the hard elastic membrane is stretched to separate the lamellar crystal, and the amorphous region is destroyed to form a large number of microporous structures. Stretching is divided into two processes, firstly cold stretching, then hot stretching at a small heating rate, and finally heat setting at a certain temperature. According to the stretching method, the melt stretching method can be classified into uniaxial stretching and biaxial stretching. The method has low cost and uniform pore size, but the product is slightly thick, easy to tear, and has a high short circuit rate [3].
Figure 1.1 Microstructure of the microporous polyolefin membranes made by dry process.
Reproduced with permission from ref [5] and American Chemical Society.
The main steps of the thermally induced phase separation process include extrusion, stretching, extraction, and heat setting. The microstructure of the microporous polyolefin membranes made by wet process is shown in Figure 1.2. It is mainly used to prepare PE separators. At a temperature above the melting point of the crystalline polymer mixing PE with a high boiling point, low molecular weight diluting agent to form a homogeneous melt. The melt is pre-formed into a membrane. When the temperature is lowered, the solubility of the diluting agent decreases, and the polymer crystallizes. At this time, solid-liquid or liquid-liquid phase separation occurs. After cooling and stretching, extract with a volatile extractant, and finally, the extractant is removed to obtain a microporous separator [4]. This method produces a thin diaphragm, is not easy to tears, and has a short circuit rate, but the cost is high, the environment is polluted, and the heat resistance of the separator is poor [3].
Polyethylene and polypropylene have their own advantages and disadvantages, polyethylene is more resistant to low temperature, and polypropylene is more resistant to high temperature. The self-closed holes temperature of polyethylene is 135°C, and this date of polypropylene is 165°C. Celgard PP/PE/PP three-layer composite diaphragm, PE intermediate layer will be self-closed at 135°C. However, there is a 30°C heating space from the closed hole to the separator damage, which improves the safety of the separator [5].
Figure 1.2 Microstructure of the microporous polyolefin membranes made by wet process.
Reproduced with permission from ref [5] and American Chemical Society.
There are many modification methods for PE and PP separators, the most common of which are coating modification, coating inorganic nanoparticles, or polymer particles for modification.
Zhang [6] et al. coated PTFE particles to both sides of the PE separator with a diluted PTFE suspension, in order to prepare a selfbonding PTFE separator, then modified it with a H2O2/H2SO4 solution, the hydroxyl group is introduced, this structure has a porosity of 66%, and the electrolyte absorption rate is 190.6%. The ionic conductivity is much higher than PE separator. The PTFE particles provide good thermal stability and excellent cycle stability.
Won-Kyung Shin [7] et al. use ultrathin nitrogen and sulfur codoped graphene (NSG) layer deposited on a polyethylene (PE) separator by a simple vacuum infiltration method effectively suppressed the dendritic growth of lithium metal, compared to an uncoated separator. The thermal stability is improved, and the cycle stability of the lithium battery is effectively improved.
Zhou Xiangyang [8] et al. coated nitrogen-doped microporous carbon from polyaspartic acid bonding on the surface of Celgard 2400, used on Li-S battery. This method is easy to prepare and low in cost; high N doping level promotes chemisorption of polysulfide and improves overall performance of Li-S batteries.
1.2.2 PVDF
Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) combines the characteristics of fluororesin and general-purpose resin. The structure of PVDF is shown in Figure 1.3. It has good chemical resistance, high temperature resistance, electrical insulation, and dielectric properties. It is very suitable as a separator material. Its molecular chain is closely arranged, and there are strong hydrogen bonds between the molecular chains. Its oxygen index is 46%, non-combustible, crystallinity is 65%~78%, melting point is 172°C, heat distortion temperature is 112°C~145°C, and the decomposition temperature is greater than 390°C the long-term use temperature is −40°C to 150°C. The thermal decomposition temperature is much higher than the melting point, making it excellent in processability.
PVDF itself has high crystallinity and excellent mechanical properties, but high crystallinity will affect the movement of molecular segment, making it less swellable in electrolyte solution, and poor wettability, lead to large internal resistance. Based on this, the other monomers are added to copolymerized, PVDF-HFP was prepared by copolymerization of hexafluoropropylene monomer and vinylidene fluoride [9]. It can reduce crystallinity, thereby improving ion conductivity, reducing internal resistance, and improving battery performance. In the study of RE-Sousa [10] et al., PVDF-CTFE separator was prepared by phase transfer in a DMF solution by adding chlorotrifluoroethylene and vinylidene fluoride, which has good cycle performance and rate performance. PVDF diaphragm is easy to get out of control at high temperatures, so it has certain safety problems. In the study of Cui [11] et al., PE microspheres were prepared and coated on the surface of PVDF separator to prepare a separator with thermal shutdown coating. The coating will not adversely influence the electrochemical performance and it can close at high temperature.
Although the technology continues to advance, this separator still has problems such as poor wettability and uneven pore distribution. In recent years, the rise of non-woven fabric technology has changed this situation. PVDF is a popular one among non-woven separators. PVDF can also be used to prepare a polymer gel electrolyte membrane that integrates the separator with the electrolyte. PVDF can also be used as a binder for ceramic based separators.
Figure 1.3 Schematic illustration of PVDF structure diagram, Plot from ChemDraw.
1.2.3 PTFE
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a high performance material with excellent heat resistance, chemical inertness, and insulation stability. The structure of PTFE is shown in Figure 1.4. Since the radius of the fluorine atom is large, the surface of the whole polymer chain is covered by the fluorine atoms, which is the main reason for its physicochemical properties. The breakdown voltage, volume resistivity, and arc resistance are both higher.
The fluorine atom in PTFE is highly electronegative, and the symmetry of the tetrafluoroethylene monomer is excellent, so that the PTFE has a lower surface energy [12], so the PTFE separator is mainly prepared by electrospinning, which will be described later.
1.2.4 PU
Polyurethane (PU) is a synthetic polymer material, it can be resistant to a wide range of acids and bases and organic solvents. PU molecules consist of a soft polyol segment and a hard diisocyanate segment. There are a large number of ether bonds and urea bond and ester bond in the molecular structure of the polyurethane. The bond makes it easy to form hydrogen bonds between the polyurethane segments. The mechanical properties of PU can be controlled; the ratio of the hard segment to the soft segment can be controlled to obtain different properties. It also has the possibility of theoretically controlling the balance between porosity and mechanical properties. Polyurethane is a potential separator material.
Byung Gom Kim [13] et al. used PU separators in LI-O2 batteries to improve the poor cycle performance. It’s working principle was shown in Figure 1.5. The PU separators here are non-porous. This special feature prevents water and oxygen from penetrating into the Li surface. The cycle performance of the LI-O2 battery is improved, and 600 mAhg−1 can be maintained in 200 cycles, which is far superior to the conventional PE separator.
Figure 1.4 Schematic illustration of PTFE structural unit, Plot from ChemDraw.
Figure 1.5 Comparative schematic illustration of Li-O2 cells with (a) conventional polyolefin porous PE separator and (b) poreless PU separator.
Reproduced with permission from ref [13].
1.2.5 PVA
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is one of the few industrially produced water-soluble high molecular polymers that can be prepared from natural gas. Its properties are between rubber and plastic [14]. PVA has a polyhydroxyl structure and strong hydrogen bonds can be formed, which results in excellent adhesion, excellent mechanical properties, and membrane formation. It has good biocompatibility and low toxicity, so it is widely used in medicine, agriculture, forestry, chemical industry, environmental protection, and other fields. PVA membrane has excellent oil resistance (vegetable oil, animal oil, mineral oil) and organic solvent resistance, it is soluble in water (above 95°C), slightly soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide, insoluble in gasoline, kerosene, vegetable oil, benzene, toluene, dichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, acetone, ethyl acetate, methanol, ethylene glycol, etc.
Xiao [15] et al. used polyvinyl alcohol as a membrane-forming material to prepare a microporous lithium-ion battery separator by phase transfer method. The inside of the separator was a network pore structure, and the electrolyte had good wettability and showed good battery charge and discharge performance. PVA separators are mostly prepared by electrospinning, which will be described in detail later.
1.2.6 Cellulose
The chemical structure of cellulose is a macromolecule formed by a glucose-based unit linked by a β-1,4-glycosidic bond. Each glucose unit has a hydroxyl group on C2, C3, and C6. At normal temperature, cellulose is insoluble in water and insoluble in common organic solvents such as alcohol, ether, acetone, benzene, etc. It is also insoluble in dilute alkali solutions. It has good biocompatibility, is non-toxic and harmless, is easy to degrade, and can be regenerated. It is a chemical raw material with great application value [16].
Although cellulose itself has certain disadvantages and cannot meet the performance requirements of the separator, cellulose contains a large amount of polar hydroxyl groups, which leads to the modification of cellulose by catalytic oxidation, hydrogenation, etherification, esterification, etc., to get different cellulose product attributes.
Luo [17] et al. prepared cellulose acetate porous pore separator by phase transfer method. The separator has a network pore structure, high porosity, strong electrolyte affinity, good wettability, and good performance under high temperature conditions. The electrochemical performance is superior to that of polyolefin separators. There will be hopes for practical application in the future.
1.2.7 Other Polymer
Fossil energy is increasingly exhausted, and the use of renewable resources as a chemical industry has become one of the hotspots today. More and more renewable materials in nature have been researched and applied by scientists. Cellulose is a good example, and it is widely used in various chemical fields.
AA Izazi [18] et al. found that Red Seaweed Pulp has a small hollow fiber structure, which theoretically has good electrolyte wettability and good ion transport. The prepared Red Seaweed Pulp separator was used in a battery using aluminum as an anode, graphite as a cathode, and NaCl as an electrolyte. A small current was observed and the cycle performance was tested, proving its potential to be an environmentally friendly diaphragm.
1.3 Non-Woven Fabric Separator
Polyolefin separators have excellent chemical stability and low cost, but their thermal stability and wettability are poor. The new non-woven membrane effectively improves this situation. The non-woven membrane has a three-dimensional pore structure, and the electrolyte has good wettability and retention. However, the simple non-woven membrane has a large surface area and a wide distribution range, it is easy to cause internal short circuit of the battery by direct use. Therefore, the non-woven membrane is generally optimized for its surface. A common method is to use a polymer coating or ceramic powder for compounding. The preparation method of the nonwoven fabric separator includes an electrostatic spinning method, a solution extrusion method, a melt blowing method, a papermaking process, etc.
1.3.1 PET
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is derived from the dehydration condensation reaction of ethylene terephthalate. Ethylene terephthalate is obtained by esterification of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol. The structure of PET is shown in Figure 1.6.
PET is a highly crystalline polymer with a smooth surface. It has excellent physical and mechanical properties.
Jeong [19] et al. placed PET nonwoven fabric in PVDF-HFP/acetone solution and prepared PVDF-HFP/PET composite separator by phase transfer method. This method explores the effect of water content in the system on porosity. The coated separator has a narrow pore size distribution and a small pore diameter. Its electrochemical performance is stable, and its tensile strength and thermal stability are high.
Choi [20] et al. selected SiO2 particles with different particle sizes and coated them on the surface of PET non-woven fabric with PVDF-HFP as binder to investigate the effects of different particle sizes on electrochemical performance. The results show that the SiO2 particle small particle size (40 nm) separator has superior electrochemical performance compared to the large particle size (530 nm). The small particle size separator has a high porosity and is available, so that the electrochemical performance is superior.
Kun Peng [21] et al. modified the macroporous structure of PET non-woven fabric separator by electrostatic spinning PSA nanofibers, and obtained a new PSA/PET/PSA composite separator. The pore size of the new separator is between 150 and 200 nm, and the distribution is narrow. The thermal stability is good, the electrolyte retention rate is high, the tensile strength is superior to that of the electrostatic spinning PSA separator, and the electrochemical performance is excellent.
Figure 1.6 Schematic illustration of PET structural unit, Plot form ChemDraw.
1.3.2 PAN
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is obtained by radical polymerization of mono-meric acrylonitrile. The acrylonitrile units in the macromolecular chain are connected in a head-to-tail bond. It has good thermal stability, and its melting point is 318°C. It is suitable for the preparation of non-woven separator, but the retention rate of PAN to electrolytes is low, so it is necessary to obtain more excellent properties by subsequent functional group modification, coating modification etc.
Zhang [22] et al. used a silica aerogel modified polyacrylonitrile non-woven fabric separator to hydrolyze the nitrile group with NaOH/ water solution, and then, the hydrophilic silica aerogel was grown in the modified polyacrylonitrile non-woven fabric surface. Its synthesis method is shown in the Figure 1.7. This product does not shrink at 280°C for half an hour and has good thermal stability and high safety. The membrane has good wetting properties with EC/PC, EC/DMC and diglyme electrolytes, ionic conductivity up to 1.98 mS cm−1, and good cycle stability. Coulombic efficiency is superior to commercial PP membranes.
Figure 1.7 Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of high-safety M-PSA separator.
Reproduced with permission from ref [22].
PAN is also often blended with PMMA to modify the defects of low PAN electrolyte retention. PMMA has good compatibility with electrolyte, but there is brittleness problem. The advantages of the two are complementary. Mousavi [23] et al. prepare different compositions of PMMA/PAN nanofiber membrane by electrostatic spinning method, which has higher ionic conductivity (7.02 mS/cm).
Ya Li [24] et al. blended the PMMA/PAN with electrostatic spinning and then modified it with a glass fiber membrane as the substrate. This membrane has good cycle performance when used in Li-S batteries. It has excellent resistance to self-discharge. This method is simple in preparation, low in cost, and has good research prospects.
1.3.3 PVDF
PVDF is a high-performance polymer material that can be used as a separator. The PVDF separator can be prepared by an electrostatic spinning method while introducing some organic and inorganic components. The separator has a high porosity, has a large number of interconnected pore structures, and is excellent in thermal stability and chemical stability, but the polymer separator prepared by the electrostatic spinning method has poor mechanical properties compared to the polyolefin separator.
QS Fu [25] et al. introduced PMMA and nano-SiO2 into an electrospun PVDF separator to prepare a PVDF/PMMA/SiO2 composite separator. The addition of PMMA and nano-SiO2 reduced the crystallinity of PVDF and improved its mechanical strength and impact resistance. The tensile strength reached 32.69 Mpa and the elongation at break reached 137.5%. At the same time, the composite separator exhibits high ionic conductivity and lower interfacial resistance than the Celgard separator.
1.3.4 PTFE
PTFE can be prepared by electrostatic spinning method.
Li [26] et al. used electrospinning technology to prepare a separator with PVA: PTFE mass ratio of 3:7. It has a unique network structure, high porosity, and high liquid electrolyte absorption rate. This property leads to higher ionic conductivity. This material has good heat resistance and good electrochemical stability. Its rate performance and the first charge and discharge capacity are better than Celgard 2325.
1.3.5 PVA
Hyun-Woo Kim [27] et al. blended PVA with PAA for use in Znic (Zn)-air batteries. First, PVA/PAA nanofiber mat was prepared by electrostatic spinning as an anion-conducting continuous phase, and then nafion bearing pendant sulfonate groups were impregnated as an anion-repelling continuous phase. This separator can be used as a selective ion transport channel to transport OH− and Zn(OH)2−4 , thereby improving battery cycle performance.
Hyeon-Ji lee [28] et al. impregnated electrostatic spinning PEI separators with PVA solution for Znic (Zn)-air batteries. After being swelled with electrolyte solution, ion size (OH− vs. Zn(OH)2−4 ) dependent conductive pathways is provided. This unique physicochemical structure inhibits Zn(OH)2 penetration without compromising OH-ion conductivity. This is the key to maintaining cycle capacity. The second discharge capacity (213 mAhg−1) of this membrane is 7 times that of Celgard 3501 (34 mAhg−1).
1.3.6 PI
Polyimide (PI) is obtained by polycondensation of 1,2,4,5-benzenetetra-carboxylic dianhydride (PMDA) and diaminodiphenyl ether (DDE) in a strong polar solvent, followed by casting into a film and imidization. It has excellent performance. The structure of PI is shown in Figure 1.8.
The polyimide molecular chain contains a large number of aromatic rings, which makes it highly rigid and has strong intermolecular action and high mechanical properties. Its decomposition temperature generally exceeds 500°C, sometimes even higher, it has good chemical stability and humidity resistance. Polyimide materials are generally insoluble in organic solvents, resistant to corrosion and hydrolysis, good dielectric properties. The dielectric constant is less than 3.5. If a fluorine atom is introduced into the molecular chain, the dielectric constant can be lowered to about 2.5, the dielectric loss is 10, the dielectric strength is 100 to 300 kV/mm, and the volume resistance is 1,015–1,017 Ω·cm. Therefore, it is considered to be an ideal choice for high temperature lithium-ion battery separators.
Figure 1.8 Schematic illustration of PI structural unit,Plot from ChemDraw.
Polyimides are usually prepared by electrospinning. Song Kedong [29] et al. disperse graphene oxide in a solution of polyimide and then prepare a nonwoven fabric separator by electrostatic spinning. The separator is stable at high temperatures and does not degrade at 280°C. This method improves the mechanical properties of electrostatic spinning PI separator and has high capacity at different discharge rates.
Wang Shanshan [30] et al. prepared a PI membrane by a papermaking process and then adsorbed bacterial cellulose on the membrane. Compared with the Celgard 2340 separator, this membrane has an electrolyte absorption rate of 108.72%, an increase of 80.5%. It has excellent thermal stability and does not shrink at 200°C.
1.4 Polymer Electrolyte
The polymer electrolyte are to separate the cathode and the anode to prevent short circuits, while at the same time ensuring that lithium ions can shuttle. The polymer electrolyte separator can be classified into a solid polymer electrolytes and gel polymer electrolytes. The solid polymer electrolyte is usually selected from PAN, PPC, EC, PVDF, silicon-based materials, etc. The polymer electrolyte itself has a high degree of crystallinity, which limits its ionic conductivity, resulting in a high internal resistance. The gel polymer electrolyte has lower crystallinity and lower internal resistance than the solid polymer electrolyte. Usually, PEO, PMMA, PVDF, and other materials are selected.
Cai Ming [31] et al. prepared TPU/PI film by electrospinning. In this study, TPU and PI were co-spun, and a side-by-side fiber of TPU and PI was prepared. The mechanical properties of this material are enhanced and the thermal stability is excellent. The electrolyte absorption and ionic conductivity of this polymer electrolyte are 10 times and 4 times that of the PE separator. The separator has low internal resistance, good cycle stability, and high rate performance.
Chen Tao [32] et al. deposited 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)-imide, (EMI-TFSI) on the basis of poly(vinylidene fluoride-cohexafluoropropylene) (P(VDF-HFP)), prepared a novel ionic liquid-immobilized polymer electrolyt. It used in dendrite-free Li metal batteries. This gel electrolyte reduces the shuttle and self-discharge of poly-sulfides. It can inhibit the growth of lithium dendrites and improve the cycle stability and rate performance of Li-S batteries.
Ni Wei [33] et al. added reversible siloxane-terminated electroactive polyfluorenes to highly porous PVDF membrane separators. This polymer electrolyte has high thermal stability. It can also provide over-charge protection for lithium-ion batteries at high voltages. In the first 50 cycles when the cell was cycled at 0.5C and overcharged by 50% of the initial discharge capacity, the discharge capacity is basically unchanged.
Luming Gu [34] et al. added nanoparticle (nano-ZnO) as a pore-forming agent and filler to poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVdFHFP) and a complex cross-linked polymer to prepare a porous cross-linked gel polymer electrolyte separator. This study explores an optimal ratio by adding diameter and different amounts of nano-ZnO particles. Finally, 30-nm nanoparticles and 18% mass fraction were found to get the best performance. This membrane has high mechanical strength and its ionic conductivity is higher than that of the PE membrane (1.4 mS cm−1 vs. 0.73 mS cm−1).
1.5 Conclusions
Although the traditional polyolefin separator has good electrochemical stability and mechanical properties, it has poor absorption capacity for electrolytes, and shrinkage or even safety accidents occur at high temperatures. The modification of the diaphragm and the exploration of the new diaphragm are the development direction of the lithium-ion battery separator. At the same time, we must also focus on transforming scientific research into technology that can be applied in practice, so as to effectively promote the development of lithium-ion battery separators.
At the same time, the demand for lithium-ion batteries is constantly changing, and the performance requirements for separators are also increasing, which is an opportunity and a challenge for the diaphragm industry.
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