Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 475

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

A guide to the extraction, isolation and purification of bioactive compounds from agricultural wastes, and their applications Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes offers a guide to the many uses of agricultural wastes from the production of major food types including tea, coffee, cacao, cashew, fruit and vegetables, wine, edible oils, sugar, starch and more. Written by a noted expert in the field, the text explores the various methods for extraction, isolation and purification of bioactive compounds from agricultural wastes. The author also makes recommendations concerning the most effective applications of bioactive compounds and discusses the economics and market for recovered bioactive compounds. Recent studies reveal that bioactive compounds have been directly linked to biological activity such as antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-cardiovascular capacities, etc. In particular, agricultural wastes are considered as potential and inexpensive sources of bioactive compounds. Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes fills a gap in the literature by providing a text that explores this important topic and examines the: * Sustainability of waste management and shows how to extract, isolate and purify bioactive compounds from agricultural wastes, and their most effective application * Wide range of agricultural food produce that can be processed and the special techniques used for recovering the bioactive compounds from these sources * Health applications of bioactive compounds that have been directly linked to pharmacological activities including antioxidant, anticancer, and more Designed for use by researchers and producers in the agriculture, pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals, Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes contains the knowledge, history and definition, classification and synthesis, and extraction techniques of bioactive compounds.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

List of Contributors

About the Editor

Preface

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1: Potential, Uses and Future Perspectives of AgriculturalWastes

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Potential of Agricultural Wastes

1.3 Uses of Agricultural Wastes and Recovered Bioactive Compounds

1.4 Future Perspectives on the Use of Agricultural Wastes and Recovered Bioactive Compounds

1.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Bioactive Compounds and Extraction Techniques

2.1 History and Definition of Bioactive Compounds

2.2 Classification and Synthesis of Bioactive Compounds

2.3 Extraction of Bioactive Compounds

2.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 3: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Tea, Coffee, Cacao and Cashew Wastes

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Tea Wastes

3.3 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Coffee Wastes

3.4 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Cacao Wastes

3.5 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Cashew Wastes

3.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 4: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Fruit and Vegetable Wastes

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Bioactive Compound Resources in Fruit and Vegetable Wastes

4.3 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Fruit and Vegetable Wastes

4.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Wine Wastes

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Wine Wastes

5.3 Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Edible Oil Wastes

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Edible Oil Processing and Byproducts

6.3 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Edible Oil Wastes

6.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Cane Sugar Wastes

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Chemical Composition and Functional Properties of Sugarcane

7.3 Cane Sugar Production and Its Byproducts/Wastes

7.4 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Cane Sugar Byproducts/Wastes

7.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Starch Wastes

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Recovery of Bioactive Compounds from Potato Wastes

8.3 Recovery of Bioactive Compounds from Rice and Wheat Wastes

8.4 Recovery of Bioactive Compounds from Other Starch Wastes

8.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Other Agricultural Wastes

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Pepper Waste

9.3 Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Onion Waste

9.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 10: Economics and Market for Recovered Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Economic Analysis of Recovered Bioactive Compounds

10.3 Market Analysis of Recovered Bioactive Compounds

10.4 Conclusion

References

Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Potential, Uses and Future Perspectives of AgriculturalWastes

Figure 1.1 Major agricultural sectors in the recovery of bioactive compounds.

Figure 1.2 Chemical structures of (a) hydroxybenzoic and (b) hydroxycinnamic acids.

Figure 1.3 Chemical structures of major classes of flavonoids.

Figure 1.4 Chemical structures of some phenolic compounds from OMW.

Figure 1.5 Recovery of phenolic compounds from OMW

Figure 1.6 Recovery and concentration of phenolic components from wine byproducts.

Figure 1.7 Chemical structure of lignin secoisolariciresinol from flaxseed and its conversion products.

Figure 1.8 Chemical structures of phytochemicals withanti-aging potential.

Chapter 2: Bioactive Compounds and Extraction Techniques

Figure 2.1 Common pathways for secondary metabolite formation from primary metabolism.

Source:

Dewick (2001). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.

Figure 2.2 Supercritical CO

2

extraction system.

Source:

Garmus et al. (2014). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 2.3 Pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) system.

Source:

Richter et al. (1996). Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.

Chapter 3: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Tea, Coffee, Cacao and Cashew Wastes

Figure 3.1 Main steps in green and black tea production.

Figure 3.2 Chemical structure of (a) sesamin and (b) compound B isolated from methanol extract of tea seed oil.

Source:

Lee & Yen (2006). Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.

Figure 3.3 Experimental battery plant for solid–liquid extraction (SLE) of caffeine from tea waste with three extractors.

Source:

Senol & Aydin (2006). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 3.4 Flow diagram of the supercritical extraction set-up.

Source:

İçen & Gürü (2010). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of subcritical water extraction system. B, burette; CV, check valve; DN, drain; EC, extraction cell; F, fan; HX, heat exchanger; MF, microfilter; NV, needle valve; OV, oven; P, pump; PI, pressure indicator; PR, pressure regulator; RV, relief valve; TI, temperature indicator; TIC, temperature indicator controller; WI, water inlet; WO, water outlet.

Source:

Shalmashi et al. (2010). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.

Figure 3.6 Chemical structures of caffeine, theophylline, gallic acid and four major catechins in tea products and wastes. GA, gallic acid; EGCG, (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate; EGC, (−)-epigallocatechin; ECG, (−)-epicatechin-3-gallate; EC, (−)-epicatechin.

Source:

Cabrera et al. (2006). Reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis.

Figure 3.7 (a) Black tea stalk and (b) fibre obtained from black tea production.

Figure 3.8 Main steps in green coffee production.

Figure 3.9 Chemical structures of caffeine, trigonelline, chlorogenic acid and diterpene cafestol in coffee products and wastes.

Source:

Adapted from Nuhu (2014).

Figure 3.10 Spent coffee grounds discarded from soluble coffee production.

Figure 3.11 Main steps in soluble coffee production.

Figure 3.12 Flow diagram of a simplified supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) process.

Source:

Pereira & Meireles (2010). Reproduced with permission of Springer.

Figure 3.13 Main steps in cacao bean production.

Figure 3.14 Main steps in chocolate production

Figure 3.15 Main steps in cashew nut production.

Figure 3.16 Structures of the flavonoids in cashew apple.

Source:

de Brito et al. (2007). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 3.17 Chemical structures of the major phenolic constituents of cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL).

Source:

Paramashivappa et al. (2001). Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.

Figure 3.18 Flow chart for the separation of anacardic acid, cardol and cardanol from CNSL.

Source:

Paramashivappa et al. (2001). Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.

Figure 3.19 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) apparatus.

Source:

Smith et al. (2003). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 3.20 Flowchart of the SFE process.

Source:

Patel et al. (2006a). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Chapter 4: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Fruit and Vegetable Wastes

Figure 4.1 General process for the recovery of bioactive compounds from fruit and vegetable wastes. SE, solvent extraction; UAE, ultrasound-assisted extraction; MAE, microwave-assisted extraction; PLE, pressurised liquid extraction; SFE, supercritical fluid extraction; EAE, enzyme-assisted extraction.

Figure 4.2 Formation, growth and collapse of a cavitation bubble.

Source:

González-García et al. (2010), http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/1/28/htm. Used under CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.

Figure 4.3 Typical reactor configurations: (a) ultrasonic bath, (b) transducer dipped in batch configuration, (c) transducer immersed in a flow reactor.

Source:

González-García et al. (2010), http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/1/28/htm. Used under CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.

Figure 4.4 Pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) unit. ET, ethanol tank; HP, high-pressure pump; V1, V2, V3, valves; M, manometer; TC, temperature controller; EH, electric heater; EB, extraction bed; CF, collection flask.

Source:

Cardenas-Toro et al. (2015). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 4.5 SC-CO

2

extraction unit. 1, CO

2

cylinder; 2, refrigeration bath; 3, high-pressure pump; 4, CO

2

supply tank; 5, extractor; 6, peristaltic pump; 7, extract collection flask; 8, Porapak-Q volatiles trap; 9, gas flow metre; 10, volume totaliser; 11, heating bath.

Source:

Garcia-Mendoza et al. (2015). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Chapter 5: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Wine Wastes

Figure 5.1 Flow chart of while and red wine production.

Figure 5.2 Flow chart of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of polyphenols from grape bagasse.

Source:

Farías-Campomanes et al. (2013). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 5.3 Accumulated concentration of phenolic compounds in extracts from grape bagasse.

Source:

Farías-Campomanes et al. (2013). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 5.4 Chemical structures of the common classes of phenolics identified in grape pomace.

Source:

Fontana et al. (2013). Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.

Figure 5.5 (a) Experimental set-up for conventional extraction of high added-value molecules from plant matrices used at laboratory scale. (b) Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) principle and cavitational phenomenon. (c) Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) equipment used at laboratory scale, showing the molecular rotation mechanism.

Source:

Barba et al. (2016). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Chapter 6: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Edible Oil Wastes

Figure 6.1 Full processing flow chart for a general edible oil process.

Figure 6.2 Oleuropein and its derivatives after enzymatic hydrolysis by β-glycosidase and esterase.

Figure 6.3 Schematic principle of phenolic extraction by enzyme.

Figure 6.4 Optimised extraction procedure for the recovery of phenolic compounds from olive oil mill waste.

Figure 6.5 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) equipment. Liquid CO

2

is contained and kept at low temperature by a cooler (1) using a glycolic solution and pumped to a pre-heater by an air-pressure pump (2). The solvent is transferred to the pre-heater with CO

2

in different lines by an air-driven piston pump (3). At high pressure, the solvent and CO

2

are mixed together before being heated in a heat exchanger (4). The heated mixture passes through the extractor vessel (5), then goes to the other basket, which has a back pressure valve. Finally, liquid CO

2

expands into a tank, where the extracted substances are collected. The temperature and pressure of the extractor vessel aremonitored and controlled.

Figure 6.6 Process for producing concentrated and refined actives from tissues and byproducts of olive oils using membrane technologies. MF/UF, microfiltration/ultrafiltration; NF, nanofiltration; RO, reverse osmosis.

Figure 6.7 Recovery of sterols from deodorised oil distillate (DOD).

Figure 6.8 Recovery of sterols from deodorised oil distillate (DOD).

Figure 6.9 Recovery of sterols from deodorised oil distillate (DOD).

Figure 6.10 Recovery of sterols from deodorised oil distillate (DOD).

Figure 6.11 Recovery of phytosterols: (a) low sterol content and low-pH materials; (b) high sterol content and high-pH materials.

Figure 6.12 Two-step

in situ

reaction and distillation process for the purification of tocopherols and phytosterols from soybean DOD tocopherol/sterol concentrate.

Figure 6.13 Schematic diagram of an SC-CO

2

reaction unit.

Figure 6.14 Process for isolating soluble dietary fibres and valuable polyphenols from olive mill wastewater (OMW).

Figure 6.15 Scheme of the partial purification of mannitol in the hydrolysates obtained after hydrothermal treatment of alperujo.

Figure 6.16 Modified process for obtaining mannitol and its derivatives from two-phase olive mill wastewater (2POMW).

Chapter 7: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Cane Sugar Wastes

Figure 7.1 Simplified diagram of the main products and byproducts of the cane sugar processing industry.

Figure 7.2 Scheme of coumaric acid production by alkaline hydrolysis from sugarcane bagasse.

Chapter 8: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Starch Wastes

Figure 8.1 Flow chart of the potato chip and flour production process.

Figure 8.2 Products of the alkaline hydrolysis of chlorogenic acid.

Figure 8.3 Product of the hydrolysis of α-chaconine and α-solanine.

Figure 8.4 Flow chart of the rice and rice flour production process.

Figure 8.5 Chemical structures of some major phenolic compounds found in rice hull extracts.

Figure 8.6 Flow chart of the wheat flour production process.

Figure 8.7 Total phenolic content (TPC) of bran from two waxy wheat genotypes: (a) Svevo set and (b) N11 set.

Figure 8.8 Total phenolic content (TPC) of bran from four triticale genotypes: (a) GDS7 set (b) Trim set (c) Rhino set and (d) Rigel set.

Figure 8.9 Chemical structures of naturally occurring forms of vitamin E: tocopherols and tocotrienols.

Figure 8.10 Flow chart of the barley flour production process.

Figure 8.11 Flow chart of the maize flour production process.

Figure 8.12 Flow chart of the cassava flour production process.

Chapter 9: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Other Agricultural Wastes

Figure 9.1 Simplified flow sheet for obtaining extract from pepper waste through solid–liquid extraction (SLE). S/F, solvent to feed mass ratio.

Figure 9.2 Flow sheet of microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) in the recovery of bioactive compounds from discarded pepper fruits and a diagram of the equipment commonly used in MAE processes.

Figure 9.3 Flow sheet of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) in the recovery of bioactive compounds from pepper waste and a diagram of the equipment commonly used in UAE processes.

Figure 9.4 Simplified scheme of an extraction bed with continuous flow of a supercritical solvent (or mixture).

Figure 9.5 Diagrams of a supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) + ultrasound (US) unit and of the internal configuration of the extraction bed used in kinetic experiments. V-1, V-2, V-3, V-4 and V-5, control valves; V-6, micrometer valve; SV, safety valve; C, compressor; F, compressed air filter; CF, CO

2

filter; B1, cooling bath; P, pump; B2, heating bath; I-1 and I-2, pressure indicators; I-3, temperature indicator; IC-1, IC-2 and IC-3, indicators and controllers of ultrasound power, temperature of the extraction column and temperature of the micrometer valve, respectively; U, ultrasound probe; R, flow totaliser; F, flow meter; EC, extraction column.

Figure 9.6 Parts of the onion bulb considered as solid wastes.

Figure 9.7 Simplified flow sheet for obtaining extract from onion waste through conventional extraction.

Figure 9.8 Simplified flow sheet for obtaining extract from onion peels through subcritical water extraction (SWE).

Figure 9.9 Schematic drawing of extraction and particle formation on-line (EPFO) equipment.

Figure 9.10 Chemical structures of (a) quercetin, (b) quercetin-49-glycoside and (c) quercetin-3,49-diglycoside.

Figure 9.11 Process for dealing with cottonseed using a two-phase system (TPS).

Chapter 10: Economics and Market for Recovered Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes

Figure 10.1 Estimation of cost of manufacture (COM) for grape seed oil obtained by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) at different extraction times and extractor volumes, with grape seed cost at US$2.70/ton. Dotted lines are the selling prices of oil obtained by cold pressing in Brazilian (US$40) and international (US$80) markets.

Figure 10.2 (a) Estimated cost of manufacture (COM) for bagasse extracts with different capacities of extractor at 0.005 (▪), 0.05 (▴) and 0.5 (•) m

3

. (b) Contribution of each component in the COM for different extractor capacities and extraction times. FCI, fixed capital investment; CRM, cost of raw materials; COL, cost of labour; CUT, cost of utilities.

Figure 10.3 (a) Effect of extractor capacity on cost of manufacture (COM) for jabuticaba (

Myrciaria cauliflora

) skin extract using various methods. (b) Contribution of each component in the COM using combined ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and agitated-bed extraction (ABE) at different extractor capacities. CUT, cost of utilities; CRM, cost of raw materials; FCI, fixed capital investment; COL, cost of operational labour.

Figure 10.4 Cost of manufacture (COM) for jabuticaba (

Myrciaria cauliflora

) skin crude extract, anthocyanins and phenolic compounds using pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) with an extractor capacity of 0.3 m

3

across 9 minutes.

Figure 10.5 Cost of manufacture (COM) of extracts from

Anacardium occidentale

L. leaves using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) under different extraction conditions and with different extractor capacities.

Figure 10.6 Share of costs in the cost of manufacture (COM) of extracts from

Anacardium occidentale

L. leaves using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with different extractor capacities. FCI, fixed capital investment; CRM, cost of raw materials; COL, cost of operational labour; CUT, cost of utilities; CQC, cost of quality control.

Figure 10.7 Cost of manufacture (COM) of extracts from

Anacardium occidentale

L. leaves using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) under different experiment conditions: (a) 35 °C/300 bar and (b) 45 °C/200 bar.

Figure 10.8 (a) Cost of manufacture (COM) of curcuminoid-rich extracts as a function of processing time for different extractor vessel capacities, with the raw material price at US$7.91/kg. (b) Influence of the cost of raw materials on the COM of curcuminoid-rich extracts at an extractor capacity of 0.05 m

3

.

Figure 10.9 Potential markets for recovered bioactive compounds from agricultural wastes.

Figure 10.10 Global new active substances (NAS) available since 1996.

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Potential, Uses and Future Perspectives of AgriculturalWastes

Table 1.1 Total harvested crop area, total production and total gross agricultural production value in 2013.

Source:

FAOSTAT (2015)

Table 1.2 Total harvested area, total production and total gross production value of major crops in 2013, as well as their main residues/wastes.

Source:

FAOSTAT (2015)

Table 1.3 High added-value products from crop-based residues.

Source:

Santana-Méridas et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Springer

Table 1.4 High added-value products from processing-based residues.

Source:

Santana-Méridas et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Springer

Table 1.5 Phenolic compounds from agricultural byproducts.

Source:

Balasundram (2006). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 1.6 Molecule of interest, substrate from food wastes, extraction method and yield.

Source:

Baiano (2014), http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/19/9/14821/htm. Used under CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Table 1.7 Extraction yields, total extracTable polyphenols (TEP) and composition of crude extracts from agro-industrial wastes.

Source:

Moure et al. (2001). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 1.8 Antioxidant activity of extracts from agro-industrial residues.

Source:

Moure et al. (2001). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 1.9 Plants with anti-aging capacity and their mechanisms of action.

Source:

Mukherjee et al. (2011). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Chapter 3: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Tea, Coffee, Cacao and Cashew Wastes

Table 3.1 Mass proportion of cacao pod.

Source:

Nguyen (2014). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons

Chapter 4: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Fruit and Vegetable Wastes

Table 4.1 Bioactive compound resources from fruit and vegeTable wastes

Table 4.2 Bioactive compounds recovered from fruit and vegeTable wastes using different extraction methods

Chapter 5: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Wine Wastes

Table 5.1 Operational conditions and phenolic compounds in extracts from grape bagasse.

Source:

Farías-Campomanes et al. (2013). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 5.2 Content of phenolic compounds in the different residual parts of Albariño grape (mg/100 g of fresh weight).

Source:

Di Lecce et al. (2014). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 5.3 Phenolic compounds of extracts from chenin blanc, petit verdot and syrah pomace and rachis.

Source:

Melo et al. (2015). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 5.4 Antioxidant capacities of extracts from chenin blanc, petit verdot and syrah pomace and rachis.

Source:

Melo et al. (2015). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 5.5 Concentrations of total flavonoids (mg/g dried weight) and total polyphenols (mg GAE/g dried weight) extracted by two ternary solvent mixtures in different proportions.

Source:

Bosso et al. (2016). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 5.6 Total yield and phenolic, flavonoid and anthocyanin contents in extracts from four grape pomaces.

Source:

Xu et al. (2016). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons

Table 5.7 Tannins, condensed tannins and antioxidant activities in extracts from four grape pomaces.

Source:

Xu et al. (2016). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons

Table 5.8 Major individual flavonoids in extracts from four grape pomaces.

Source:

Xu et al. (2016). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons

Table 5.9 Solid–liquid extraction (SLE) techniques for phenolics from grape pomace.

Source:

Fontana et al. (2013). Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society

Table 5.10 Application of nonconventional technologies to improve the extraction of valuable compounds from winery wastes and byproducts.

Source:

Barba et al. (2016). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 5.11 Comparison of extracTable amounts of resveratrol in grape skins and seeds (µg/g fresh weight) among different genotype groups and different intended usages.

Source:

Li et al. (2006). Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society

Table 5.12 Dietary fibre content of five varieties of wine grape pomace skins. NS, neutral sugar; UA, uronic acid.

Source:

Deng et al. (2011). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Chapter 6: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Edible Oil Wastes

Table 6.1 Annual production of major vegeTable oils (million tonnes) from 2010/11 to 2015/16 (forecast).

Source:

USDA figures (May 2015)

Chapter 8: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Starch Wastes

Table 8.1 Phenolic compounds (mg/100 g fresh weight) extracted from potato peel using different organic solvents.

Source:

Singh & Saldaña (2011). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.2 Total phenolic content (TPC) (mg/100 g) from various potato peel varieties.

Source:

Singh & Saldaña (2011). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.3 Phenolic compounds (mg/100 g wet basic) extracted with subcritical water at different temperatures.

Source:

Singh & Saldaña (2011). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.4 Optimal conditions for extracting antioxidant compounds using three different extraction methods: DPPH radical scavenging activity (DPPH, mg TE/100 g dry weight), phenolic content (FCR, mg GAE/100 g dry weight) and caffeic acid content (CA, µg caffeic acid/g dry weight).

Source:

Wijngaard et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.5 Steroidal alkaloid contents under optimal ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) conditions in comparison to conventional solid–liquid extraction (SLE).

Source:

Hossain et al. (2014). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.6 Recovery of polyphenols from rice husk using different solvent extraction conditions.

Source:

Vadivel & Brindha (2015). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.7 Recovery of polyphenols from rice husk using acid and alkali hydrolysis.

Source:

Vadivel & Brindha (2015). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.8 Phenolic acid composition (µg/g sample) of waxy wheat bran.

Source:

Jonnala et al. (2010). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.9 Phenolic acid composition (µg/g sample) of triticales.

Source:

Jonnala et al. (2010). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.10 Chemical composition of oil extracted from durum wheat bran by supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO

2

) and Soxhlet.

Source:

Durante et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Springer

Table 8.11 Protein, lipid, ash (% wet basis), β-glucans (g/100 g wet basis) and tocols (mg/kg wet basis) in barley byproducts.

Source:

Panfili et al. (2008). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 8.12 Contents of individual tocols (mg/kg wet basis) and tocotrienol/tocopherol (T3/T) ratios in barley byproducts.

Source:

Panfili et al. (2008). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Chapter 9: Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Other Agricultural Wastes

Table 9.1 Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) conditions applied in the recovery of compounds from pepper waste

Table 9.2 Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) conditions applied in the recovery of compounds from pepper waste

Table 9.3 Composition (% of total peak area) of black pepper essential oil obtained by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and hydrodistillation.

Source:

Perakis et al. (2005). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 9.4 Bioactive compounds recovered from onion waste

Table 9.5 Tocopherol composition (mg/100 g cottonseed) and phytosterol composition (mg/100 g oil) after recovery of bioactive compounds from cotton waste.

Source:

Adapted from Mariod et al. (2011)

Chapter 10: Economics and Market for Recovered Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes

Table 10.1 Economic parameters used for the estimation of cost of manufacture (COM) of grape seed oil.

Source:

Prado et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.3 Economic evaluation of grape seed oil using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with raw material cost at US$2.70/ton.

Source:

Prado et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.4 Estimated cost of manufacture (COM) for jabuticaba (

Myrciaria cauliflora

) skin extract using UAE, ABE, combined UAE and ABE, Soxhlet with ethanol and Soxhlet with acidified ethanol_pH 3.

Source:

Santos et al. (2010). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.5 Cost of manufacture (COM) for jabuticaba (

Myrciaria cauliflora

) skin crude extract, phenolic compounds and anthocyanins using pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) with different extractor capacities over 9 minutes.

Source:

Santos et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.6 Contribution of each component to the cost of manufacture (COM) of jabuticaba (

Myrciaria cauliflora

) skin extracts using pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) with an extractor capacity of 0.3 m

3

.

Source:

Santos et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.7 Economic parameters used to estimate the cost of manufacture (COM) of extracts from pressed palm fibre (PPF).

Source:

Cardenas-Toro et al. (2015). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.8 Cost of manufacture (COM) for carotenoid-rich extract obtained from pressed palm fibre (PPF) by Soxhlet extraction (LPSE-SOX), percolation (LPSE-PE) and pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) with extraction units of 2 × 0.005 m

3

, 2 × 0.05 m

3

and 2 × 0.5 m

3

.

Source:

Cardenas-Toro et al. (2015). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.9 Economic parameters used to estimate the cost of manufacture (COM) of extracts from

Anacardium occidentale

L. leaves using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE).

Source:

Leitão et al. (2013). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.10 Economic parameters used to estimate the cost of manufacture (COM) of crude extracts from jussara pulp (

Euterpe edulis

) using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and agitated-bed extraction (ABE).

Source:

Vieira et al. (2013). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.11 Share of costs in the cost of manufacture (COM) of crude extracts from jussara pulp (

Euterpe edulis

) using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and agitated-bed extraction (ABE).

Source:

Vieira et al. (2013). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.12 Economic parameters used to estimate the cost of manufacture (COM) of curcuminoids from deflavoured turmeric (

Curcuma longa

L.) using pressurised liquids.

Source:

Osorio-Tobón et al. (2014). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.13 Economic parameters used to estimate the cost of manufacture (COM) of phenolic-rich extracts from Brazilian plants using supercritical and subcritical fluid extraction.

Source:

Veggi et al. (2014). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.14 Cost of manufacture of crude extracts (COM

EY

) and of the phenolic-rich fraction (COM

TPC

) using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with different solvent systems and with extractor capacities of 0.005, 0.05 and 0.5 m

3

.

Source:

Veggi et al. (2014). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.15 Shares in the cost of manufacture (COM) of Brazilian plant extracts using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with different solvent systems and with extractor capacities of 0.005, 0.05 and 0.5 m

3

.

Source:

Veggi et al. (2014). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Table 10.16 Estimated global market size for functional foods.

Source:

Adapted from Malla et al. (2013)

Table 10.17 Region and leading country spending on pharmaceuticals.

Source:

Adapted from Aitken & Kleinrock (2015)

Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes

Edited by Van Tang Nguyen

University of Newcastle, Australia Nha Trang University, Vietnam

This edition first published 2017

© 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Nguyen, Van Tang, 1979- editor.

Title: Recovering bioactive compounds from agricultural wastes / edited by Van Tang Nguyen.

Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |

Identifiers: LCCN 2017009461 (print) | LCCN 2017018525 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119168836 (ePDF) | ISBN 9781119168843 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119168829 (cloth)

Subjects: LCSH: Bioactive compounds. | Agricultural wastes-Recycling.

Classification: LCC QP517.B44 (ebook) | LCC QP517.B44 R43 2017 (print) | DDC 363.72/88-dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017009461

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: Courtesy of Van Tang Nguyen

This book is dedicated to my dad Van Tac Nguyen, my mom Thi Thuy Duong, my wife Thi Le Nguyen, my son Trong Nhan Nguyen and my daughter Dan Thanh Nguyen.

List of Contributors

Md. Ariful Alam

Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Pahang, Malaysia

Fiorella P. Cárdenas-Toro

Department of Engineering,Section of Industrial Engineering,Pontifical Catholic University of Peru,San Miguel, Lima, Peru

Sahena Ferdosh

Department of Plant Science,Faculty of Science,International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM),Kuantan Campus,Pahang, Malaysia

Kashif Ghafoor

Department of Food Science and Nutrition,King Saud University,Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Rukshana Akter Happy

Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology,Faculty of Basic Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences,University of Science and Technology Chittagong (USTC),Foy's Lake, Chittagong, Bangladesh

Thang Trung Khong

Nha Trang University, Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa, Vietnam

Van Tang Nguyen

School of Environmental and Life Sciences,Faculty of Science and Information Technology,University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, NSW, Australia

and

Department of Food Technology,Faculty of Food Technology,Nha Trang University,Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa, Vietnam

Hong Ngoc Thuy Pham

School of Environmental and Life Sciences,Faculty of Science and Information Technology,University of Newcastle,Ourimbah, NSW, Australia

and

Department of Postharvest Technology,Faculty of Food Technology,Nha Trang University,Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa, Vietnam

Md. Zaidul Islam Sarker

Department of Pharmaceutical Technology,Faculty of Pharmacy,International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM),Pahang, Malaysia

Nguyen Thi Thao

Department of Quality Management,School of Biotechnology and Food Technology,Hanoi University of Science and Technology,Hanoi, Vietnam

Hoang Quoc Tuan

Department of Quality Management,School of Biotechnology and Food Technology,Hanoi University of Science and Technology,Hanoi, Vietnam

Giovani L. Zabot

Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM),Cachoeira do Sul, RS, Brazil

About the Editor

Van Tang Nguyen was born in Hai Duong province, Vietnam. He obtained an Engineer degree in Food Technology from the Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Vietnam. He then received a Master's degree in Food Science from the National Taiwan Ocean University, Taiwan and a PhD in Food Science from the University of Newcastle, Australia. He has worked as a Demonstrator in Food Science and Human Nutrition at the School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Information Technology, University of Newcastle, Australia. He also works as a Lecturer in Food Technology at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Technology, Nha Trang University, Vietnam. His research has focused on natural bioactive compounds, pharmacological activity, value-added products and functional foods. His current expertise is in the extraction, isolation and quantification of bioactive compounds from natural materials and the determination of biological activity in vitro and in vivo.

Van Tang Nguyen has been interested in the use of agricultural residues/byproducts from the processing and production of food products for the production of value-added products for over a decade. He has published more than 25 research papers in peer-reviewed journals (Food Science, Chemical Papers, Drying Technology, Chemistry and Biodiversity, Industrial Crops and Products, Food Processing and Preservation, etc.) and has authored/edited five book chapters and five books in the field of Food Science and Technology. He has presented over 15 scientific reports at international conferences and served as the reviewer for many reputed journals (Food Science, Food Biochemistry, Pharmaceutical Biology, Industrial Crops and Products, Current Pharmaceutical Research, and so on). He is currently Editor-in-Chief and Founder of Bioactive Research and a member of the Institute of Food Technologist (USA) and Pancreatic Cancer Research Group (Australia).

Van Tang Nguyen is married to Thi Le Nguyen. They have two children, Trong Nhan Nguyen and Dan Thanh Nguyen.

Preface

Agriculture is regarded as one of the most important fields of human industry, due to its role in ensuring global food security for over 7 billion people around the world and supporting other industries. Agricultural production creates a great amount of residues/byproducts, which are considered ‘wastes’. Interestingly, agricultural wastes contain many valuable bioactive compounds, possessing a wide range of potential pharmacological properties, which have great contributions to make in related industries, such as nutraceuticals/functional foods, medicines, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. However, they are still underutilised as abundant, inexpensive, renewable and sustainable sources of natural bioactive compounds.

In order to increase the value of agricultural production, reduce pollution risks and promote the development of related industries, we have prepared Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes to introduce the potential of agricultural wastes obtaining from the different sectors of agricultural production, such as tea, coffee, cacao, cashew, fruit and vegetable, wine, edible oil, starch and sugar, and to present, discuss and recommend various techniques for the extraction, isolation, purification and application of these bioactive compounds in different fields. We also discuss the economic and market analysis of agricultural wastes and bioactive compounds derived from these sources, based on a number of actual recovery processes to be established at pilot and industrial scales. Hopefully, this book will be a helpful reference for researchers, producers and traders in agricultural production and related industries.

Van Tang Nguyen, Editor University of Newcastle, Australia Nha Trang University, Vietnam

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my special thanks to John Wiley & Sons for their suggestions and effective cooperation in the preparation and completion of the manuscript of this book. I also sincerely acknowledge the reviewers for their comments on the proposal. I kindly thank all the authors for their valuable contribution to the chapters; their effort is highly appreciated and adequately recorded in this book. Last but not least, I would like to thank my colleagues, friends and family for their support, encouragement and special interest in the preparation and publication of this book.

Chapter 1Potential, Uses and Future Perspectives of AgriculturalWastes

Van Tang Nguyen

School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Information Technology, University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, NSW, Australia

Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Technology, Nha Trang University, Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa, Vietnam

1.1 Introduction

Agriculture has a developmental history going back thousands of years and is considered one of the most important fields of human knowledge because of its special role in ensuring global food security for over 7 billion people around the world. It also has an important role in supporting and promoting the development of other industries, such as nutraceuticals, medicines, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. In particular, agriculture produces a large amount of wastes, containing a significant quantity of valuable bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonols, flavanols, flavonoids, procyanidins, proanthocyanidins, anthocyanins, glycosides, carotenoids, saponins, tannins, alkaloids, sterols, steroids, triterpenes, quinones, peptides and carbohydrates, which have been proved to possess a variety of biological activities, including antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anticancer, antidiarrhoeal, antihypertensive, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, anticholesterol and anticardiovascular properties (Figure 1.1) (Balasundram et al., 2006; Santana-Méridas et al., 2012). However, the utilisation of agricultural wastes as an abundant, biorenewable and low-cost source for the production of high value-added products is still under investigation, with limited outcomes. Therefore, research is needed into the application of environmentally friendly traditional and advanced techniques with low production costs in the extraction, isolation and purification of phytochemical compounds from agricultural wastes in high yields and at maximal quality. This strategy will increase the value of agricultural wastes and reduce pollution risks for the environment in both the short and the long term, and will enable sustainable development, one of the most important goals of modern global agricultural production.

Figure 1.1 Major agricultural sectors in the recovery of bioactive compounds.

1.2 Potential of Agricultural Wastes

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAOSTAT, 2015), the total harvested crop area worldwide in 2013 was about 4.36 billion ha, producing approximately 21.70 billion tonnes, with a total gross production value of US$24 932.32 billion (Table 1.1). In Asia, the total harvested crops area was 1.82 billion ha (41.81% of total), producing 9.94 billion tonnes (45.80%), with a total gross production value of US$15 543.06 billion (62.34%).

Table 1.1 Total harvested crop area, total production and total gross agricultural production value in 2013. Source: FAOSTAT (2015)

Location

Total harvested area (billion ha)

Total production (billion tonnes)

Total gross production value (billion US$)

Africa

0.71

1.90

1295.47

Americas

0.89

5.22

3503.55

Asia

1.82

9.94

15543.06

Europe

0.86

4.43

4350.89

Oceania

0.08

0.21

239.35

Total

4.36

21.70

24932.32

Table 1.2 Total harvested area, total production and total gross production value of major crops in 2013, as well as their main residues/wastes. Source: FAOSTAT (2015)

Crop

Total harvested area (million ha)

Total production (million tonnes)

Total gross production value (billion US$)

Main residues/wastes

Tea, coffee, cacao and cashew

Tea

3.52

5.35

22.22

Fruit, flower, old leaves, dust, stalk and fibre

Coffee

10.14

8.92

16.37

Outer skin, pulp/mucilage, parchment/hull/husk, silver skin and spent coffee grounds

Cacao

10.01

4.59

6.95

Leaves, shell, husk, pulp/mucilage and hull

Cashew

5.46

4.44

2.82

cashew apple, outer shell, inner skin and nut shell

Fruits and vegetables

Fruit fresh nes

5.01

33.52

13.39

Peels, pulps, seeds, stalks and skins

Vegetable fresh nes

19.79

280

135.42

Leaves, stems, peels, skins and seeds

Wine production crops

Grapes

7.16

77.18

78.50

Pomace (seeds, skins), leaves, stalks, rachis and lees

Edible oil production crops

Palm fruit

18.05

266

31.34

Shells, husks and fronts

Olives

10.31

20.40

19.47

Leaves and stalks

Coconuts

12.07

62.45

10.47

Shells, husks and fronts

Soybeans

112

276

131.26

Straw and pods

Sunflower seed

25.45

44.55

26.08

Foliage and stems

Rapeseed

36.50

72.70

53.13

Straw

Cotton seed

n/r

47.07

9.75

Stalks

Sugar production crops

Beet

4.37

247

14.04

Roots, pulps and scums

Cane

26.94

1910

108.55

Leaves, tops and bagasse

Others

0.12

0.93

nr

Pulps and bagasse

Starch production crops

Rice

165

741

429.27

Straw, husk and bran

Wheat

219

716

242.25

Straw

Maize

185

1020

382.34

Straw, stalks and cobs

Potatoes

19.34

376

149.51

Foliage, tops, peels and pulps

Cassava

20.39

277

47.31

Peels, stalks and bagasse

Barley

49.15

144

36.30

Straw

Other crops

Beans, dry

29.05

22.81

16.06

Straw and pods

Beans, green

1.54

21.37

40.53

Straw and pods

Pepper

0.48

0.47

2.88

Leaves and stems

Seed cotton

32.17

73.05

82.62

Stalk

n/r, not reported

Table 1.3 High added-value products from crop-based residues. Source: Santana-Méridas et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Springer

Activity

Species

Waste type

Bioactive compounds

Applications

Horticultural production

Melon

Cucumis melo

Aerial biomass

Xanthan

Rheology modifier, food additive

Broccoli

Brassica oleracea

Aerial biomass

Glucosinolates, phenolic acids, flavonoids, vitamin C

Antioxidant

Carrot

Daucus carota

Roots

Hydroxycinnamic acid, anthocyanins

Antioxidant

Spinach

Spinacea oleracea

Leaves

Flavonoids

Antioxidant

Pepper

Capsicum annuum

Leaves, stems

Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory

Cucumber

Cucumis sativus

Leaves

Isovitexin, saponarin, vicenin-2, apigenin

Antioxidant

Tomato

Lycopersicum sculentum

Leaves

Solanesol

Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory

Cereal production

Wheat

Triticum

sp.

Straw

Xylose, polyphenols

Food ingredient

Others

sp.

Straw

Lignin

Value-added products

Tuber production

Potato

Solanum tuberosum

Leaves

Solanesol

Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory

Fruit production

Ginja cherry

Prunus cerasus

Stems, leaves

Polyphenols (catechin > 70%)

Antioxidant, antimicrobial

Pineapple

Ananus comosus

Straw (leaves)

Fibre

Polymer reinforcement

Grass production

Ryegrass

Lolium perenne

Grass chaff

β-adenosine

Mushroom production

Miscanthus

Miscanthus

× giganteus

Biomass

Lignin, phenols, sterols

Fuel, antioxidant, anticholesterol

Oil production

Olive

Olea europaea

Leaves

Polyphenols

Antimicrobial, antioxidant

Medicinal and condimentary herbs

Creosote bush

Larrea tridentate

Leaves

Poly and monomeric phenols

Antifungal

Saffron

Crocus sativus

Leaves

Kaempferol, orientin, vitexin

Antioxidant

Table 1.4 High added-value products from processing-based residues. Source: Santana-Méridas et al. (2012). Reproduced with permission of Springer

Activity/crops

Species

Waste type

Bioactive compounds

Activity/applications

Fresh fruit industry

Mango

Mangifera indica

Peels, pits/seeds

Tannins, vanillin, mangiferin

Antioxidant

Apple

Malus domestica

Pomace (peels, core, seeds, calyces, stems)

Pectin, catechins, hydroxycinnamates, phloretin glycosides, quercetin glycosides, procyanidins

Antioxidant

Watermelon

Citrullus lanatus

Rinds, flesh

Lycopene, citrulline, phenolic compounds

Antioxidant, food additives

Rambutan

Nephelium lappaceum

Peels

Ellagitannins

Antioxidant

Mangosteen

Garcinia mangostana

Pericarps

Proanthocyanidins

Antioxidant

Guajava

Psidium guajava

Bagasse

Epicatechin, quercetin, syringic acid, mirycetin

Antimicrobial

Banana

Musa sapientum

Dried leaves, pseudostems

Sugars

Fermentation

Peels

α-amilasa, laccasa, citric acid

Enzyme production

Lemon

Citrus limon

Peels

Flavanoids, saponins, tannins, alkaloids, steroids, triterpenes

Antimicrobial

Essential oil

Nematostatic activity

Limonene

Insecticidal (larvicidal)

Orange

Citrus sinensis

Peels

Citric acid

Additive, detergent, cosmetic

Essential oil

Nematostatic activity

Pineapple

Ananus comosus

Peels, core, crowns, stems

Bromelain

Food and textile industries, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhea, digestive

Pomegranate

Punica granatum

Husks

Poly- and monomeric phenols

Antifungal

Grapefruit

Citrus paradisi

Peels

Essential oil

Nematostatic activity

Mandarin

Citrus reticulata

Peels

Phenolic compounds

Antioxidant, antimicrobial

Papaya

Carica papaya

Peels, seeds

Phenolic compounds

Antioxidant, antimicrobial

Bergamot

Citrus bergamia

White tissues

Brutieridin, melitidin

Anticholesterolaemic

Seeds

Limonoids

Antiviral

Satsuma mandarin

Citrus unshiu

Peels

Hesperidin, narirutin, quercetagetin

Antioxidant

Citrus fruits

Citrus

sp.

Seeds, molasses

Limonoids

Anticancer

Peels

Flavonoids (hesperidin, diosmin, narirutin, didymin, sinesetin), carotenoids (violaxanthin, β-crytoxanthin, β-carotene), vitamin C, essential oils (limonene), minerals

Antioxidant

Horticultural industry

Artichoke

Cynara scolymus

Bracts, receptacles, stems, juice, heads

Neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeoylquinic acids

Antioxidant

Beet

Beta vulgaris

Stalks

Azelaic acid

Antimicrobial

Onion

Allium cepa

Fresh peeling

Condensed tannins, flavonoids, quercetin aglycone

Antioxidant, textile dyes

Skins, top–bottom wastes, scales, discarded onions

Flavonoids, fructans and alk(en)yl cystein sulphoxides, quercetin aglycone, minerals

Antioxidant, dietary fibre

Tomato

Solanum lycopersicum

Seeds, pulps, skins

Lycopene, β-carotene, sterols, tocopherols, terpenes, glycoalkaloids

Antioxidant, anticholesterol

Coffee industry

Coffee

Coffea Arabica

Spent coffee grounds

Caffeine, chlorogenic acid

Allelopathy

Dry fruit industry

Peanut

Arachis hypogaea

Skins, seed coats

Polyphenols oligomeric proanthocyanidins, indole alkaloids, phenolic acids

Antioxidant anticancer, Blood vessels protector, Antimicrobial

Almond

Prunus dulcis

Hulls

Triterpenes (olcanoic, ursolic, betulinic acids), daucosterol

Anticancer

Hazelnut

Corylus avellana

Skins, hard shells, leafy covers

Phenolic acids (gallic, caffeic,

p

-coumaric, ferulic, sinapic)

Antioxidant

Chestnut

Castanea sativa

Shells (outer, inner)

Tannins, polyphenols, tocopherols

Antioxidant

Walnut

Juglans regia

Shells

Holocellulose, α-cellulose, lignin

Panel manufacture

Pecan nut

Carya illinoensis

Shells (endocarp)

Poly and monomeric phenols

Antifungal

Pistachio

Pistachia vera

Hulls

Phenolic compounds

Antioxidant

Legume industry

Pea

Pisum sativum

Husks

Growth factors (nitrogen and carbon)

Carrier for rhizobial inoculants

Pods

Fibre, polyphenols

Antioxidant, texturing additive

Faba bean

Vicia faba

Pods

Fibre, polyphenols

Antioxidant, texturing additive

Off-quality grains

Protein

Food ingredient

Chickpea

Cicer arietinum

Off-quality grains

Peptides

Metal chelating, antihypertensive, food ingredient

Common bean

Phaseolus vulgaris

Off-quality grains

Peptides

Antioxidant, metal chelating

Cereal industry

Rice

Oryza sativa

Rice brand

Tocotrienols-tocopherols, γ-oryzanol, β-sitosterol

Anticholesterol

Wheat

Triticum durum

Wheat brand

Vitamin E, carotenoids, quinines

Nutrients, antioxidant

Wine industry

Grape

Vitis vinifera

Stems

Betulinic acid, stilbenoid

trans

-resveratrol,

trans

-3-viniferin, sitosterol 6′-

O

-acylglucosides

Anticancer

Pomace

Flavonols, flavonols glucosides, flavanols, gallate esters, anthocyanins, proanthocyanins

Antioxidant, antimicrobial

Seeds

Epicatechin, caffeic and gallic acids

Antimicrobial

Brewing industry

Barley

Hordeum vulgare

Spent grains

Xylitol, cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, xylose, glucose, arabinose, protein, ferulic and

p

-coumaric acids

Growth medium, lactic acid production, diabetes treatment (xylitol)

Oil industry

Olive

Olea europaea

Olive mill wastewaters ‘alpechin’

Hydroxytyrosol, gallic acid, oleuropein, ligstroside isomers and derivatives, squalene, tocopherols, triterpenes, soluble sugars, polyphenols

Antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, textile dyes

Pomace (solid wastes)

Hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, caffeic protocatechuic, vanillic, p-coumaric and syringic acids, vanillin, oleuropein, apigenin

Antioxidant

Flesh, stones, seeds

Polyphenols, tocopherol

Antioxidants

Rapeseed

Brassica napus

Meals

Gallic and syringic acids, kaempferol, naringenin

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory

Defatted cakes

Glucosinolates, peptides

Herbicide, food additive, foaming, emulsifying, anthitrombotic, antiviral

Turnip

Brassica rapa

Hulls, defatted cakes

Polyphenols

Antioxidant

Cotton

Gossypium hirsutum

Meals

Kaempferol, naringenin, rutin

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory

Peanut

Arachis hypogeal

Defatted flours

Protein

Packaging biomaterials

Soybean

Glycine max

Meals

Caffeic acid, naringenin, daidzein

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory

Sunflower

Helianthus annuus

Defatted cakes

Protein concentrates and isolates

Food ingredient

Peptides

Antihypertensive, anticholesterol

Essential oil industry (residues after distillation)

Lavandin

La

v

andula

×

intermedia

Solid residues

Phenolic acids, flavonoids, hydroxycinnamoylquinic acid derivatives, glucosides of hydroxycinnamic acids

Antioxidant

Rosemary

Rosmarinus officinalis

Solid residues

Phenolic acids (rosmarinic, carnosic, caffeic, chlorogenic acid and

p

-coumaric acids)

Antioxidant

Sage

Salvia officinalis, S. glutinosa

Solid residues

Coumarins, hydrocarbons, monoterpenes, phenolic compounds, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, fatty acid ester, hydroxycinnamic acid, luteolin

Antimicrobial, antioxidant, textile dyes

Thyme

Thymus

v

ulgaris

Solid residues

Rosmarinic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, luteolin

Antioxidant, textile dyes

Bay laurel

Laurus nobilis

Hydrolates

Terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, phenol

Antioxidant

Malt industry

Malt

Malt sprouts

Growth factors (nitrogen and carbon)

Carrier for rhizobial inoculant

Tuber processing industry

Potato

Solanum tuberosum

Peels

Proteins

Produce yeast biomass

Peels

Glycoalkaloids

Pesticide, anticancer

Wood industry

Pine

Pinus

sp.

Vinegars

Aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters, phenols (cresols)

Repellent, insecticide, herbicide,

Bark

Polyphenols

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory

Other industrial crops

Sisal

Agave sisalana

Waste liquids (juice)

Saponins, glycosides, terpenoids, tannins

Antimicrobial

Cork oak

Quercus suber

Black waxes

Friedelane triterpenes (friedelin, 3-hydroxyfriedel-3-en-2-

one

), β-sitosterol, campesterol, α-amyrin, sitost-4-en-3-

one

Antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, cytotoxic, insecticidal

Cassava

Manihot esculenta

Bagasse

Starch

Carbon source for microbial growth

Sugarcane industry

Sugarcane

Saccharum officinarum

Bagasse

α-cellulose, pentosans

Enzyme production

Tobacco industry

Tobacco

Nicotiana tabacum

Stems, leaves

Mono-caffeoylquinic acids

Antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-hyperglycemic antimutagenic

Sugar cane had the highest production globally (1910 million tonnes), followed by maize, rice, wheat, potatoes, fresh vegetable, cassava, soybeans, palm fruit and sugar beet (1020, 741, 716, 376, 280, 277, 276, 266 and 247 million tonnes, respectively) (Table 1.2). All of these crops produced a large amount of relevant wastes, including leaves, tops and bagasse from sugar cane; straw, stalks, husk, bran and cobs from maize, rice and wheat; foliage, tops, peels and pulps from potatoes; leaves, stems, peels, skins and seeds from fresh vegetables; and peels, stalks and bagasse from cassava (FAOSTAT, 2015).

The wastes from crop-based residues, in terms of aerial biomass, roots, leaves, straw and stems, are rich sources of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, flavonoids, sterols, anthocyanins and carbohydrates, which have direct links with potent pharmacological properties, such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and anticholesterol capacity (Table 1.3). Many valuable bioactive compounds, such as glycosides, procyanidins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, flavanols, flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, saponins, tannins, alkaloids, steroids, triterpenes, quinones and peptides, can also be isolated from processing-based residues, such as from the fresh fruit, dry fruit, brewing, wine, cereal, oil, essential oil, sugarcane and tobacco industries (Table 1.4). The bioactive compounds isolated from these sources have been proved to possess a wide range of biological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, antidiarrhoeal, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory and anticholesterol properties (Santana-Méridas et al., 2012).

Phenolic compounds, found ubiquitously in plants, are an essential part of the human diet. They are also of considerable interest due to their antioxidant properties. The phenolic compounds possess an aromatic ring bearing one or more hydroxyl groups and their structures range from that of a simple phenolic molecule to that of a complex high-molecular weight polymer. The chemical structures of hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids (gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, ρ-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid and sinapic acid) are shown in Figure 1.2, while Figure 1.3 indicates the chemical structures of major classes of flavonoids (flavone, flavonol, flavanone, flavanol and anthocyanidin) (Balasundram et al., 2006).

Figure 1.2 Chemical structures of (a) hydroxybenzoic and (b) hydroxycinnamic acids.

Source: Balasundram (2006). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Figure 1.3 Chemical structures of major classes of flavonoids.

Source: Balasundram (2006). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Table 1.5 shows the phenolic compounds, such as phenolic acids, flavonols, flavanols, flavonoids and anthocyanins, obtained from agricultural byproducts, such as the hulls of rice, buckwheat, almond, Swedish oats and pistachio; the peels and seeds of citrus, lemons, oranges and grapefruit; the peels of apples, peaches, pears, flesh nectarines, pomegranate and bananas; apple pomace; olive mill wastewater (OMW) and leaves; grape seeds and skin; the seeds of mango, longan, avocado and jackfruit; the peels and seeds of tomatoes; and pineapple waste (residual pulp, peels and skin) (Balasundram et al., 2006).

Table 1.5 Phenolic compounds from agricultural byproducts. Source: Balasundram (2006). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Byproduct

Phenolic compounds

Levels

a

Almond (

Prunus dulcis

(Mill.) D.A. Webb) hulls

Chlorogenic acid

42.52 ± 4.50 mg/100 g fw

4-

O

-caffeoylquinic acid

7.90 mg/100 g fw

3-

O

-caffeoylquinic acid

3.04 mg/100 g fw

Apple peels

Flavonoids

2299 mg CE/100 g dw

Anthocyanin

169 mg CGE/100 g dw

Artichoke blanching waters

Neochlorogenic acid

11.3 g phenolics/100 ml

Cryptochlorogenic acid

Chlorogenic acid

Cynarin

Caffeic acid derivatives

Buckwheat (

Fagopyrum esculentum

Möench) hulls

Protocatechuic acid

13.4 mg/100 mg dw

3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde

6.1 mg/100 g dw

Hyperin

5.0 mg/100 g dw

Rutin

4.3 mg/100 g dw

Quercetin

2.5 mg/100 g dw

Dried apple pomace

Flavonols

673 mg/kg dw

Flavanols

318 mg/kg dw

Dihydrochalcones

861 mg/kg dw

Hydroxycinnamatcs

562 mg/kg dw

Dried coconut husk

4-hydroxybenzoic acid ferulic acid

13.0 mg phenolics/g dry weight

a Expressed on fresh weight (fw) or dry weight (dw) basis.

Among the phenolic compounds derived from agricultural byproducts (Table 1.5), hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, oleuropein and hydroxycinnamic acids are the major components of OMW, while oleuropein is the major component of olive leaves, followed by hydroxytyrosol, luteolin-7-glucoside, apigenin-7-glucoside and verbascoside. Apple peel is rich in flavonoids (approximately 23 mg catechin equivalents/g dry weight), while dried coconut husk contains a high amount of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (13.0 mg phenolics/g dry weight).

In recent years, a number of studies have been conducted to recover the bioactive compounds from various agricultural wastes. Table 1.6 illustrates a wide range of traditional and emerging techniques that have been applied to the extraction and isolation of valuable bioactive compounds from food wastes, such as solid–liquid extraction (SLE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), pulsed electric fields (PEF) and membrane and resin techniques. These techniques allow high yields of bioactive compounds to be achieved, such as pectin (10–30%), flavanones, soluble dietary fibres (10%), phenolic compounds (33%), lycopene and β-carotene (50%), anthocyanins, caffeine (97%), essential oils (matricine, chamazulene and α-bisabolol: 28.08, 0.05 and 2.68%, respectively), capsaicinoids and colour components (66–86% and 26–34%, respectively), γ-oryzanol (1527–4164 mg/kg), β-glucans, lignans, phenolic acids, tocopherols, tocotrienols, sterols and squalene (Baiano, 2014).

Table 1.6 Molecule of interest, substrate from food wastes, extraction method and yield. Source: Baiano (2014), http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/19/9/14821/htm. Used under CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Extractable biomolecule

Substrate

Extraction method

Yield

Pectin

Apple pomace,citrus peel, sugar beet, sunflower heads, wastes from tropical fruits

Solid–liquid extraction

10–15%, 20–30%

Flavanones

Citrus peels and residues from segments and seeds after pressing

Solid–liquid extraction

Total and soluble dietary fibres

Apple pomace

Solid–liquid extraction

72 and 10%

Phenolic compounds

Apple pomace

Solid–liquid extraction

33%

Lycopene and β-carotene

Tomato pomace

Supercritical CO

2

50%

Anthocyanins

Grape skins

Heat treatment at 70 °C, Ultrasonics, high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed electric fields

Variable

Caffeine

Green tea leaves

Supercritical fluid extraction

97%

Essential oils (matricine, chamazulene and α-bisabolol

Chamomile

Supercritical fluid extraction

28.08, 0.05 and 2.68%, respectively

Capsaicinoids and colour components

Chilli pepper

Supercritical fluid extraction

66–86% and 26–34%, respectively

Oil

Rice bran

Supercritical fluid extraction

24.65%

γ-oryzanol

Rice bran

Solid–liquid extraction

1527–4164 mg/kg

β-glucans

Barley bran

Solid–liquid extraction

Lignans

Flaxseeds

Solid–liquid extraction

Phenolic acids

Wheat brans

Solid–liquid extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction

Tocopherols, tocotrienols, sterols, and squalene

Palm fatty acid distillate

Liquid–liquid extraction

Phenolic antioxidants

Aqueous byproducts from the palm oil extraction

Separation techniques through membranes

Tocopherols and tocotrienols

Palm fatty acid distillate

Treatment with alkyl alcohol and sodium methoxide; distillation under reduced pressure; a cooling step; passage of the filtrate through an ion-exchange column with anionic exchange resin; removal of the solvent; molecular distillation

Phenolic antioxidants

Aqueous byproducts from the extraction of palm oil

Without solvent; based on simple separation principles

Table 1.7 describes the use of different solvents to obtain high yields of bioactive compounds and shows individual bioactive compounds in extracts from agro-industrial wastes, while Table 1.8 shows the antioxidant activity of extracts from agro-industrial residues (Moure et al., 2001). Perretti et al. (2003) extracted α-tocopherol and γ-oryzanol from rice byproducts (hulls, rice bran) using SFE and found that the γ-oryzanol content ranged from 8.2 to 18.0 mg/kg, while the α-tocopherol content was greatly affected by extraction conditions in terms of pressure and temperature (1176.9 and 1228.1 mg/kg at 5000 psi/40 °C and 10 000 psi/80 °C, respectively). Kim et al. (2006) reported that extracts from cereal brans possessed stronger antioxidant activity than free phenolic acids, with ferulic, vanillic and syringic acids found to be the major individual phenolic acids in wheat bran. Izydorczyk & Dexter (2008) found that β-glucans extracted from barley flour could improve lipid metabolism, reduce glycaemic index, lower plasma cholesterol and reduce risk of colon cancer, while Zanwar et al. (2011) reported biological activity of lignan concentrates from flaxseed as anticancer, antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents.

Table 1.7 Extraction yields, total extractable polyphenols (TEP) and composition of crude extracts from agro-industrial wastes. Source: Moure et al. (2001). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier

Residue

Solvent

Solubles yield (% dry weight) or TEP (as equivalents)

Identified compounds

Durum wheat bran

Ethanol

12.1 (% dry weight) 2.769 (HPLC)

PA, pBA, GA, CaA, VA, CA, SA, pCA, FA

Fraxinus ornus

bark

Ethanol

14.5 (dry weight)

Hydroxycoumarin (Es, Est, Fx, Fxt)

Corn bran hemicelluloses

NaOH