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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Provides clear analysis on the development potentials and practical realization of solar, wind, wave, and geothermal renewable energy technologies
Presented as a clear introduction to the topics of climate protection and renewable energy, this book demonstrates the correlations between use of energy, energy prices, and climate change. It evaluates and analyzes the current world situation (drawing on examples given from countries across the globe), whilst also giving essential and practical guidance on ‘personal’ climate protection. Each major type of renewable energy system is covered in detail and with an easy-to-read approach, making it an ideal manual for planning and realizing climate protection and renewable energy systems, while also being an informative textbook for those studying renewable energy and environment and sustainability courses.
Renewable Energy and Climate Change, 2nd Edition starts by examining our hunger for energy—how much we need, how much we use, and how much it is costing us. It then looks at the state of climate change today and the causes. Following that, the book focuses on how we waste and save energy. The remaining chapters look at the many alternative sources of energy generation, like photovoltaics, solar thermal systems and power plants, wind power systems, hydropower plants, and geothermal power. The book also delves into current state of biomass energy and the hydrogen and fuel cell industry. It finishes with a look at the future of the subject, shining a light on some positive examples of sustainable energy.
- Clear overview on each state-of-the-art technology in alternative energy production
- Presents correlations between use of energy and energy prices, and climate change
- Provides guidance on what the reader can do to reduce their own energy waste
- Full-color figures and photographs throughout, data diagrams and simple calculations and results, and text boxes that highlight important information
- International examples of renewable energy in action
Renewable Energy and Climate Change, 2nd Edition is an excellent text for students and professionals studying or working on renewable energy, or environmental and sustainability alternatives. It will also benefit planners, operators, financers, and consultants in those fields.
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Renewable Energy and Climate Change
Volker QuaschningBerlin University of Applied Sciences HTW, Germany
Translated by Herbert EppelHE Translations, Leicester, UKwww.HETranslations.uk
Second Edition
This second edition first published in English 2020
English translation © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Authorised translation of original German text Erneuerbare Energien und Klimaschutz, 4.A. © 2018 Carl Hanser Verlag, München. All rights reserved.
Edition History
John Wiley & Sons Ltd (1e, 2010)
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The right of Volker Quaschning to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Names: Quaschning, Volker, 1969– author. | Eppel, Herbert (Translator), translator.
Title: Renewable energy and climate change / Volker Quaschning, Berlin University of Applied Sciences HTW, Germany ; (translator) Herbert Eppel.
Other titles: Erneuerbare Energien und Klimaschutz. English
Description: Second edition. | Chichester, West Sussex, U.K. ; Hoboken, N.J. : John Wiley & Sons Ltd, [2020] | English translation of German text. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018052859 (print) | LCCN 2018060578 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119514886 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119514879 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119514862 | ISBN 9781119514862 (hardcover) | ISBN 111951486X(hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Renewable energy sources. | Climatic changes.
Classification: LCC TJ808 (ebook) | LCC TJ808 .Q38913 2020 (print) | DDC 363.738/74--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018052859
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: Top: © BIHAIBO/Getty Images, Bottom: © WangAnQi/Getty Images
CONTENTS
Cover
Preface to First Edition
Preface to Second Edition
CHAPTER 1 Our Hunger for Energy
1.1 Energy Supply – Yesterday and Today
1.2 Energy Needs – Who Needs What, Where, and How Much?
1.3 ‘Anyway’ Energy
1.4 Energy Reserves – Wealth for a Time
1.5 High Energy Prices – the Key to Climate Protection
CHAPTER 2 The Climate Before the Collapse
2.1 It Is Getting Warm – Climate Changes Today
2.2 The Guilty Parties – Causes of Climate Change
2.3 Outlook and Recommendations – What Lies Ahead?
2.4 A Difficult Birth – Politics and Climate Change
2.5 Self-Help Climate Protection
CHAPTER 3 From Wasting Energy to Saving Energy and Reducing Carbon Dioxide
3.1 Inefficiency
3.2 Personal Energy Needs – Savings at Home
3.3 Industry and Commerce – Everyone Else is to Blame
3.4 Your Personal Carbon Dioxide Balance
3.5 The Sale of Ecological Indulgences
CHAPTER 4 ‘Energiewende’ (Energy Transition) – The Way to a Better Future?
4.1 Coal and Nuclear Power Plants – Crutch Instead of Bridge
4.2 Efficiency and CHP – A Good Double for Starters
4.3 Renewables – Energy Without End
4.4 Germany Is Becoming Renewable
4.5 Not So Expensive – The Myth of Unaffordability
4.6 Energy Revolution Instead of Half-Hearted Energy Transition
CHAPTER 5 Photovoltaics – Energy from Sand
5.1 Structure and Function
5.2 Production of Solar Cells – From Sand to Cell
5.3 PV Systems – Grids and Islands
5.4 Planning and Design
5.5 Economics
5.6 Ecology
5.7 PV Markets
5.8 Outlook and Development Potential
CHAPTER 6 Solar Thermal Systems – Year-Round Heating from the Sun
6.1 Structure and Functionality
6.2 Solar Collectors – Collecting the Sun
6.3 Solar Thermal Systems
6.4 Planning and Design
6.5 Economics
6.6 Ecology
6.7 Solar Thermal Markets
6.8 Outlook and Development Potential
CHAPTER 7 Solar Power Plants – Even More Power from the Sun
7.1 Focusing on the Sun
7.2 Solar Power Plants
7.3 Planning and Design
7.4 Economics
7.5 Ecology
7.6 Solar Power Plant Markets
7.7 Outlook and Development Potential
CHAPTER 8 Wind Power Systems – Electricity from Thin Air
8.1 Gone with the Wind – Where the Wind Comes From
8.2 Utilizing Wind
8.3 Wind Turbines and Windfarms
8.4 Planning and Design
8.5 Economics
8.6 Ecology
8.7 Wind Power Markets
8.8 Outlook and Development Potential
CHAPTER 9 Hydropower Plants – Wet Electricity
9.1 Tapping into the Water Cycle
9.2 Water Turbines
9.3 Hydropower Plants
9.4 Planning and Design
9.5 Economics
9.6 Ecology
9.7 Hydropower Markets
9.8 Outlook and Development Potential
CHAPTER 10 Geothermal Energy – Power from the Deep
10.1 Tapping into the Earth's Heat
10.2 Geothermal Heat and Power Plants
10.3 Planning and Design
10.4 Economics
10.5 Ecology
10.6 Geothermal Markets
10.7 Outlook and Development Potential
CHAPTER 11 Heat Pumps – From Cold to Hot
11.1 Heat Sources for Low-Temperature Heat
11.2 Operating Principle of Heat Pumps
11.3 Planning and Design
11.4 Economics
11.5 Ecology
11.6 Heat Pump Markets
11.7 Outlook and Development Potential
CHAPTER 12 Biomass – Energy from Nature
12.1 Origins and Use of Biomass
12.2 Biomass Heating
12.3 Biomass Heat and Power Plants
12.4 Biofuels
12.5 Planning and Design
12.6 Economics
12.7 Ecology
12.8 Biomass Markets
12.9 Outlook and Development Potential
CHAPTER 13 Renewable Gas and Fuel Cells
13.1 Hydrogen as an Energy Source
13.2 Methanation
13.3 Transport and Storage of Renewable Gas
13.4 Fuel Cells: Bearers of Hope
13.5 Economics
13.6 Ecology
13.7 Markets, Outlook, and Development Potential
CHAPTER 14 Sunny Prospects – Examples of Sustainable Energy Supply
14.1 Climate-Compatible Living
14.2 Working and Producing in a Climate-friendly Manner
14.3 Climate-Compatible Driving
14.4 Climate-Compatible Travel by Water or Air
14.5 Everything Becomes Renewable
14.6 Everything will Turn Out Fine
Appendix A
A.1 Energy Units and Prefixes
A.2 Geographic Coordinates of Power Plants
A.3 Further Reading
References
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 2.4
Chapter 5
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Table 5.4
Chapter 6
Table 6.1
Chapter 8
Table 8.1
Chapter 9
Table 9.1
Chapter 11
Table 11.1
Table 11.2
Table 11.3
Chapter 12
Table 12.1
Table 12.2
Chapter 13
Table 13.1
Appendix A
Table A.1
Table A.2
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Firewood, working animals, wind and water power supplied most of the energy nee...
Figure 1.2 Oil production since 1860.
Figure 1.3 Left: Building a natural gas pipeline in Eastern Germany. Right: Storage facili...
Figure 1.4 The Kernwasser Wunderland leisure park is in the grounds of a fast breeder reac...
Figure 1.5 Development of primary energy demand worldwide.
Figure 1.6 Left: Despite the intensive use of fossil fuels, the expansion of wind energy i...
Figure 1.7 Primary energy usage per head related to the world average.
Figure 1.8 Percentage of different energy sources covering primary energy demand in the DR...
Figure 1.9 Total energy resources in Germany taking into account ‘anyway’ energy; that is,...
Figure 1.10 Operating principle and risks of natural gas fracking.
Figure 1.11 Distribution of oil reserves on earth by region (2016). Source: BGR [BGR17].
Figure 1.12 Range (in years) of known energy reserves and resources based on current produc...
Figure 1.13 Development of oil prices with current prices and inflation-adjusted prices.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Changes in temperature and sea level between 20 000 BCE and 2016 CE.
Figure 2.2 Temperature change between 2012 and 2016 compared to the long-standing average ...
Figure 2.3 Arctic summer ice coverage in 1979 (above) and 2012 (below).
Figure 2.4 Number of people displaced worldwide by climate- and weather-related natural di...
Figure 2.5 Damage caused by hurricanes in the USA.
Figure 2.6 Damage caused by flooding and thunderstorms in Germany.
Figure 2.7 Changes in solar activity are responsible for only a fraction of global warming...
Figure 2.8 Time series of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere over the last 400...
Figure 2.9 Progression of energy-related CO
2
emissions and global changes in temperatures ...
Figure 2.10 Causes of the anthropogenic greenhouse effect caused by humans.
Figure 2.11 Causes of global warming.
Figure 2.12 Threatened areas in Northern Germany if the sea level were to rise by 7 m in th...
Figure 2.13 Principle of the Gulf Stream.
Figure 2.14 Previous energy-related CO
2
emissions and reduction paths to limit the global t...
Figure 2.15 Energy and process-related carbon dioxide emissions in Germany.
Figure 2.16 Changes in greenhouse gas emissions with no change in land use between 1990 and...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 During the 1980s, energy saving was an important topic in Germany, and the “I'm...
Figure 3.2 In Europe, around 80% of energy is lost or not used efficiently during transpor...
Figure 3.3 Energy and environmental balance of boiling water using an electric versus gas ...
Figure 3.4 Percentage of different sectors in final/secondary energy consumption in German...
Figure 3.5 Low-energy light bulbs save energy, carbon dioxide and cash. LED lamps are part...
Figure 3.6 Breakdown of electricity consumption of private households.
Figure 3.7 Comparison of heating energy demand and heat loss in houses with different insu...
Figure 3.8 Effect of window type and insulation on heat loss.
Figure 3.9 Principle of control ventilation with heat recovery.
Figure 3.10 Energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions per person for different means ...
Figure 3.11 Greenhouse gas emissions converted to CO
2
equivalents for the production of dif...
Figure 3.12 Scale of emissions of carbon dioxide per head and year.
Figure 3.13 Principle of private emissions trading.
Figure 3.14 Principle of financing renewable power plants through the Renewable Energy Sour...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 The energy transition won't be completed until we have established an energy su...
Figure 4.2 Lignite-fired power plant Jänschwalde near Cottbus. The energy companies have t...
Figure 4.3 Left: The village of Horno had to give way to opencast lignite mining in 2005. ...
Figure 4.4 Left: Electricity generation from PV & wind power plants and generating units l...
Figure 4.5 Options for final storage of separated carbon dioxide.
Figure 4.6 Comparison of primary energy demand and CO
2
emissions between CHP and separate ...
Figure 4.7 Per capita primary energy consumption based on gross domestic product (GDP) acc...
Figure 4.8 Development of worldwide primary energy demand and increase in world population...
Figure 4.9 Comparison of annual renewable energy available and global primary energy requi...
Figure 4.10 Sources of and possibilities for using renewables.
Figure 4.11 Share of different sectors in energy-related greenhouse gas emissions in German...
Figure 4.12 Share of different energy sources in final energy consumption for space heating...
Figure 4.13 Components of a carbon dioxide-free renewable heat supply.
Figure 4.14 Principle of substitution of fossil-based natural gas by methane (power-to-gas,...
Figure 4.15 Efficiency and power consumption of electricity-based renewable heat supply sys...
Figure 4.16 Comparison of the efficiency of different drive concepts for passenger cars.
Figure 4.17 Electrified motorway with wire-bound electric truck.
Figure 4.18 Increase in electricity demand if a climate-friendly energy supply is reached b...
Figure 4.19 Possible expansion paths for renewables to reach a climate-neutral electricity ...
Figure 4.20 Components of a carbon dioxide-free renewable heat supply.
Figure 4.21 Principle of a controlled combined cycle power plant for a reliable renewable p...
Figure 4.22 Shares of various renewable power plants in meeting energy requirements during ...
Figure 4.23 Use of the natural gas network to meet the storage needs of a purely renewable ...
Figure 4.24 High-voltage lines are among the most controversial elements of the energy tran...
Figure 4.25 Development and composition of household electricity prices in Germany.
Figure 4.26 Development of prices for household electricity, heating oil, petrol, generatio...
Figure 4.27 Development of gross electricity generation in Germany and electricity exports....
Figure 4.28 Distribution of the ownership of the renewable energy plants that provide Germa...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Model illustrating the processes of a solar cell.
Figure 5.2 Structure and processes of a solar cell [Qua13].
Figure 5.3 Current-voltage characteristic curve of a PV module.
Figure 5.4 Polycrystalline silicon for solar cells. Left: Raw silicon. Centre: Silicon blo...
Figure 5.5 Polycrystalline solar cells with anti-reflective coating before the front conta...
Figure 5.6 Basic structure of a photovoltaic module.
Figure 5.7 Cross-section of a thin-film PV module.
Figure 5.8 Stand-alone PV systems offer advantages for many applications compared to grid ...
Figure 5.9 Principle of a stand-alone PV system.
Figure 5.10 Typical locations for stand-alone PV systems. Left: Electricity supply for a vi...
Figure 5.11 The principle of a grid-connected PV system.
Figure 5.12 The ‘Gut Erlasee’ tracked solar power plant in Bavaria, Germany, has a total ou...
Figure 5.13 PV façade system.
Figure 5.14 PV systems on single-family homes.
Figure 5.15 Grid-connected PV system with battery storage to increase the self-consumption ...
Figure 5.16 Power flows in a grid-connected PV battery system for a household in a detached...
Figure 5.17 Coupling of a PV system with a conventional heating system becomes interesting ...
Figure 5.18 Mean annual total solar radiation energy in Germany in kWh/m
2
between 1998 and ...
Figure 5.19 Change in annual solar radiation in Berlin depending on orientation and tilt an...
Figure 5.20 Achievable self-consumption and self-sufficiency levels of PV self-consumption ...
Figure 5.21 Electricity generation costs as a function of net capital costs and specific yi...
Figure 5.22 Development of the EEG remuneration in Germany for small PV systems with output...
Figure 5.23 Development of total PV capacity installed worldwide.
Figure 5.24 Development of inflation-adjusted photovoltaic module prices as a function of t...
Figure 5.25 De-centralized PV systems can be set up by the electricity customers, directly,...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Modern solar thermal collector systems are an important alternative to conventi...
Figure 6.2 Processes in a solar flat-plate collector [Qua13].
Figure 6.3 Collector efficiency curve.
Figure 6.4 Cross-section of a flat-plate collector.
Figure 6.5 Principle of selective absorbers.
Figure 6.7 Vacuum tube collectors. Left: Collector with heat pipe. Right: Tube with direct...
Figure 6.8 Comparison of flat-plate and vacuum-tube collectors.
Figure 6.9 Left: Demonstration model of a gravity system. Right: Gravity system in Spain.
Figure 6.10 Solar gravity system (thermo-syphon system).
Figure 6.11 Single-family house with photovoltaic system (left) and flat-plate collectors f...
Figure 6.12 Pumped solar thermal system for heating domestic hot water.
Figure 6.13 Solar thermal system for domestic hot water heating and auxiliary space heating...
Figure 6.14 Large roof-integrated solar thermal system for heating water and providing supp...
Figure 6.15 In the energy self-sufficient solar house (left) in Lehrte, a 46 m
2
solar therm...
Figure 6.16 Solar community heating system.
Figure 6.17 Principle of solar cooling with absorption chillers.
Figure 6.18 System for swimming pool heating using solar energy.
Figure 6.19 Solar cooker in Ethiopia.
Figure 6.20 Typical solar fractions of solar thermal drinking water systems over the year.
Figure 6.21 Typical monthly space heating and hot water demands in Germany and proportion o...
Figure 6.22 Payback periods for a solar thermal domestic hot water system with backup heati...
Figure 6.23 Installed glazed collector area in different countries. 2015.
Figure 6.24 Annual newly installed collector area in Germany.
Figure 6.25 Many roofs still have space for solar collectors.
Figure 6.26 In some regions of the world, for example in southern Turkey, simple and thus i...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Solar furnace near Almería in Spain. Large tracking mirrors direct the sunlight...
Figure 7.2 Single-axis tracking reflectors for line concentrators.
Figure 7.3 Dual-axis tracking reflectors for point concentrators.
Figure 7.4 View of the Kramer Junction parabolic trough power plant in California (USA).
Figure 7.5 Parabolic trough power plant with thermal storage.
Figure 7.6 Solar thermal power plants with thermal storage can provide guaranteed output a...
Figure 7.7 Solar tower power plant with open air receiver.
Figure 7.8 Solar tower power plant with pressurized air receiver.
Figure 7.9 Research site for a solar tower power plant at Plataforma Solar de Almería (Spa...
Figure 7.10 Prototype of a 10-kW Dish-Stirling system near Almería in Spain.
Figure 7.11 Computer animation of a solar chimney power plant park. The towers can also be ...
Figure 7.12 PV power plant with concentrator cells.
Figure 7.13 World map with annual totals for solar global radiation in kWh/m
2
.
Figure 7.14 Differentiation of types of solar radiation.
Figure 7.15 Solar thermal power plants (left) can achieve economic advantages over PV (righ...
Figure 7.16 Construction of a parabolic trough collector prototype in Andalusia. Spain is c...
Figure 7.17 Suitability of different regions in North Africa for building solar power plant...
Figure 7.18 Options for renewable electricity imports from North Africa to the EU and elect...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Left: Historical post windmill in Stade, Germany. Photo: STADE Tourismus-GmbH. ...
Figure 8.2 Global circulation and origins of different winds.
Figure 8.3 Average wind speeds worldwide.
Figure 8.4 Area through which the wind reaches a power of 100 kW at different wind speeds....
Figure 8.5 Flow profile of a wind turbine.
Figure 8.6 Functional principle of a wind turbine with horizontal axis.
Figure 8.7 Small wind turbines used to charge battery systems.
Figure 8.8 Principle of a simple stand-alone wind system.
Figure 8.9 Size development of wind turbines.
Figure 8.10 Erection of a wind turbine. Top left: Foundation. Right: Tower. Below left: Rot...
Figure 8.11 Structure and components of a wind turbine.
Figure 8.12 Maintenance work on wind turbines.
Figure 8.13 Small wind turbines at HTW Berlin.
Figure 8.14 Windfarms.
Figure 8.15 The Nysted offshore windfarm in the Baltic Sea off Denmark. Left: Construction...
Figure 8.16 Planning for offshore windfarms in the North Sea and Baltic Sea off Germany.
Figure 8.17 Left: Wind speed frequency distribution. Right: Power curve of a wind turbine.
Figure 8.18 Distribution of costs for a 1.2 MW wind turbine [BWE07].
Figure 8.19 Electricity generation costs for wind turbines based on full-load hours and inv...
Figure 8.20 Wind turbines in rural landscapes.
Figure 8.21 Development of wind power capacity installed worldwide.
Figure 8.22 Development of newly installed wind power capacity in Germany until 2017 and ne...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Historic watermill in the Alps. Source: Verbund, www.verbund.at.
Figure 9.2 Earth's water cycle.
Figure 9.3 Applications for different water-powered turbines.
Figure 9.4 Drawing showing a Kaplan turbine with a generator (left) and a photo of a Kapla...
Figure 9.5 Bulb turbine with generator. Source: Voith Hydro.
Figure 9.6 Francis pump turbine at Goldisthal pumped-storage plant (left) and a Francis tu...
Figure 9.7 Drawing of a six-nozzle Pelton turbine (left) and photo of a Pelton turbine (ri...
Figure 9.8 Principle of a run-of-river hydropower plant.
Figure 9.9 Run-of-river hydropower plant at Laufenburg. Source: Energiedienst AG.
Figure 9.10 Examples of storage power plants in Austria: Malta (left), Kaprun (right). Sour...
Figure 9.11 Principle of a pumped-storage power plant.
Figure 9.12 The Goldisthal pumped-storage power plant in Germany. Source: Vattenfall Europe...
Figure 9.13 Principle of wave power plants. Left: Float system. Right: Chamber system.
Figure 9.14 Left: Prototype system in the Seaflow project off the west coast of England. Ri...
Figure 9.15 Annual flow characteristics and annual continuous curve for the Rhine runoff ne...
Figure 9.16 Left: Stream in the area of the Donaukraftwerk Freudenau power plant in Austria...
Figure 9.17 Electricity generation from hydropower plants in different countries. 2016. Sou...
Figure 9.18 Aerial view of the Itaipu power plant. Photo: Itaipu Binacional, www.itaipu.gov...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Volcanic eruptions bring the energy from the Earth's interior to the surface in...
Figure 10.2 The structure of the Earth.
Figure 10.3 Tectonic plates on Earth. Source: US Geological Survey.
Figure 10.4 Temperatures in Germany at depths of 1000 and 3000 m. Source: http://www.liag-h...
Figure 10.5 Left: New and used drill bits. Right: Structure of a derrick. Photos: Geopower ...
Figure 10.6 Principle of a geothermal heat plant.
Figure 10.7 Principle of a geothermal ORC plant.
Figure 10.8 The Neustadt-Glewe geothermal heat power plant was the first plant to generate ...
Figure 10.9 Diagram of an HDR power plant.
Figure 10.10 The Nesjavellir geothermal power plant in Iceland. Photo: Gretar Ívarsson.
Figure 10.11 Installed geothermal power plant capacity worldwide. Data: IGA, http://www.geot...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Energy flow with a heat pump process.
Figure 11.2 Heat sources for heat pumps. Illustration: Viessmann Werke.
Figure 11.3 Operating principle of a compression heat pump.
Figure 11.4 Operating principle of absorption heat pumps.
Figure 11.5 Heat pump installation. Source: Bosch Thermotechnik GmbH.
Figure 11.6 Air/water heat pump installed outdoors, without the need for drilling (left). D...
Figure 11.7 Development of domestic prices for gas, oil, and electricity for the operation ...
Figure 11.8 Environmental balance of two heat pump heating options and natural gas heating....
Figure 11.9 Sales of heat pumps in Germany.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 People have been using the energy from firewood for thousands of years.
Figure 12.2 The sun is responsible for the growth of biomass on Earth.
Figure 12.4 Possibilities for biomass use.
Figure 12.5 Different processed forms of wood. From top left to bottom right: round wood, f...
Figure 12.6 Calorific values of wood depending on wood moisture and water content.
Figure 12.8 Solid fuel boiler for heating with logs.
Figure 12.15 Principle of the production of BtL fuels.
Figure 12.17 Cross-section of a wood pellet store.
Figure 12.19 Environmental balance sheet for the use of biomass fuels.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.2 Procedures for producing hydrogen.
Figure 13.3 Principle of alkaline electrolysis.
Figure 13.4 Generation, storage, and re-conversion to electricity of renewable methane [Qua...
Figure 13.7 Operating principle of a fuel cell.
Figure 13.8 Differences between fuel cell types.
Figure 13.9 Fuel cell prototypes.
Figure 13.10 Losses when hydrogen is used to store electric energy, based on the current sta...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Left: Family home in Berlin with carbon-neutral energy supply. Right: Boiler ro...
Figure 14.21 The future belongs to renewable energies. By 2040 they could secure our entire ...
Guide
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Preface to First Edition
The problems of energy and climate change have finally ended up where they belong: at the heart of public attention. Yet the connection between energy use and global warming is something we have been aware of for decades. In the late 1980s the German federal government declared climate change to be one of its main goals. At the time numerous experts were already calling for a speedy restructuring of the entire energy supply. Despite the government's declaration, the official response was, at best, half-hearted. But the climate problem can no longer remain on the back burner. There is a growing awareness that climate change has already begun. The prognosis of the researchers studying what is happening to our climate is extremely serious. If we do not pull the emergency cord soon, the catastrophic consequences of climate change will far exceed even the power of our imagination. The fact that we have awarded the Nobel Peace Prize to Al Gore, the US climate activist, and to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, both of whom have been urgently warning of the consequences for years, could be seen as a sign of helplessness rather than optimism about our ability to solve the problem.
Just as climate change threatens our environment, new records for rising oil and natural gas prices show that current supplies will not last long enough to cover future demand, therefore, alternatives must be found as soon as possible.
And yet the solution is a simple one: renewable energy. Renewable energy could completely cover all our energy supply needs within a few decades. This is the only way to end our dependence on energy sources like oil and uranium – costly both economically and environmentally – while satisfying our hunger for energy in a sustainable and climate-friendly manner.
However, for many, the route required to reach that goal is still far from clear. Many people still do not believe renewable energy offers a viable option. Some underestimate the alternatives to such an extent that they predict a return to the Stone Age once oil and coal supplies have been fully depleted.
The aim of this book is to eliminate these prejudices. It describes, in a clear and intelligible style, how the different technologies work, which are now available, and the potential for implementing these various forms of renewable energy, with the focus on the interaction between the different technologies. By showcasing some examples of how Germany has tackled this issue, we can show the forms that sustainable energy supply can take and how it can be implemented. However, this book is designed to show all readers, no matter where they live, how they themselves can make a contribution towards building a climate-compatible energy economy. In addition to explaining different energy measures that individuals can undertake for themselves, this book provides concrete planning aids for implementing renewable energy systems.
This book has been consciously written to offer essential facts to a broad spectrum of readers. It introduces the different technologies to anyone new to the subject, while at the same time, providing interesting background information to those with some existing knowledge.
The book has been translated from the original German version. It is an important addition to my technical work ‘Renewable Energy Systems’, published by Hanser, and also supplements my many lectures on the subject. It is clear from the high level of interest generated by this technical book, now in its sixth edition in German and translated into both English and Arabic, that there is a real need for more literature on the subject of renewable energy. This book should fill this gap and provide support in the development of sustainable energy supply systems.
Berlin, 2009
Prof. Volker Quaschning
Preface to the Second Edition
Our excellent sales figures and the positive response to this reference book have shown that this topic and the style in which it is presented appeal to a broad readership. Despite careful checking, minor errors and inconsistencies are sometimes unavoidable. Special thanks are therefore due to all readers who have provided feedback. This second English edition is based on the fourth revised and enlarged German edition. It contains current data on renewable energies and has been expanded to include the latest trends. A dedicated section explains what steps are necessary to comply with the Paris climate protection agreement and thus preserve the livelihoods of future generations. We hope that this book can make a small contribution to accelerating our energy transition at the rate that is required.
Berlin, summer 2018
Prof. Volker Quaschning
HTW Berlin – University of Applied Sciences
www.volker-quaschning.de
CHAPTER 1Our Hunger for Energy
Most people will have heard of the cult TV series, Star Trek. Thanks to this programme, we know that in the not-too-distant future humans will start exploring the infinite expanses of the universe. The energy issue will have been resolved long before then. The Warp drive discovered in 2063 provides unlimited energy that Captain Kirk uses to steer the starship Enterprise at speeds faster than light to new adventures. Energy is available in overabundance; peace and prosperity rule on Earth and environmental problems are a thing of the past. But even this type of energy supply is not totally without its risks. A warp core breach can cause as much damage as a core meltdown in an ancient nuclear power plant. Warp plasma itself is not a totally safe material, as the regular viewers of Star Trek very well know.
Unfortunately – or sometimes fortunately – most science fiction is far removed from the real world. From our perspective the discovery of a warp drive seems highly unlikely, even if dyed-in-the-wool Star Trek fans would like to think otherwise. We are currently not even close to mastering comparatively simple nuclear fusion. Consequently, we must rely on known technology, whatever its drawbacks, to solve our energy problems.
In reality, energy use has always had a noticeable impact on the environment. Looking back today, it is obvious that burning wood was less than ideal, and that the harmful noxious fumes created by such fires considerably reduced the life expectancy of our ancestors. A fast-growing world population, increasing prosperity and the hunger for fuel that has developed as a consequence have led to a rapid rise in the need for energy. Although the resulting environmental problems may only have affected certain regions, the effects of our hunger for energy can now be felt around the world. Overconsumption of energy is the main trigger for the global warming that is now threatening to cause devastation in many areas of the world. However, resignation and fear are the wrong responses to this ever-growing problem. There are alternative energy sources to be tapped. It is possible to develop a long-term safe and affordable energy supply that will have only a minimal and manageable impact on the environment. This book describes the form this energy supply must take and how each individual can contribute towards a collective effort to halt climate change. But first it is important to take a close look at the causes of today's problems.
1.1 Energy Supply – Yesterday and Today
1.1.1 From the French Revolution to the Early Twentieth Century
At the time of the French Revolution at the end of the eighteenth century, animal muscle power was the most important source of energy. Around 14 million horses and 24 million cattle with an overall output of around 7.5 billion watts were being used as work animals [Köni99]. This corresponds to the power of more than 100 000 mid-range cars.
Power and Energy, or the Other Way Around
The terms ‘power’ and ‘energy’ are closely linked, and for this reason they are often confused with one another and used incorrectly.
Energy is stored work; thus, the possibility to perform work. It is identified by the symbol E. The symbol for work is W.
Power (symbol: P) indicates the time during which the work is to be performed or the energy used.
For example, if a person lifts a bucket of water, this is considered work. The work that is performed increases the potential energy of the bucket of water. If the bucket is lifted up twice as quickly, less time is used and the power is doubled, even if the work is the same.
The unit for power is the watt (abbreviation: W) (The fact that the abbreviation for watt is the same as the symbol for work does not simplify matters.)
The unit for energy is watt second (Ws) or joule (J). Other units are also used for energy. Appendix A.1 provides the conversion factors between the different units of energy.
As the required powers and energies are often very high, prefixes such as mega (M), giga (G), tera (T), peta (P), and exa (E) are frequently used (see Appendix A.1).
The second staple energy source at this time was firewood, which was so important that it probably changed the political face of Europe. It is believed today that the transfer of the Continent's centre of power from the Mediterranean to north of the Alps came about because of the abundance of forests and associated energy potential there. Although the Islamic world was able to maintain its position of power on the Iberian peninsula well into the fifteenth century, one of the reasons why it lost its influence was the lack of wood. The problem was that there was not enough firewood that could be used to melt down metal to produce cannons and other weapons. This goes to show that energy crises are not just a modern phenomenon (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Firewood, working animals, wind and water power supplied most of the energy needed in the world as late as the eighteenth century.
In addition to muscle power and firewood, other renewable energies were used intensively until the beginning of the twentieth century. Between 500 000 and 600 000 water mills were in operation in Europe at the end of the eighteenth century. The use of wind power was also widespread, particularly in flat and windy areas. For example, the United Netherlands had around 8000 working windmills at the end of the seventeenth century.
For a long time, fossil energy sources were only of secondary importance. Although coal from underground deposits was known to be a source of energy, it was largely avoided. It was not until a lack of wood in certain areas of Europe led to energy shortages that coal deposits began to be exploited. In addition, the higher energy density of coal proved to be an advantage in the production of steel. In 1800, 60% of coal was used to provide domestic heat, but 40 years later far more coal was used in ironworks and other factories than in homes.
Fossil Energy Sources – Stored Solar Energy
Fossil energy sources are concentrated energy sources that evolved from animal and plant remains over very long periods of time. These sources include oil, gas, hard coal, brown coal, and turf. The base materials for fossil energy sources could only develop because of their conversion through solar radiation over millions of years. In this sense, fossil energy sources are a form of stored solar energy.
From a chemical point of view, fossil energy sources are based on organic carbon compounds. Burnt in conjunction with oxygen, they not only generate energy in the form of heat, but also always produce the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide as well as other exhaust gases.
In around the year 1530, coal mines in Great Britain were producing about 200 000 tons of coal annually. By 1750 it was about 5 million tons, and in 1854 an astonishing 64 million tons. By 1900 three countries, Britain, the USA, and Germany, had an 80% share of world production [Köni99].
Renewable Energies – Not That New
The supplies of fossil energies, such as oil, natural gas, and coal, are limited, and they will be depleted within a few decades and cease to exist. Renewable energy sources, on the other hand, ‘renew’ themselves on their own. For example, if a hydropower plant takes the power of the water from a river, the river will not stop flowing. The energy content of the river renews itself on its own because the sun evaporates the water and the rain feeds the river again.
Renewable energies are also referred to as ‘regenerative’ or ‘alternative’ energies. Other renewable energies include wind power, biomass, the natural heat of the earth, and solar energy. Even the sun will eventually disappear in around four billion years. Compared to the few decades that fossil energy sources will still be available to us, this time period seems infinitely long.
Incidentally, renewable energies have been used by mankind for considerably longer than fossil fuels, although the current systems for using these fuels are vastly more advanced than in the past. Therefore, it is not renewable energies that are new, but rather the knowledge that in the long term renewable energies are the only option for a safe and environmentally compatible energy supply.
At the end of the twentieth century, worldwide coal production reached almost four billion tons. With an overall share of less than 3% of the world market, Germany and Britain had lost their former position of supremacy in the coal industry. China and the USA are currently the main coal-producing countries by a considerable margin. Most of the coal produced today is used in power plants.
1.1.2 The Era of Black Gold
Like coal, oil consists of conversion products from animal and plant substances, the biomass of primeval times. Over millions of years plankton and other single-celled organisms were deposited in sea basins. Due to the lack of oxygen, they were unable to decompose. Chemical processes of transformation eventually turned these substances into oil and gas. The biomass that was originally deposited originated from the sun, which means that fossil energy sources like coal, oil, and gas are nothing more than long-term conservers of solar energy. The oldest oil deposits are around 350 million years old. The area around the Persian Gulf where most oil is exploited today was completely below sea level 10–15 million years ago.
The oil deposits were developed much later than coal, because for a long time there were no practical uses for this liquid energy source. Oil was used in small quantities for thousands of years for medicinal and lighting purposes, but its high flammability compared to coal and charcoal gave it the reputation of being a very dangerous fuel. At the end of the nineteenth century petroleum lamps and later the invention of internal combustion engines finally provided a breakthrough.
Industrial oil production began in August 1859, as the American Edwin L. Drake struck oil whilst drilling at a depth of 20 m near Titusville in the US state of Pennsylvania. One name in particular is linked with further oil exploitation in America: John Davison Rockefeller. In 1862 at the age of 23 he founded an oil company that became Standard Oil and later the Exxon Corporation and incorporated large sections of the American oil industry.
However, it was still well into the twentieth century before fossil energy supplies, and specifically oil, dominated the energy market. In 1860 about 100 000 tons of oil were produced worldwide; by 1895 it was already 14 million tons. German government figures reveal that in 1895 there were 18 362 wind engines, 54 529 water engines, 58 530 steam engines and 21 350 internal combustion engines in use in the country [Gasc05]. Half of the drive units were actually still operated using renewable energy sources.
There was a huge rise in oil production in the twentieth century. By 1929 output had already risen to over 200 million tons and in the 1970s it shot up to over three billion tons (Figure 1.2). Today oil is the most important energy source of most industrialized countries. An average German citizen, including infants and pensioners uses 1700 l every year. This amounts to 10 well-filled bathtubs.
Figure 1.2 Oil production since 1860.
Being too dependent on a single energy source can become a serious problem for a society, as history shows. In 1960 OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) was founded, with headquarters in Vienna. The goal of OPEC is to coordinate and standardize the oil policies of its member states. These include Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iraq, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and the United Arab Emirates, who between them at the end of the twentieth century controlled 40% of worldwide oil production. As a result of the Yom Kippur war between Israel, Syria, and Egypt, the OPEC states cut back on production in 1973. This led to the first oil crisis and a drastic rise in oil prices. Triggered by shortfalls in production and uncertainty after the revolution in Iran and the ensuing first Gulf War, the second oil crisis occurred in 1979 with oil prices rising to USD38 per barrel.
The drastic rise in oil prices set back world economic growth and energy use by about four years. The industrialized nations, which had become used to low oil prices, reacted sharply, resulting in schemes such as car-free Sundays and programmes promoting the use of renewable energies. Differences between the individual OPEC states in turn led to a rise in production quotas and a steep drop in price at the end of the 1980s. This also sharply reduced the commitment of the industrialized nations to use renewable energies.
From Alsatian Herring Barrels to Oil Barrels
Commercial oil production in Europe began in Pechelbronn in Alsace (now France) in 1735. Barrels that had previously been used to store herrings were cleaned and then used to store the oil, because in those days salted herring was traded in large quantities, which meant the barrels were comparatively cheap. As oil production increased, special barrels of the same size were produced exclusively for oil. The bottom of the barrels was painted blue to prevent any confusion with barrels used for food products. When commercial oil production began in the USA, the companies copied the techniques used in the Alsace region. This also included the standard size of herring barrels. Since then the herring barrel volume has remained the international measuring unit for oil. The abbreviation of barrel is bbl, which stands for ‘blue barrel’ and means a barrel with a blue base.
1 petroleum barrel (US) = 1 bbl (US) = 158.987 l (litres)
The dramatic collapse in the price of crude oil from almost USD40 a barrel to USD10 created economic problems for some of the production countries, and also made it unattractive to develop new oil sources. In 1998 unity was largely restored again among the OPEC states. They agreed on lower production quotas in order to halt any further drop in prices. In fact, prices rose even higher than originally intended. Now the lack of investment in energy-saving measures was coming home to roost. The economic boom in China and in other countries further boosted the demand for oil to such an extent that it was difficult to meet and, as a consequence, oil prices kept climbing to new record highs. Even though the oil price has fallen sharply again since the financial crisis, new record prices are expected again due to the limited supplies available.
Yet, there have been some fundamental changes since the beginning of the 1980s. In many industrialized countries, energy use has decreased despite rapid and sustained economic growth. The realization has set in that energy use and gross national product are not inextricably linked. It is possible for prosperity to increase even if energy use levels or drops. Nonetheless, the chance to develop true alternatives to oil and to make energy-saving options the norm was missed due to the long period of continuous low oil prices.
This is particularly apparent in the transport sector where cars became faster, more comfortable, heavier, and with more horsepower, but only minimally more fuel-efficient. Today, the fortunate drivers of company cars with 50 hp more than 20 years ago, regularly get stuck in traffic jams (made bearable by air-conditioning and high-tech stereo systems). The tank is also bigger, so that the heavier car, with virtually unchanged consumption, can reach the next petrol station selling cheap fuel. As a result of all the talk about climate change and high oil prices, car manufacturers are now scrambling to incorporate features into their cars that have not been demanded in decades: fuel efficiency and low emissions of greenhouse gases. Since many car companies are struggling with the new requirements, they continue to rely on tried and tested concepts. Because of their political influence, they are able to prevent or dilute the strict savings targets urgently needed for climate protection. Or, like the VW Group, they try to circumvent existing regulations with illegal methods. If Volkswagen had invested the fines paid in the USA in the development of emission-free electric cars, the company would no doubt have been a world leader in this field and would also have made an enormous contribution to climate protection. In retrospect, it is likely the VW scandal will turn out to be a great stroke of luck for Germany. It has shown the technical saving limits of conventional combustion engines and considerably accelerated the switch to electric cars. In the end, it may even have prevented German car makers from falling behind internationally by uncompromisingly sticking to old technologies.
As important as oil is as a fuel, that is not its only use, because it is also an important raw material for the chemical industry. For example, oil is used as a basic material in the production of plastic chairs, plastic bags, nylon tights, polyester shirts, shower gels, scents, and vitamin pills.
1.1.3 Natural Gas – The Newest Fossil Energy Source
Natural gas is considered to be the cleanest fossil energy source. When natural gas is burnt, it produces fewer harmful substances and climate-damaging carbon dioxide than oil or coal. However, this does not change the fact that the combustion of natural gas also produces far too many greenhouse gases for effective climate protection.
The base material for the creation of natural gas was usually green plants in the flat coastal waters of the tropics. The Northern German lowland plains were part of this area 300 million years ago. The lack of oxygen in coastal swampland prevented the organic material from decomposing and so it developed into peat. As time went by, new layers of sand and clay were deposited on the peat, which during the course of millions of years turned into brown and bituminous coal. Natural gas then developed from this due to the high pressure that exists at depths of several kilometres and temperatures of 120–180 °C.
However, natural gas does not consist of a single gas, but rather a mixture of different gases whose composition varies considerably depending on the deposit. The main component is methane, and the gas also often contains relatively large quantities of hydrogen sulphide, which is poisonous and even in very small concentrations smells of rotten eggs. Therefore, natural gas must often first be purified in processing plants using physiochemical processes. As natural gas deposits usually also contain water, the gas must be dried to prevent corrosion in the natural gas pipelines (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Left: Building a natural gas pipeline in Eastern Germany. Right: Storage facility for 4.2 billion m3 of natural gas in Rehden, 60 km south of Bremen.
Source: Photos: WINGAS GmbH.
Natural gas was not seen as a significant energy source until relatively recently. It was not until the early 1960s that natural gas was promoted and marketed in large quantities. The reasons for this late use of natural gas compared to coal and oil is that extracting it requires drilling to depths of several thousand metres. It also requires complicated transport. Whereas oil was initially still being transported in wooden barrels, gas requires pressure storage or pipelines for its transport. Nowadays, pipelines extend for thousands of kilometres from the extraction sites, all the way to providing gas heating to family homes. The world's largest gas producer is Russia, followed by the USA, Canada, Iran, Norway, and Algeria.
However, the demand for natural gas is not constant over the whole year. In countries with cold winters the demand in winter is often double what it is in summer. As it is not economical to cut summer production by a half, enormous storage facilities are needed to balance the uneven seasonal demand. So-called salt caverns and aquifer reservoirs are used. Caverns are shafts dug in underground salt deposits from where the stored gas can quickly be extracted – for instance, to cover sudden high demand. Underground aquifer reservoirs are suitable for the storage of particularly large quantities of gas. Hence this rock is again filled with what it had stored for over 300 million years and taken from it in a few decades. In total, Germany has a natural gas storage capacity amounting to more than 30 billion cubic metres in operation, in planning or under construction. This corresponds to a cuboid with a base area of 20 by 20 km and a height of 75 m. Environmentally compatible hydrogen is expected to play an important role in future energy supply in the foreseeable future. The existing natural gas storage facilities are already sufficient to compensate for seasonal fluctuations in a completely renewable energy supply. Therefore, natural gas storage facilities and networks will very soon play a central role in securing a sustainable energy supply in the future.
1.1.4 Nuclear Power – Split Energy
In December 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann split a uranium nucleus on a simple laboratory bench at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin-Dahlem, thereby laying the foundation for the future use of nuclear energy. The laboratory bench can still be admired today at the Deutsches Museum in Munich.
In the experiment a uranium-235 nucleus was bombarded with slow neutrons. The nucleus then split, producing two atomic parts, krypton and barium, as well as two or three other neutrons. With a large quantity of uranium-235, these new neutrons can also split uranium nuclei that in turn release neutrons, thus leading to a chain reaction. If enough uranium is available, the uncontrolled chain reaction will create an atomic bomb. If the speed of the chain reaction can be controlled, uranium-235 can also be used as fuel for power plants.
Germany as an Example of Nuclear History
The Paris Treaty of 5 May 1955 allowed Germany non-military use of nuclear energy. Expectations for the nuclear industry ran high. A separate ministry for nuclear energy was created, and the first minister was Franz Josef Strauss. On 31 October 1957, Germany put its first research reactor, called the nuclear egg, into operation at the Technical University in Munich. In June 1961 the Kahl nuclear power plant fed electricity into the public grid for the first time. In 1972 the Stade and Wuergassen commercial nuclear power plants began to provide electricity, and with Biblis the world's first 1200 MW block went into operation in 1974. In 1989 the last new power plant, Neckarwestheim, was connected to the grid. Until that point the federal government had invested over 19 billion euros in the research and development of nuclear energy. However, public concerns about the risks of nuclear energy continued to grow and prevented the building of new power plants. In 2000, Germany decided to phase out nuclear power. In 2011, another federal government significantly extended the operating times again, but the phase-out was reinstated in the same year, following the accidents at the Fukushima nuclear power plant. The last nuclear power plant in Germany is scheduled to be disconnected from the grid in 2022. Despite more than 50 years of nuclear energy use in Germany, the problem of end storage for highly radioactive waste has still not completely been resolved.
In nuclear fission there is a so-called mass defect, i.e. the total mass of the fission particles is less than that of the original uranium nucleus. A complete fission of 1 kg of uranium-235 produces a mass loss of a single gram. This lost mass is then completely converted into energy. An energy mass of 24 million kilowatt hours is thereby released. Around 3000 tons of coal would have to be burnt to release the same amount of energy.
After Hahn's discovery the use of nuclear energy was promoted mainly by the military. Albert Einstein, who emigrated to the USA in 1933 to escape Nazi persecution, sent a letter to US president Roosevelt on 2 August 1939 warning him that Hitler's Germany was making a serious effort to produce pure uranium-235 that could be used to build an atomic bomb. When the Second World War broke out on 1 September 1939, the American government set up the Manhattan Project with the aim of developing and building an effective atomic bomb.
The biggest problem turned out to be the ability to produce significant quantities of uranium-235 to maintain a chain reaction. If metallic uranium is refined from uranium ore, there is a 99.3% probability that it will consist of heavy uranium-235. This is practically useless for producing a bomb. It even has the characteristic of decelerating and absorbing neutrons, thus bringing any kind of chain reaction to a halt. Only 0.7% of available uranium consists of uranium-235, which must be enriched proportionally higher to create a chain reaction. No separation between uranium-235 and uranium-238 can be achieved by chemical means because chemically both isotopes are totally identical. Consequently, other solutions had to be sought. Ultimately, this separation succeeded through the use of a centrifuge, because the isotopes have different masses.
The Manhattan Project cost more than USD2 billion between 1939 and 1945. The desired results were finally achieved under the direction of the physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer: on 16 July 1945, two months after the capitulation of Germany, the first test of the atomic bomb was carried out in the US state of New Mexico. Using the bomb on Germany was no longer up for discussion, but shortly before the end of the Second World War the atomic bomb was dropped on the Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki – with the well-known aftermath.
The non-military use of nuclear energy came some years later. Although physicists like Werner Heisenberg and Enrico Fermi had been conducting tests in reactors since 1941, it was not until December 1951 in Idaho that the research reactor EBR 1 succeeded in generating electric current using nuclear energy.
www.bund.net/atomkraft
www.atomindustrie.de
https://pris.iaea.org/pris
www.wiseinternational.org
www.no2nuclearpower.org.uk
Friends of the Earth Germany info
Satirical site on the use of nuclear energy
IEA Power Reactor Information System
World Information Service on Energy
News and information about the UK nuclear industry
