Renewable Energy Engineering: Solar, Wind, Biomass, Hydrogen and Geothermal Energy Systems E-Book
Irene P. Koronaki
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Recent Advances in Renewable Energy
- Sprache: Englisch
Researchers, politicians and lay persons around the world agree that renewable energy technologies will play an increasingly important role in strengthening national economies in the future. The renewable energy industry has the potential to significantly
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018
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PREFACE
This book examines the recent advances from the theoretical as well as applied perspectives addressing the major issues associated with renewable energy systems. Each chapter is self-contained and tackles the fundamental issues and latest developments of a particular sub-topic. This book gives the opportunity to even non-specialized readers to understand the complexity of each topic, and to access the most up-to-date literature. Moreover, it enables specialized readers to broaden their understanding of complex renewable energy topics and it provides a comprehensive overview of the cutting-edge developments of the issues covered by the book.
This book covers important themes including CSPs, thermal energy storage systems, bioenergy applications, hydrogen production storage systems and normal shallow geothermal systems as well as the measurement techniques that are used for these systems. “Recent advances in Renewable Energy Systems” is a reference book for professional engineers from power, refrigeration companies as well as engineering students because it connects the theory to applications in such a way that can be easily understood.
It is intended for researchers and postgraduates with an interest in energy, climate change and environmental economics, and also policymakers and energy companies.
Chapter 1 introduces CSP as mature technology according to its widespread deployment. CSP is the only type of renewable energy that allows long term energy storage over sufficiently long periods of time and at large scales to completely eliminate the intermittent nature of the solar resource. However, cost reduction is essential in order to compete with alternative sources. Existing technologies are described in detail highlighting improvement opportunities. Increasing the overall solar-to-electric energy conversion efficiency by developing new power conversion pathways and looking for alternative markets for CSP such as desalination, process heat, enhanced oil recovery or hybridization appear to be the best options for the future.
In Chapter 2, Thermal Energy Storage (TES) systems are presented, supported by renewable energy sources (mainly solar energy as an effective means of achieving the aforementioned goal). This study reviews the available TES systems. In this context, sensible TES systems which utilize liquid and solid storage media and their applications are presented. Furthermore, the usage of ice and other solid-liquid phase change materials in latent heat storage systems is investigated in terms of materials, applications and future trends. Finally, the utilization of thermochemical reactions in TES systems is presented.
In Chapter 3, new and innovative ideas about the adoption of solar energy systems in buildings are presented. Simple and low cost solar collectors which can produce heating in low and medium temperatures levels are analyzed. Emphasis is given in the utilization of Phase Change Materials, as well as in the utilization of solar assisted heat pumps. Moreover, innovative passive heating systems, as Trombe wall are presented with details.
Chapter 4 presents the use of solid, liquid and gaseous biomass as an energy source, with particular emphasis being given to biogas production by anaerobic digestion.
Chapter 5 presents the evolution of wind energy throughout the last 30 years, along with its prospects for covering a considerable percentage of the future global electrical demand. Furthermore, available information concerning the major wind energy markets has been analysed and revealed in general the existing trends of wind energy for the next years to come. In this context, technology and financial aspects along with environmental issues arising from wind power projects’ implementation are investigated in order to provide all the necessary data for acquiring an integrated view of the wind energy future.
Chapter 7 provides basic operational and construction guidelines concerning all possible geothermal plants (closed or open loop) along with representing drawings. The chapter begins with basic geological information regarding the ability of the subsoil to absorb or supply heat via the integrated heat exchanger. Subsequently, a summary on the operation of heat pumps in general and the advantages of geothermal pumps is provided. Then, the two main categories of geothermal loops are analyzed: closed loop horizontal or vertical geothermal exchangers and open loop system installations. Finally, the proposed methodology to follow when such a system should be designed is discussed, containing cost elements issues of such systems.
Chapter 8 presents the essential continuous monitoring of outdoor natural qualities for optimizing operation, preventing small and large scale damages and adapting design according local conditions. Common requirement for such applications is saving data for a long period of time and/or the ability to send them on line. This is why most of the instrumentation presented in this chapter is based on transducers: flow transducers, temperature transducers solar radiation transducers, humidity transducers etc.
List of Contributors
Solar Thermal Energy Systems
Sonia Fereres*Abstract
To date, concentrated solar power is the only type of renewable energy that allows for long term energy storage over sufficiently long periods of time and at large scales to completely eliminate the intermittent nature of the solar resource. It is a proven and mature technology as shown by its widespread deployment. However, cost reduction is essential in order to compete with alternative sources. Existing technologies are described in detail highlighting improvement opportunities. Increasing the overall solar-to-electric energy conversion efficiency by developing new power conversion pathways and looking for alternative markets for Concentrated Solar Power such as desalination, process heat, enhanced oil recovery or hybridization appear to be the best options for the future.
INTRODUCTION
Overview of Solar Thermal Energy Systems
Globally, the current production of energy from non-renewable fossil fuel sources is unsustainable both from the point of view of their depletion and their impact on global warming and climate change. The energy problem is of such complexity, that there is not a unique technological solution or a single source of renewable energy that would drastically alter the present situation in the short run. Sustainable and low-carbon technologies will play a crucial role in the energy mix in the years to come. Solar thermal energy is one of those technologies.
Solar thermal energy encompasses a large number of technologies that harness solar energy to produce heat. This thermal energy, depending on its temperature range and on the scale of production, can be utilized directly as heat for residential
or industrial applications. The solar heat can be further converted into electricity or into other energy vectors such as fuels.
This chapter will focus on the generation of electricity from solar thermal energy. The market and current deployment of solar thermal electric energy (STE) or Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) systems will be discussed, highlighting the space where Concentrated solar power plants can be profitable and compete with other renewable and non-renewable energy sources. The different Concentrated solar power technologies will be described, discussing in detail the main elements in a Concentrated solar power system and where the current technological challenges reside. Recent research and developments in the different areas will be analysed and, finally, the current trends and opportunities towards achieving further efficiency improvements and cost reductions will be discussed.
Solar Energy Conversion to Electricity: Concentrated Solar Energy
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) or Solar Thermal Energy Electricity (STE) generates electricity by concentrating solar radiation to heat a material (typically a fluid). The heated material, referred to as Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF) or Heat Transfer Medium (HTM), is then used to generate steam (or to heat a different working fluid such as air) to drive a turbine-generator set in the power block. As a result of this solar-to-heat conversion step, thermal energy storage is easily incorporated, making it the main competitive advantage of Concentrated solar power systems. Thermal storage allows dispatchable renewable energy electricity generation at any time of the day, at night or during periods of low solar insolation. The excess heat produced during peak insolation periods can be used to heat up the heat transfer fluids and storage materials. This heat can be discharged later when the sun is not shining, decoupling heat generation from electricity production.
Concentrated solar power also has the advantage of being able to produce electricity at a utility scale. Furthermore, because the power block unit in Concentrated solar power is similar to that of conventional fossil fuel thermal power systems (e.g. steam cycles, an ORC, etc.), the system is easy to operate and allows easy hybridization particularly with natural gas combined cycle plants. Recent years have seen a rapid growth in STE installed capacity, price, and in technological and performance improvements. However, for Concentrated solar power to be cost-competitive with fossil fuels and with photovoltaics (PV), additional developments are still needed to further reduce its costs. Fossil fuel generation such as natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) power plants might still need to be appropriately penalized for carbon dioxide emissions in order to provide a fair comparison to STE electric generation.
In the past 5-10 years, the generation of solar thermal electricity through Concentrated solar power plants has grown robustly yet much slower than anticipated in the past [1]. The first commercial CSP plants were deployed in California, USA, in the 1980s. In the late 2000s, the economic crisis limited the resurgence of CSP plant development in Spain, which had expanded thanks to government subsidies. Construction of CSP in the USA was slow until 2013 due to competition of cheap conventional and unconventional gas sources (i.e. shale gas) and constantly decreasing PV prices. However, the capability of CSP plants to supply electricity on demand through their built-in storage will continue to gain importance until other intermittent renewable energy forms such as photovoltaics (PV) and wind power increase their shares of global electricity and essentially until large scale battery technology finally takes off.
There are currently over 10 GW worldwide installed (or under construction/ development) solar thermal power plants [2]. This number includes all different types of technology (parabolic trough, linear Fresnel reflector, power tower, and dish/engine systems). Of the 10 GW, 44% correspond to operational facilities, 14% are under construction, and 42% are under development. A current map of solar thermal projects with the power generated by country or region and by power plant status can be seen in Fig. (1), even though at the moment it is uncertain if all projects will achieve the required permits, financing, and power purchase agreements [1].
Fig. (1)) CSP Projects around the world [2].Unfortunately, even though CSP allows for large scale generation, it is also very sensitive to scale [3]. CSP plants need scales of megawatts or larger to maximize efficiency and minimize costs, requiring very large capital investments and financial risks that not everybody can take on. It is a technologically viable solution for areas with large solar resource and land availability, but it is not currently cost-competitive without subsidies. This is the reason for important cost reduction investment efforts worldwide. For example, the United States Department of Energy launched a very ambitious research funding program in 2010 named Sunshot Initiative to reduce the leveled cost of solar generated electricity by 75% in a decade [4] without employing subsidies. To understand where to focus these cost reduction efforts, Sunshot Initiative proposed a simplified cost breakdown of CSP electricity that can be seen in Fig. (2) comparing typical costs from 2010 with the projected necessary reductions to achieve competitiveness in 2020. The solar field and thermal energy storage are the areas with largest cost reduction potential (above 75%), followed by the receiver, heat transfer fluid, and power plant.
Fig. (2)) United States Department of Energy - SunShot Program cost reduction targets for CSP systems [4].Similarly, the International Energy Agency (IEA) SolarPACES Strategic Plan from 2012 to 2016 [2] also has concentrated in achieving a significant cost reduction for new plants, aiming to guarantee a high performance over the power plant life time. Cost reduction is suggested to be mainly attained through simplifications, mass production and evolution in the manufacturing processes but without forgetting the need for new developments of advanced materials, processes, and concepts.
Other limitations of CSP technology are the availability of high voltage transmission connections to major electricity consuming centers in the vicinity of such large installations. CSP plants also require vast land use and large water supply in locations where water is a scarce resource such as desserts. Most of the water use in a CSP plant is for cooling purposes, whereas a comparatively minimal amount of water is required to clean the solar collector reflective surfaces. A contemporary wet-cooled parabolic trough CSP plant requires 2.9–3.2 liters per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of water for cooling purposes [3]. Consequently, the development of dry cooling technologies is growing rapidly [4]. Unfortunately, dry cooling technologies currently only represent a very small fraction of the installed CSP plants [5].
In terms of technological limitations, the main challenge remains increasing the thermodynamic cycle upper working temperatures. A further increase of operational temperatures can have major impact on energy conversion efficiency and cost reductions, however higher efficient power cycles that can be coupled to the solar field are yet to be fully demonstrated at the commercial scale. Moreover, current STE designs are approaching container material thermal limits. Additionally, there are no ideal candidates for new higher temperature heat transfer media. New molten salt mixtures that can be used at higher temperatures typically also have higher corrosion rates with common container materials and/or have higher freezing points, merely shifting (but not increasing) the operating temperature range. Novel HTM will involve rethinking current STE power plants and will consequently increase the risk (and financing challenges) of the future installations.
In spite of the aforementioned shortcomings, the CSP installations have continued to grow. The CSP deployment in the US in the past few years can be seen in Table 1. It includes both trough and tower technology, at scales comparable to current fossil power plants (> 100 MW, most approaching 300 MW) and not all of them include thermal storage.
The business case for concentrated solar power will depend on the market. In spite of the ever-growing PV market, there is still room for electricity generation early in the morning or in the evening, when PV can no longer be a useful source. According to the SunShot initiative [4], the ideal solar power plant of the future for the US market will be different from these current large-scale utility size installations. It is believed to consist of smaller, more modular systems (in the 1-50 MW size range), with a low-cost, mass-manufactured solar field, a more efficient power block, coupled to low cost thermal energy storage, more capital-efficient (needing smaller capital investments per plant or including new financing mechanisms such as yieldco´s and green bonds) and it should be co-optimized with PV.
From the technical point of view, there is also still room for improvement. Recent studies [3] claim that there is still a substantial opportunity to increase the overall solar-to-electricity conversion efficiency in a concentrated solar power plant. It implies rethinking the power conversion scheme. In a typical concentrated solar power mirror array and thermal receiver there can be losses around 42% [3]. Independently of the efficiency of the collector system, in the end, due to the thermodynamics of the Rankine cycle, only 40% of the captured and concentrated thermal energy can be converted to electricity. Gross thermal-to-electric conversion efficiencies are typically 35%–45% [4]. If the solar field has an overall efficiency around 42%, after the power plant needs are met, that means that only about 16% of the incident radiation is successfully transformed into net electric output.
The technologies deployed in concentrated solar power plants to generate electricity also show significant potential for supplying specialized demands such as process heat for industry; co-generation of heating, cooling and power; and water desalination. They could also produce concentrating solar fuels (CSF, such as hydrogen and other energy carriers) – an important area for further research and development [1]. Solar-generated hydrogen can help decarbonize the transport and other end-use sectors by mixing hydrogen with natural gas in pipelines and distribution grids, and by producing cleaner liquid fuels.
In summary, to this date, concentrated solar power is the only type of renewable energy that allows for long term energy storage over sufficiently long periods of time and at large scales to completely eliminate the intermittent nature of the solar resource. However, cost reduction is fundamental in order to compete without subsidies. Increasing the overall energy conversion efficiency by developing new power conversion pathways and looking for alternative markets for concentrated solar power such as desalination, process heat, enhanced oil recovery or hybridization seem like the best options for the future.
CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER TECHNOLOGIES
As mentioned above, concentrated solar power employs a solar collector (e.g. mirrors) to reflect, concentrate, and focus the solar radiation to heat a heat transfer fluid (HTF) that is circulating through a receiver/absorber. The HTF transfers the absorbed heat to a heat engine (turbine) to convert the thermal energy into mechanical energy, with the possibility of having or not an intermediate thermal energy storage system. A turbine-generator set transforms the mechanical energy into electricity in the power block. A schematic describing this general concentrated solar power concept and components is shown in Fig. (3).
Fig. (3)) General schematic of a concentrated solar power system with its main components: collector/reflector, receiver/absorber, heat transfer fluid, thermal energy storage, and power block.Depending on the way the solar radiation is focused, i.e. the type of collector-receiver, concentrated solar power systems can be line-focus (linear Fresnel, parabolic trough) or point-focus (dish-Stirling, central receiver power tower, and beam down). The main concentrated solar power technologies can be seen in Fig. (4). Though all these technologies use different methods to focus the incident solar radiation, their operating principle is the same and they share similar elements such as HTF, thermal energy storage systems, and power blocks.
Fig. (4)) Main CSP technologies from Ref [1].Data regarding the actual concentrated solar power plant projects that are currently operational or under construction worldwide can be readily found at the National Renewable Laboratory (NREL) website [5]. It is data compiled by the SolarPACES (Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems) organization. It gives a clear picture of the concentrated solar power technology maturity, installed capacity, project location and development trends. For example, as Fig. (5) shows, parabolic trough projects outnumber any other technology (over 4 GW operational in 77 plants with an average plant size of approximately 50 MW). Power tower technology only has a total of 567 GW operational plants; however, the plant size distribution is very uneven: there are 6 plants with turbine gross capacity around 2 MW each (typically technology demonstrators), 3 plants with an average of 17 MW and 2 more plants exceeding 100 MW. Looking at power tower plants that are currently under construction, all of them are projects where each concentrated solar power plant produces 50 MW or more. It is also interesting to highlight that there are no current operational dish-engine plants. It is also expected to see a rise in the development of LFR plants in the coming years, since they are well suited for other uses besides electricity production and can be easily coupled with new hybrid technology such as thermophotovoltaics (TPV).
Fig. (5)) Current concentrated solar power installed gross turbine capacity and number of projects by technology type and status (data compiled from [5]).Table 2 summarizes the main performance metrics for the different types of concentrated solar power technologies. The main parameter describing the degree of solar radiation concentration is the concentration ratio, defined as the ratio between the collector aperture area and the receiver aperture area. The highest concentration ratios are achieved with parabolic dish technology (well above 1000) and the lowest are typically found in Linear Fresnel (LFR) (approximately 30), although they can improve slightly if a secondary receiver is installed. Although parabolic dishes have the highest concentration ratios and highest solar-to-electric conversion efficiency, there are no current commercial concentrated solar power plants with this technology mainly because it is not cost-effective.
According to the International Energy Agency [1, 6] the highest outlook for improvements can be found in power tower technology, essentially related to the development of advanced power cycles and new heat transfer fluids capable of operating at higher temperatures. Parabolic trough is the most mature technology and there seems to be limited space for further developments, however there are still many trough projects under construction (adding a total of almost 1 GW according to SolarPACES/NREL [5]).
The main technologies, their characteristic, challenges and opportunities for improvements are described in detail below.
Parabolic Trough Systems
Parabolic trough systems are the most mature of the concentrated solar power technologies. They have been used for utility scale power generation since the 1980s. Trough system components have been tested and optimized over many design generations. Operation and maintenance costs are also well understood and can be easily planned. Over three decades of commercial operation experience reduce the system risk, making parabolic trough the easiest technology to currently finance.
Long parabolic mirrors focus the incident sunlight onto receiver tubes located at the focal line of the mirrors (Fig. 6). The mirror and receiver tube structure tracks the sun throughout the day, rotating along its axis. A heat transfer fluid (HTF) is heated as it flows through the receiver tubes. This HTF is commonly synthetic oil but recent developments also use molten salts (Archimede Solar Plant in Italy [9]) or even air at ambient pressure (Airlight Energy Ait Baha Plant [5]). The heated HTF transfers the thermal energy in a heat exchanger to steam, which is then used to generate electricity through a conventional Rankine cycle. Other systems have explored Direct Steam Generation (DSG), producing water steam in the receiver tubes directly and eliminating the need for a HTF-to-steam heat exchanger.
Fig. (6)) Parabolic trough collectors and aerial view from Abengoa´s Mojave Solar plant in California, with a gross capacity of 280 MW covering nearly 2 square miles with 2,200 mirrored parabolic trough collectors and 1.5 million square meters of reflective area [10].The main trough components are: the frames and support structures, the reflector surfaces, receiver tubes, sun-tracking drive and control system, and heat transfer fluid system. Main engineering efforts focus on reducing the structural support system aiming towards lighter, modular and scalable designs for easy, inexpensive assembly and deployment.
Parabolic trough technology is inherently modular and can be easily up-scaled. The basic plant layout consists of a number of collectors connected to form a single unit (or loop) that is connected to the heat transfer fluid system circuit and repeated over the solar field. The heat transfer fluid travels from the loops to and from a steam generator to drive the steam turbine to generate power. Many of these systems incorporate 2-tank sensible heat molten salt storage systems, for which a HTF-salt- steam heat exchanger is also needed.
The main drawbacks of this technology are:
Large land requirements for a vast extension of collector rows and loops.Upper temperatures of the HTF limited to 400ºC (synthetic oil), reducing the thermodynamic efficiency of the systemThermal losses (convection, re-radiation)Degradation of receiver tube performance after operationThere is a decreasing number of R&D activities in this type of technology, since it is relatively mature and well extended commercially. Many incremental developments are under way to explore new reduced cost collector designs, performance improvements such as new absorber coatings, or mitigation strategies to avoid receiver tube performance loss over the lifetime of the plant.
Linear Fresnel Systems
In linear Fresnel (LFR) systems, a series of flat or slightly curved mirrors arranged closed to the ground focus the incident radiation on an elevated receiver tube assembly, but in contrast to parabolic trough installations, the structure is stationary. The primary reflectors (mirrors) track the sunlight while the receiver assembly is fixed. The fixed receiver consists of one or more receiver tubes arranged in a flat or low profile array and an optional secondary reflector. This flat or nearly flat reflector profile leads to higher concentration ratios without significantly increasing wind loads. This leads to much lower capital and operating costs, but also much lower conversion efficiencies mainly due to greater optical losses.
Traditionally, LFR have been used for low- and medium-temperature heat generation for a wide variety of applications such as building heating and cooling, industrial process heat supply, or water treatment. Advanced state-of-the-art LFR are targeting higher temperature applications for both heat and electricity production [11].
A substantial limitation with traditional LFR is that large space is required between reflectors to avoid shading, which leads to large ground utilization requirements for a given collector area. In order to overcome this space requirement, a compact linear Fresnel (CLFR) [12] has been proposed, where two separate receivers share the reflectors located between them. A reflector will track one receiver or the other depending on which one provides less shading/blockage loss (Fig. 7). The CLFR system increases the optical efficiency compared to a conventional LFR, but it adds complexity to the reflector tracking mechanism [11].
Except for a few exceptions, current operational LFR plants use direct steam generation (DSG), i.e. water/steam is the heat transfer fluid that circulates through the receiver tubes. The only reported operational LFR plant using a different HTF is in Rende, Calabria (Italy) using thermal oil instead [5]. New higher temperature designs are also exploring the use of molten salts as heat transfer fluid in LFR plants. A molten salt LFR is conceptually feasible and at least two different demonstration prototypes have been built since 2014 [13, 14] but commercial plants have yet to be constructed and freeze recovery systems must be developed and tested.
Fig. (7)) AREVA Solar´s Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector (CLFR) solar collector [13].The main challenges in LFR developments are, similar to other concentrated solar power systems, related to adapting the technology for higher temperature operation to increase efficiency. In this sense, material developments for higher temperature absorber coatings are needed for LFR and other technologies. However, LFR have larger difficulties in maintaining the optical efficiency while increasing the concentration ratio compared to other concentrated solar power systems.
LFR systems are particularly well suited for the combination of concentrated solar power, solar heating/cooling, and photovoltaic (PV) or concentrated PV in integrated installations due to the design flexibility of the fixed receiver structure [11]. Parabolic troughs have significantly higher design challenges for these types of STE-PV systems due to the lack of a secondary reflector and the whole movement of the structure. The limited aperture size in the tower receivers is also not economically viable for such STE-PV hybrid systems. Consequently, more progress in LFR is to be expected in this area in the following years.
Dish Systems
A parabolic dish tracks the sun during the day moving along two axes, concentrating the radiation at a focal point situated above the center of the dish. At the focal point, there is an independent engine/generator (such as a Stirling machine or a micro-turbine). Parabolic dishes are limited in size (typically 5-25 kWe) and are usually used as stand-alone electric generators (such as replacements of diesel generators), since thousands would be needed to produce a large-scale concentrated solar power plant. Dishes offer the highest solar-to-electric conversion performance of any concentrated solar power system (25-30% annual solar-to-electrical conversion efficiency).
Several features such as their compact size, low maintenance cost, and the absence of cooling water put parabolic dishes in competition with concentrating photovoltaics (CPV) modules. The modularity of concentrated solar powerdish-Stirling systems allows them to be deployed individually for remote applications, or grouped together for small-grid or end-of-line utility applications. Mass production, cost reduction and improving their compatibility with thermal storage and hybridization to increase dispatchability will allow dishes to compete both with PV and with larger solar thermal systems.
In the current market, there seems to be a limited number of dish-Stirling system suppliers. While several companies have developed dish/Stirling systems over the years, many have gone into bankruptcy. Currently only one company appears poised to deploy the technology immediately on a commercial basis (Ripasso Energy AB [15], Fig. 8) after Infinia Corporation (with its 3 kW, 6.7 m diameter “PowerDish”) filed for bankruptcy in 2013. Another major player, Stirling Energy Systems (SES)- Tessera, with a 25 kW 11.6 m diameter dish product called “SunCatcher”, also filed for bankruptcy in 2011.
As far as large scale concentrated solar powerdish-Stirling projects, two pilot plants have been tested. The first operational concentrated solar power dish-Stilring facility was the Maricopa Solar Project of 1.5 MW in Arizona, USA was completed in 2010, formed by 60 SunCatcher dishes by SES and owned by Tessera-Solar. It was decommissioned in 2011 and sold to CondiSys Solar Technology of China. Another concentrated solar power dish-Stirling facility in current operation is the ECube Energy Dish pilot plant of 1 MW in China.
Some of the advantages of the dish-Stirling technology include low maintenance costs; easy installation since the components are shipped to the site, can be assembled at ground level, no special skills are required, and needs no mirror adjustment. Due to their modularity, dish-engine systems can be also used as stand-alone applications such as water pumping in remote areas. Although their installation and maintenance requirements are much smaller than in other concentrated solar power systems, it still might be a challenge for remote applications. It is most likely that the entry in stand-alone markets will occur after the utility and intermediate scale applications (small grids) become more mature, since they can take advantage of the economies of scale of adding multiple units.
Fig. (8)) Ripasso Energy´s Dish Stirling Hybrid modules are rated at 33 kW each and have a solar-to-electric conversion of 32% [15].Dish-Stirling systems have four major components: 1) concentrator, 2) tracking system, 3) cavity receiver, and 4) Stirling engine. The receiver has two functions: a) absorb as much solar radiation coming from the concentrator, and b) transfer this energy as heat to the engine working gas. The Stirling engine working gas is usually hydrogen or helium at temperatures around 650-700ºC and pressures as high as 20 MPa. The receiver in a dish-Stirling system can be either directly irradiated (small tubes placed in the receiver form the absorber´s surface through which the engine´s working gas is circulated and heated as the radiation is concentrated on tubes) or indirectly irradiated (a liquid-metal intermediate heat transfer fluid in a heat pipe or in pool boiler is used to transfer the concentrated radiation from the absorber surface to the engine head, where the surface of tubes with engine working gas are located). Generally speaking, the receivers are capable of absorbing high levels of solar radiation (on the order of 75 W/cm2).
Most R&D efforts are currently aiming at integrating thermal energy storage (TES) within the receiver [16] and /or hybridizing the technology with natural gas burners. With the help of these advances, the solar dish-Stirling system will be able to increase its operating hours and improve its competitiveness.
Dish/engine concentrated solar power systems can be hybridized with fossil fuels to provide dispatch-able power. Typically, an additional gas burner is incorporated into the receiver. While parabolic dish-Brayton systems are inherently easy to hybridize adding a combustor downstream from the receiver, dish-Stirling systems present greater challenges for this task. This is mainly due to the requirements for high temperature isothermal external heat addition in a Stirling cycle. Additionally, geometrical constraints make it difficult to easily integrate both sources of heat (solar & fossil fuel combustion). Although hybrid heat pipe receivers have been under development for the last 20 years with well-known prototypes from Sandia National Labs and DLR, there are yet no commercial hybrid dish-Stirling systems.
Also, due to the high cost of Stirling engines, recent research is looking into using Brayton micro-turbines [17] instead of Stirling engines. However, the efficiency of these Brayton micro-turbines is around 25-33% in contrast to 42% for a standard Stirling engine.
Central Receiver Systems
Central receiver or power towers use an array of mirrors (heliostats) to focus the incident radiation at the receiver located at the top of a tower through a two-axis tracking system. A HTF or HTM flows through the receiver, collecting the heat and transferring it typically to generate steam in a conventional Rankine cycle.
A centralized collector design allows using HTF working at higher temperatures and incorporating more compact and efficient thermal energy storage (TES) systems. Power tower systems have the largest concentration factors, after dish-Stirling, using the added benefit of the economies of scale to achieve further cost reductions. Nevertheless, there is currently no consensus on what is the optimum heliostat (mirror) size for a central receiver tower should be: some developers are increasing the field size and others are suggesting modular smaller tower configurations. Thus, heliostats with a surface area ranging from 1m2 to 160 m2 are being used. In any case, heliostats have to maintain enough distance from one and other to avoid shading or blocking from each other. Optimizing heliostat location on the slopes on the terrain may help increase the heliostat density and decrease shading or blocking issues.
In the past 5 years, central receiver systems have emerged as a major option due to the possibility of increasing the system efficiency and further reducing costs with new solar field and receiver designs and incorporating TES (Fig. 9).
After Abengoa built two direct steam generation (DSG) tower plants near Seville Spain (PS10 and PS20 with a capacity of 11 MW and 20 MW respectively [10]), larger plants have been built in other locations. Also with DSG technology but with a different tower and overall system designs, Bright Source Energy built the largest concentrated solar power installation at the moment, Ivanpah, with 377 MW (net) in total through three distinct towers without storage [1, 5].
Fig. (9)) PS10, the first commercial central receiver tower CSP plant by Abengoa producing 11 MW near Seville, Spain ([10]).The most recent tower developments no longer use water as a HTF. The “Gemasolar” plant built by Torresol Energy was the first tower to use molten salts as both the HTF and the TES ([18]), eliminating the need for a heat exchanger in the system and leading to further cost reductions and efficiency improvements. Gemasolar has a capacity of 19.9 MW and 15 hours of storage. Following that concept, Solar Reserve has built the “Tonopah” plant in Crescent Dunes (Fig. 10), Nevada the largest single tower with a capacity of 110 MW and 10 hours of storage, using molten salts as both the HTF and the TES material. There are currently three other molten salt towers under construction (at the time of writing) producing: 50 MW with 2.5 hours of storage from the “Supcon Solar Project” in China, 110 MW with 17.5 hours of storage from “Atacama-1” in Chile (Abengoa), and 150 MW with 8 hours of storage from “NOOR III” plant (ACWA) in Morocco.
All the central receiver plants to this date employ a steam Rankine conventional thermodynamic cycle in the power block, which penalizes the overall solar-to-electricity conversion efficiency with its ~40% thermodynamic efficiency. This is expected to change in the future as advanced power cycles offering higher efficiencies become more mature and are ready for commercial demonstration.
Fig. (10)) Tonopah Crescent Dunes molten salt power tower plant from Solar Reserve [19].The key technological challenges in central receiver plants are guiding R&D activities to develop materials, receiver technology, heat transfer fluids, storage, and advanced power cycles that can allow higher operating temperatures in order to increase the overall plant efficiency. All these components are interrelated and will be discussed in detail in the following sections.
SOLAR COLLECTORS AND RECEIVERS
Solar Collector Field Improvement Opportunities
The solar collector uses reflector facets such as mirrors to collect, concentrate and redirect the solar radiation to the solar receiver. The solar collector, whether it is for parabolic trough, power tower or dish systems, represents an attractive target for plant cost reduction potential as collector materials, manufacturing and installation account for the main capital investment in a concentrated solar power plant.
The efficiency of active surfaces in both solar collectors and receivers depends primarily on their optical properties (e.g. reflection, absorptance, transmission and re-emission of light). These properties are determined by the incident light wavelength, intensity and angle of incidence, the component materials, and existence of surface texturing and/or coatings. These surfaces must also face harsh environmental conditions and large temperature gradients over a long period of time (i.e. the lifetime of a concentrated solar power plant is typically around 20 years) while maintaining high optical properties.
The main desirable characteristics of reflector surfaces are often competing: high reflectance, durability, low cost, low operation and maintenance (O&M), light weight and resistant to abrasion, oxidation or corrosion.
There are certain common improvement opportunities in concentrated solar power collector technology [20-22], regardless of the plant type:
Optical efficiency improvements in reflectors: increasing the optical performance and the durability of reflectors by using low-cost materials is an active area of research that will also reduce solar collector costs. Reflector films might replace glass, making troughs lighter and cheaper. Traditional mirrors are made of glass and reflective coatings on the back of the glass. High reflectance materials such as silver and aluminum are commonly used as reflective substrates; however, new lower cost oxides are also being explored. There are new viable alternative materials to glass as superstrates for concentrated solar power collector surfaces such as coated aluminum reflectors, and polymeric film substrate reflectors.Reflector anti-soiling coatings and cleaning techniques: soiling and dust collects on collector surfaces over time, decreasing the specular reflectance of the collectors and, consequently, reducing the solar field efficiency. The accumulation of dust or sand is particularly problematic in arid or desert regions, which are typically where concentrated solar power plants are located. Reflector cleaning accounts for a significant portion of the solar field O&M costs. Lower maintenance and /or new cheaper cleaning techniques should be developed, as keeping the reflector surfaces clean play a major role in plant efficiency. Traditional cleaning with water is labor intensive and requires large amounts of water in areas where typically water is scarce. Novel cleaning methods can be passive (e.g. anti-soiling and self-cleaning coatings) and active (e.g. new cleaning techniques that do not require water).Sun-tracking, drives and control systems:In general, more reliable wireless methods for collector control and communications and self-aligning technology are among the new developments that are needed for future control systems [23].Specifically, for power tower technology: Low cost alternative heliostat drives and control algorithms are being developed to substitute current expensive azimuth drives. Large fields with slanted slopes require especially accurate controls. Also, small heliostats require finer controls for accurate positioning and wiring since they will need a larger number of elements compared to larger heliostats for a given solar field.Support structure: Wind-loads dominate the structural design criteria for both trough collector and heliostat supports. Pedestal structures have a larger impact on large heliostats as they experience higher wind loads for which they require more structural steel per surface area to survive worst wind loads case scenario. Both analytical modeling and expensive experimental validation of new designs are currently needed. The development of novel non-steel support structures could also lead to further cost reductions.Collector design and manufacturing: low cost, mass-produced and highly automated manufacturing of collector mirrors can significantly reduce the overall system cost. New designs that require less collector material quantity are also being explored as cost-reduction opportunities. Moreover, easy and automatic assembly and installation procedures can reduce the overhead cost during construction and decrease the time to market of new technologies.Advances in Solar Receivers
The receiver section in a concentrated solar power plant is where the collector/reflector surfaces concentrate the incident solar radiation. Its purpose is to absorb as much of this concentrated radiation and transfer it to the heat transfer medium of choice, while keeping optical and thermal losses to a minimum. Depending on the system design it may have additional reflective surfaces.
Essentially receiver designs must maximize solar irradiance absorptance and minimize heat losses. The heat transfer medium can be heated directly (e.g. exposed solid particles) or indirectly (e.g. HTF circulating through a tubular receiver) [24]. The main design limitations for receivers typically are: 1) the maximum heat flux that they can absorb and transfer to the heat transfer fluid without overheating the receiver walls or the HTF within them, 2) the maximum temperature gradient the receiver walls can withstand, and 3) reliability over thousands of daily thermal cycles.
Key opportunities for improvement in CSP receiver design include:
Increase the thermal conversion efficiency by reaching higher temperatures in the receiver.Develop new solar selective absorbers and coatings.Reduce thermal losses and spillage.Increase receiver lifetime by decreasing mechanisms that promote performance degradation.Improve receiver performance characterization and modeling tools.The different types of concentrated solar power receivers are summarized below, highlighting the main challenges each specific technology has up to this date.
Parabolic Trough Receivers/Absorbers
The parabolic trough receiver consists of an absorber with a solar selective coating and a glass envelope surrounding the absorber tube (Fig. 11). The glass envelope acts as an anti-reflective and protective coating against dust, oxidation, and abrasion. The enclosure between the absorber tube and the glass envelope is evacuated to reduce the convective heat losses in the receiver. Metal bellows are located at each end of the tube to accommodate thermal expansion with seals that ensure a good vacuum is kept inside the glass enclosure. Certain metallic compounds with affinity for gas molecules called “getters” are installed in the evacuated annular space in order to absorb hydrogen and/or other gases that might permeate into the vacuum over time.
Fig. (11)) Schematic of a parabolic trough receiver.Key problems in the parabolic trough receiver are vacuum losses and receiver lifetime (degradation) [25]. In the past few years, researchers have found that parabolic trough efficiency is greatly affected by heat losses in the receiver tubes and that, over time, these heat losses seem to increase (i.e. “hot tube phenomena”). The heat loss is directly related to the vacuum quality inside the glass envelope of the receiver tube. Degradation of the vacuum can be due to a) outgassing of materials in the system, b) gas permeation through walls and c) air leaks penetrating into the vacuum system. It is commonly accepted that the main gas that could permeate through the vacuum walls is hydrogen resulting from the thermal degradation of the thermal oil used as heat transfer fluid [26, 27]. A recent study [25] using residual gas analysis confirms that, although hydrogen is the main gas produced (99%), the getters are capable of absorbing the hydrogen reasonably well. However, other gases such as nitrogen are not removed so efficiently by the getter and, over time and temperature cycles, nitrogen can saturate the getter, negatively affecting the receiver vacuum quality. In other words, contrary to what is commonly accepted (i.e. hydrogen is responsible for vacuum loss in parabolic trough receivers), new findings suggest that other gases might be highly responsible for the long term heat loss increase (and performance decrease).
Linear Fresnel Receivers
In contrast to parabolic trough receivers, those used in linear Fresnel (LFR) systems are not evacuated (although they still have a glass enclosure) and are typically arranged forming a flat or low-profile tube array. The lack of vacuum leads to larger convective heat losses and limits the possibility of solar selective surfaces to those that do not thermally degrade in air environments.
LFR can have one or an array of receiver tubes (absorbers). An array of absorber tubes will increase the collector intercept area. The receiver assembly also typically has some sort of insulation to decrease thermal losses. Different receiver cavity designs can be found; a common trapezoidal shape cavity is shown in Fig. (12).
Fig. (12)) Schematic of the cross-section of a trapezoidal LFR cavity receiver.As LFR technology moves towards higher temperature applications, new material developments will be needed and evacuated receiver tubes will be further implemented [11]. As mentioned before, some of these material developments are common to other technologies such as novel absorber coatings. Given that LFR receivers have higher convective heat losses compared to other receiver technologies, new LFR receiver designs are investigating alternatives to conventional receiver cavities and cavity cover materials. For instance, new aerogels can be simultaneously insulating and optically transparent and they are being explored as a cavity covers instead of conventional plastic films in order to reduce the convective heat losses [8].
Power Tower Receivers
Receivers for power tower systems can be classified according to:
the type of HTM that is heated in the receivers (liquid, gas, or solid particles)the geometry (tubular, volumetric, liquid film/particle curtain)
