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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Research Methodology and Strategy Provides comprehensive coverage of the entire research process, methodologies, strategies and their applications, ideal for final-year undergraduate, Masters and PhD students, academics, researchers and professionals. Research Methodology and Strategy: Theory and Practice is designed to help readers understand the research process and equip them with the skills required to successfully execute their projects. In-depth chapters describe the general research processes, different research paradigms and their applications and criticism, and more. Written by authors with decades of research experience, this authoritative textbook addresses the skills needed by all active researchers, including mixed method research design and development, data- and technology-driven research methodologies, writing and publishing research outcomes, strengthening research-practice nexus and strategies for improving research impact and citations. * Provides a solid understanding of interdisciplinary research and analytical methods * Offers clear guidance on the application of data-driven and technology-enabled research methods * Covers qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods research methodologies * Discusses different case study research methods and practices * Describes methods drawn from business, management, economics, and social sciences research * Provides strategies for thesis and journal article writing and publishing * Provides theoretical frameworks and examples for research-practice nexus and improving research impacts Research Methodology and Strategy: Theory and Practice is an invaluable textbook for senior undergraduate, masters, and PhD research students, academic and scientific researchers, and industry professionals who perform research in the course of their work.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Research Methodology and Strategy
Theory and Practice
Patrick X.W. Zou, PhD Chang’an Scholar Distinguished Professor Chang’an University, China
Xiaoxiao Xu, PhD Associate Professor Nanjing Forestry University, China
This edition first published 2023
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Hardback ISBN: 9781394190225; epub ISBN: 9781394190232; epdf ISBN: 9781394190249; obook ISBN: 9781394190256;
Cover Images: Courtesy of Patrick X.W. Zou and Xiaoxiao Xu, Marko Geber/Getty Images, David Buffington/Getty Images, artpartner-images/Getty Images
Cover Design: Wiley
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry, India
Our deepest gratitude to our families for their enduring and selfless love and support: Dr Hongyu Li, Joanne Zou, Daniel Zou, Yu Gao, Zimo Xu
Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Foreword by Andrew Dainty
Foreword by Chimay J. Anumba
Foreword by Lieyun Ding
Foreword by Dongping Fang
Acknowledgements
1 Fundamentals of Research
2 Qualitative Research
3 Quantitative Research
4 Mixed Methods Research
5 Case Study Research
6 Technology-Enabled Experimental Research
7 Data-Driven Research
8 The Fifth Research Paradigm: Hybrid Natural-Social Sciences Methods Research
9 Journal Article Writing and Publishing
10 Thesis Writing
11 Research–Practice Nexus and Knowledge Coproduction
12 Managing the Researching–Writing–Publishing Journey
13 Improving Impact and Citation of Research Outcomes
14 Concluding Remarks and the Ways Forward
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
CHAPTER 01
Table 1.1 Guides for applying...
CHAPTER 02
Table 2.1 Types and characteristics...
Table 2.2 Sampling strategies for...
CHAPTER 03
Table 3.1 Fit indexes...
Table 3.3 Variables in the...
Table 3.4 Schedule risks and...
Table 3.5 Parameters of the...
Table 3.6 Adjacency matrix of...
Table 3.7 Adjacency matrix of...
Table 3.8 Stakeholder–stakeholder...
Table 3.9 Centrality of stakeholders...
Table 3.10 Centrality of impact...
Table 3.11 The Adjacency Matrix...
Table 3.12 Reachability Matrix...
Table 3.13 Level 1 partition...
Table 3.14 Level 2 partition...
Table 3.15 Level 3 partition...
Table 3.16 Level 4 partition...
Table 3.17 Level 5 partition...
Table 3.18 Level 6 partition...
Table 3.19 Driving power and...
CHAPTER 04
Table 4.1 Four types of...
CHAPTER 05
Table 5.1 Descriptions of different...
CHAPTER 06
Table 6.1 Examples of different...
CHAPTER 07
Table 7.1 Sources and methods...
Table 7.2 Data analytics methods...
Table 7.3 The top 20...
Table 7.4 Ethical principles for...
CHAPTER 09
Table 9.1 Summary list of...
Table 9.2 Software for analysing...
Table 9.3 Journal manuscript components...
Table 9.4 Status of manuscript...
CHAPTER 10
Table 10.1 Examination criteria of...
Table 10.2 Channels and methods...
CHAPTER 11
Table 11.1 Knowledge coproduction principles...
Table 11.2 Assessment criteria for...
Table 11.3 Knowledge coproduction assessment...
Table 11.4 Description of the...
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 01
Figure 1.1 General research process.
Figure 1.2 Relationships among cornerstones...
Figure 1.3 Methodology selection based...
Figure 1.4 General process of...
Figure 1.5 Technology and data...
Figure 1.6 Structure and features...
CHAPTER 02
Figure 2.1 Main steps of...
Figure 2.2 Types of research...
Figure 2.3 Framework for justifying...
Figure 2.4 Framework for selecting...
CHAPTER 03
Figure 3.1 Types of variables...
Figure 3.2 Classification of variables...
Figure 3.3 Construction project management...
Figure 3.4 Hypothesized research model...
Figure 3.5 Skill components based...
Figure 3.6 Schematic of causality...
Figure 3.7 Schematic of feedback...
Figure 3.8 A sample stock...
Figure 3.9 The relationship among...
Figure 3.10 Stock-flow diagram...
Figure 3.11 The four types...
Figure 3.12 System boundary for...
Figure 3.13 Conceptual model for...
Figure 3.14 Simulation model for...
Figure 3.15 Parameter settings for...
Figure 3.16 Behaviour control (Ding...
Figure 3.17 Five brokerage roles...
Figure 3.18 An example of...
Figure 3.19 Visualization of the...
Figure 3.20 ISM based hierarchical...
Figure 3.21 The driving power...
CHAPTER 04
Figure 4.1 Mixed methods research...
CHAPTER 05
Figure 5.1 Conditions and processes...
Figure 5.2 Pathway cases with...
Figure 5.3 Two case types...
Figure 5.4 The most-dissimilar...
Figure 5.5 Steps for ensuring...
Figure 5.6 Relationships between qualitative...
CHAPTER 06
Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of...
Figure 6.2 Methodological framework of...
Figure 6.3 Relationships between physical...
CHAPTER 07
Figure 7.1 Relationships between data...
Figure 7.2 Data-driven research...
Figure 7.3 Technology- and data...
Figure 7.4 Important role of...
Figure 7.5 Database for construction...
Figure 7.6 Probability distribution of...
Figure 7.7 Probability distribution of...
Figure 7.8 Proportion of injured...
Figure 7.9 Age distribution of...
Figure 7.10 Relationships between age...
Figure 7.11 Relationship between injured...
Figure 7.12 Relationship between the...
CHAPTER 08
Figure 8.1 Evolution of research...
Figure 8.2 Characteristics of the...
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.1 Overall design and...
Figure 10.2 Research process of...
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 Example of university...
Figure 11.2 Methodological framework for...
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.1 Cyclic iteration relationship...
Figure 12.2 Process of conducting...
Figure 12.3 Hierarchical relationship between...
Figure 12.4 Styles of thinking...
Figure 12.5 Thinking development roadmap...
CHAPTER 13
Figure 13.1 Longitudinal research framework...
Figure 13.2 Longitudinal research framework...
Figure 13.3 Longitudinal research framework...
Figure 13.4 Longitudinal research framework...
Figure 13.5 Longitudinal research framework...
Figure 13.6 Longitudinal research framework...
Figure 13.7 Longitudinal research framework...
Figure 13.8 Longitudinal research framework...
Figure 13.9 Longitudinal research framework...
Figure 13.10 Longitudinal research framework...
CHAPTER 14
Figure 14.1 The clock model...
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Foreword by Andrew Dainty
Foreword by Chimay J. Anumba
Foreword by Lieyun Ding
Foreword by Dongping Fang
Acknowledgements
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Foreword
Professor Andrew Dainty
Developing a research design and methodology for any study is one of the most fundamental decisions any researcher can make, and one which challenges many, particularly at the outset of their careers. Questions such as how to identify appropriate research problems and define research aims, what are the differences between various research methodologies and paradigms, what factors inform the choice of methods and how to publish impactful research outcomes are common questions that concern most researchers, and are those that this book sets out to answer.
Researcher Methodology and Strategy: Theory and Practice is different from many other books as it contains research methodology and strategy in one single volume. This book comprehensively describes research methodologies and approaches including qualitative research, quantitative research, and mixed methods approaches. It also discusses new emerging research methods such as technology-enabled experimental research methods and data-driven research methods. In addition, it explains emerging ideas such as the fifth research paradigm: hybrid natural-social sciences methods research, an exciting development in methodological thinking.
This book also provides comprehensive strategies for implementing research, including journal article writing and publishing, thesis writing, operating at the research–practice nexus and knowledge coproduction. It therefore provides practical guidelines for improving research theoretical and its impact.
I have known Professor Patrick X.W. Zou for many years, having collaborated in research that has achieved significant outcomes, including award-winning papers. He has developed a book suitable for students to improve the depth and breadth of research knowledge and skills, for researchers to improve research thinking and strategies, and for practitioners to improve knowledge coproduction and practical performance and I commend it to you.
Good luck with your research!
Andy Dainty
Professor Andrew Dainty, PhD
Pro-Vice-Chancellor
Manchester Metropolitan University, UK
Foreword
Professor Chimay J. Anumba
The need for appropriate use of research methods has been growing in importance over the years. In fact, many universities now have compulsory research methods courses that all postgraduate students have to take as part of their advanced studies and research. These students rely on a wide range of books to find the most relevant for their research.
Professor Patrick Zou and his colleague, Xiaoxiao Xu, have written a comprehensive book on Research Methodology and Strategy: Theory and Practice, as their contribution to enhancing understanding of research methods and strategies. It is different from other similar texts in the way that it goes from basic definitions of research to traditional and modern research approaches and then to thesis and journal article writing, and the importance of impact and citation of research outcomes. It also addresses the gap between research and practice, and includes review questions and exercises at the end of each chapter.
The book provides a very good introduction to the fundamentals of research and the key topics covered within the book. It fully describes qualitative, quantitative, and hybrid research methods, and provides guidance on their use and how to avoid the main criticisms associated with them. It also provides appropriate examples, as needed, to illustrate and/or emphasize the key points. Case studies, which are now very widely used are also well covered. A new topic that is not covered by many current books on this subject is ‘Technology-Enabled Experimental Methods’, which discusses electroencephalography (EEG) and eye tracking, and the context for their experimental use. The book also discusses the importance of data, data quality, and data analytics – all of which are now of considerable interest to the research community. The authors also introduce the Fifth Research Paradigm, which involves hybrid natural and social sciences research.
An important feature of this book is the coverage of research writing – both thesis and journal papers – and some of the issues involved in getting published. This is a welcome addition and will be of tremendous benefit to young researchers. The discussion of the gap between research and practice is also a novel feature that will enable researchers and practitioners to understand how best to bridge the gap, and enhance our collective knowledge.
Overall, this is a much-needed and timely book that will be invaluable to both researchers and practitioners. It would be a great text for the numerous research methods courses that I mentioned at the outset. I commend it to all those interested in improving their research and research outcomes, and making an impact.
Professor Chimay J. Anumba, BSc, PhD, DSc, Dr. h.c., FREng, CEng, FICE, FIStructE, FASCE, NAC
Dean, College of Design, Construction, and Planning
University of Florida, USA
Foreword
Professor Lieyun Ding
The world we live in is complex, as are the natural and social problems we face. This is coupled with rapid development and constant change, and the increasing application of emerging information and communication technologies and data science. Traditional research methods have become insufficient in decision making, and in identifying, analysing, and solving complex problems. A series of questions continue to beset researchers: What methodologies should I apply? What methods do I use? What strategies should I take?
This book, Research Methodology and Strategy: Theory and Practice, focuses on not only research methodologies but also research strategies. It includes key aspects of scientific research and provides contemporary research methods and strategies to improve the efficiency, quality, and impact. There are several unique features: the development of the fifth research paradigm framework, technology-enabled research methods, data-driven research methods, and emphasis on the research–practice nexus and knowledge coproduction as well as a longitudinal perspective of research from conceptualization to long-term impact.
This book is easy to understand, learn from, and then apply the theories and techniques and practice them in different research contexts. It provides numerous contemporary theories and practical guides and examples. It will be of great value for higher degree research students to learn research methods and thesis writing, for researchers to improve research quality, outcomes, and impact, and for practitioners to improve the theoretical underpinning of their practice.
This book is a condensed reflection of Professor Patrick X.W. Zou’s over 20 years of rich experience and knowledge in researching, teaching, and supervising from the frontline of research and practice.
I highly recommend this book to researchers, students and practitioners.
Professor Lieyun Ding, PhD
Academician, Chinese Academy of Engineering
Former President, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China
Foreword
Professor Dongping Fang
Research mainly aims at fulfilling humankind’s curiosity, solving problems, and developing strategies for the advancement of society and improvement of the natural environment. How to define research problems and aims? How to select research methods? How to publish research outcomes and improve research impact? These are common but key issues that require answers when undertaking a research project.
This book provides the answers to these questions. Not only so, the book also helps readers improve the depth and breadth of their research thinking and capability. This book explicitly discusses the fundamental concepts, theories, and techniques as well as practical processes, and uses numerous examples to explain different research methods in a simple and straightforward manner. Readers will also gain an in-depth understanding of research process, from problem formulation to outcomes publication and improving research impact.
Out of the many unique features, I am particularly impressed with the technologies-enabled and data-driven research methods as well as research strategies that cover thesis writing, journal article writing, submission, responses to reviewer comments, and monitoring publication impact. I am also impressed with the chapters discussing strategies on improving the research–practice nexus and knowledge coproduction. There are many worked examples and diagrams to explain the complex concepts and techniques.
I have known the lead author Professor Patrick X.W. Zou for more than 20 years, and I have also had the honour of collaborating with him. This book draws from Professor Zou’s rich experience and knowledge of research, practice, and student supervision, in methodology and strategy.
I strongly recommend this easy-to-read book to anyone who wishes to learn research methodology and strategy, and improve research productivity, quality, and impact.
Professor Dongping Fang, PhD
Dean, School of Civil Engineering
Tsinghua University, China
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the many colleagues, friends, and collaborators with whom we have studied and worked in various universities and industries. In particular, we would like to express our sincere appreciation to our colleagues at Chang’an University and Nanjing Forestry University. Special thanks to Professor Andrew Dainty of Manchester Metropolitan University for many valued discussions and collaborations on research methodologies and broader topics. Sincere thanks also go to Professor Lieyun Ding of Huazhong University of Science and Technology and Professor Dongping Fang of Tsinghua University for their continued support and collaboration. We would like to convey our heartfelt gratitude to Professor Chimay Anumba of the University of Florida, a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering, for his continued support.
We would like to thank Wiley Blackwell for its support in publishing this book, in particular publisher for the Built Environment, Dr Paul Sayer, for his continued support and advice. We also sincerely thank the book proposal reviewers for their excellent comments to improve the quality of this book. We would like to express our gratitude to Elsevier and Springer Nature for granting us the copyright permissions to use their publications.
We are very grateful to Ms Joanne E. Zou and Dr Hongyu Li who have helped proofread the book and provided many valuable comments and discussions.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 72101118) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (Grant No. 300102231301).
Last but not least, we express our deepest gratitude to our families for their enduring and selfless love and support.
Professor Patrick X.W. Zou, PhD
Associate Professor Xiaoxiao Xu, PhD
Xi’an, China
1 Fundamentals of Research
1.1 Introduction
The advancement of human society is dependent on creating and applying new theory and new knowledge. This is achieved through research, which in turn requires the application of methodology and strategy.
Research is defined as the detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover information or reach an understanding (Cambridge Dictionary), or an endeavour to discover new or collate old facts by the scientific study of a subject or by a course of critical investigation (The Oxford Encyclopaedic English Dictionary). It is a systematic process of collecting, analysing, and interpreting data to increase understanding of a phenomenon. Specifically, it is the systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about presumed relations among natural or social phenomena. Research is a combination of experience and reasoning and is regarded as an approach to the discovery of truth, where experience leads to knowledge and understanding through day-to-day living and reasoning is a method of coming to a conclusion by the use of logical argument.
The main objectives of engaging in research are to develop new theory or support existing theory, and to create new knowledge. Theory is a statement about a phenomenon or a set of statements describing the interrelationships of the elements within a phenomenon, while knowledge is the understanding of or information about a subject that researchers get by experience or study.
Quality research can bring a range of social, cultural, and economic benefits locally and globally, leading to social development and productivity and economic improvement. At an individual personal level, successfully undertaking research could be a major development and achievement. It is an opportunity to master different research methods and methodologies, develop decision-making and problem-solving capabilities, and develop personal attitude, skills, and knowledge (ASK), which leads to a more professional approach and career opportunities.
This chapter introduces the characteristics and cornerstones of research, philosophical assumptions, general research process, different research paradigms and methods, theory development methods, research ethics, and an overview of the book’s contents and its unique features.
1.2 Characteristics of Research and the General Research Process
Research should have the following characteristics, as stated by Leedy and Ormrod (2013):
Originates with a research question or a problem; in other words, it is guided by a specific research problem, question, or hypothesis.
Divides the principal problem into more manageable subproblems.
Requires clear articulation of a research goal (i.e., the aim of the research).
Rests on certain critical theories.
Requires a specific plan to proceed.
Requires collection, analysis, and interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve the problem that initiated the research.
Is cyclical; there is no obvious end point because research encourages follow-up studies.
The term ‘research’ implies several elements: (i) the methodology, which includes the basic and critical theories, hypothesis, principles, and the logic of the research being undertaken; (ii) the research process and operational procedure; and (iii) detailed operational technique and tools for collecting and analysing data. The general research processes and steps are visualized in Figure 1.1. This diagram outlines a cyclical process of research, informed by literature and theories. With the problem being addressed through research, there is room for new research thinking to arise.
Figure 1.1 General research process.
1.3 Cornerstones of Research
For research to be convincing and understandable to readers, it must follow certain research rules. In general, successful research has clearly defined and discussed elements.
Concept
A research concept is a set of meanings or characteristics associated with specific events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviours in general, such as building energy consumption, organizational behaviour, corporate culture, and stakeholders. The success of research arguably depends first and foremost on the clarity of the concept and how others understand the concepts used. In some cases, the researcher may come up with a new concept, but this requires the researcher to define the concept clearly so that the reader understands the concept, and to maintain the strength and validity of the study.
Theory
The Cambridge Dictionary defines theory is a formal statement of the rules on which a subject of study is based or of ideas that are suggested to explain a fact or event or, more generally, an opinion or explanation; this definition applies directly to research theory.
Model
A research model is a formal representation of a practical problem or an object or law after abstraction. The difference between a model and a theory is that the role of a theory is to explain, whereas the role of a model is to demonstrate. A model is an important means of testing a theory.
Construct
A research construct is an idea invented specifically for the purpose of a particular research or theory construction.
Variable
In research, the variable is a specific value used to measure concepts or constructs.
Proposition
A research proposition is a statement of concepts (variables) and relations between concepts (variables), used at the beginning of research design.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a statement that attempts to explain phenomena or facts but has not yet been proven. Chapter 3, Section 3.1.1 expands upon this.
Apart from the above-mentioned cornerstones and elements, there are also other cornerstones of research, as shown in Figure 1.2. These elements and cornerstones are located in one of the three different phases of a research: conceptualization, operationalization, and measurement. Figure 1.2 also shows relevant components and methods which may be required to implement the research.
Figure 1.2 Relationships among cornerstones of research.
1.4 Philosophical Understanding of Research Methodology
It is important for researchers to clearly explain the philosophical assumptions that provide a foundation for the chosen research topic or problem before selecting a research methodology (Creswell and Clark 2017; Zou et al. 2014). Researchers’ worldview (also known as paradigm) is the core of philosophical assumption. Thus, researchers need to be aware of the implicit worldviews they bring to their research (Creswell and Clark 2017). Worldviews directly affect assumptions the researcher makes about reality and the way to obtain knowledge (Creswell and Clark 2017).
There are four main types of worldviews applicable in research: positivism, postpositivism, constructivism, and pragmatism. Positivism believes that knowledge is based on natural phenomena, which is unbiased and cannot be affected by researchers’ subjective view (Macionis and Gerber 1999). Positivism is associated with quantitative methods. As an amendment to positivism, postpositivism states that the subjective view of the researcher can influence what is observed (Seaman 1995). To pursue objectivity, postpositivists use checks to recognize the possible effects of biases and eliminate them. Similar to positivism, postpositivism is also associated with quantitative methods. Contrary to positivism and postpositivism, constructivism is a worldview that is made up of the understanding and meaning of phenomena formed through the person being researched and their subjective view. It is believed that researchers and persons being researched are dependent on each other. Creswell and Clark (2017) pointed out that, in constructivism, researchers start with views of the persons being researched and build ‘up’ to patterns, theories, and generalizations. Constructivism is associated with qualitative methods. Due to the opposition of the worldview, there is a protracted debate between positivism (and postpositivism) and constructivism, which in turn has evolved into a conflict between qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. Under this background, pragmatism was born. Pragmatism is problem-oriented, believing that any method that can solve the research problem is a good method. With the support of pragmatism, mixed methods approaches have been developing rapidly in recent years.
To help readers gain an in-depth understanding of worldviews, five main philosophical considerations in research are discussed (Creswell and Clark 2017; Tashakkori and Teddlie 1998) below.
Ontology
studies the nature of reality; researchers with different philosophical assumptions could have different views on the nature of reality. For example, positivism believes singular reality while constructivism believes multiple realities.
Epistemology
explores the nature of knowledge, justification, and the relationship between cognition and reality.
Axiology
examines whether researchers include biased perspective or not.
Logical inference
focuses on the way to acquire knowledge, including induction and deduction.
Rhetoric
concentrates on the language of research. For positivism, a formal style with clear definition of variables is used. In contrast, constructivism adopts an informal style, e.g. description.
Based on the above five philosophical considerations, researchers can recognize the philosophical assumptions that might underpin their particular research task, and use this to select a methodology, as proposed in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 Methodology selection based on philosophical considerations.
According to different worldviews, there are three common research methodologies: quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods, detail information is present in the following sections.
1.5 Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative research emphasizes words and meanings rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data (Bryman 2016). It develops interpretive narratives from the data in an effort to capture the complexity of those phenomena. Qualitative research tends to be subjective, where researchers begin with open minds and immerse themselves in the complexity of a situation before interacting with research participants. Data might be collected from a small number of participants, who are able to speak about the investigation topic. After sufficient data are collected, variables and theories are then drawn from the data, explaining the phenomenon in that particular context, which may or may not be generalizable (Leedy and Ormrod 2013). There are different qualitative research methods, such as ethnography, grounded theory, case study, phenomenology, narrative inquiry, and content analysis. Qualitative research is classified as a first research paradigm aiming at understanding a phenomenon. Readers who are interested in learning and applying these methods are encouraged to undertake further reading.
Chapter 2 discusses the definitions, steps, and methods for data collection and analysis in qualitative research. Particular emphasis is given to interviews as a method for data collection, including criteria for data sampling, because it is still a commonly used method. Emphasis is also given to data analysis methods, such as grounded theory, content analysis, and artificial intelligence (AI)-based qualitative analytical methods.
1.6 Quantitative Research Methods
Quantitative research typically tries to measure variables in a numerical way by using standardized instruments with the purpose to establish relationships among variables. This is the dominant methodology in natural science research and social science research. The process involves determination of concepts, variables, and hypotheses at the beginning of the research, which are tested after data have been collected. The data are collected from a population or from samples that represent the population so that research findings may be generalizable (Leedy and Ormrod 2013). The general process of quantitative research is shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 General process of quantitative research.
There are many methods of quantitative analysis, such as: statistical description, analysis of variance, meta-analysis, logic regression, multivariance analysis, correlation, factor analysis, principal component analysis, cluster analysis, nonparametric tests, and structural equation modelling. Chapter 3 discusses development of hypothesis, variables, and several methods of data analysis that are frequently used in quantitative research, including system dynamic approach, social network analysis method, interpretive structure modelling method, agent-based modelling, and data mining methods.
1.7 Mixed Methods Research Design
Mixed methods research design refers to a type of research that integrates quantitative and qualitative methodologies within a single research design. Many researchers believe that qualitative research and quantitative research methodologies complement rather than rival each other, and thus, qualitative research can compensate for the weaknesses of quantitative research and vice versa (Cooper and Schindler 2008). There are four aspects in deciding mixed methods research design: formative, paradigm debate, procedural development, and advocacy as separate design.
Bryman (2016) articulates that there are three approaches to mixed methods research: (i) triangulation: the use of quantitative research to corroborate qualitative research findings or vice versa; (ii) facilitation: one research methodology employed to aid research using the other research methodology; (iii) complementary: two research methodologies are employed so that different aspects of an investigation can be merged. However, there are also other methods of classifying the mixed methods. For instance, Creswell (2009) divided the mixed research into triangulation, embedded, explanatory, and exploratory through the relationship between qualitative and quantitative methods in the mixed research. The key to understanding mixed methods is to clearly articulate the relationships and functions of the two methods used in one single research design. Table 1.1 provides guidelines on the needs (when), the reasons (why), and the types (how) of using mixed methods research design.
Table 1.1 Guides for applying mixed methods research design.
Needs (when)
Reasons (why)
Types (how)
One form of data is insufficient by itself
To bring together the strengths of both QN and QL research to compare results or to validate, confirm, or corroborate QN results with QL findings
Triangulation design (convergence data transformation, validation of quantitative data, multilevel)
A second form of data is needed to enhance the study
There are different questions requiring different data
Embedded design (experimental correlational)
QN results are inadequate by themselves
QL data are needed to help explain or build on initial QN results.
Explanatory design (follow-up, participant selection)
QL results are inadequate by themselves
QL data are only an initial exploration to identify variables, constructs, taxonomies, or instruments for QN studies.
Exploratory design (instrument development, taxonomy development)
Note: QN – quantitative, QL – qualitative
Source: Adapted from Creswell, 2009.
Mixed methods research design is being used more and more as research problems and questions become increasingly complicated and complex, leading to the fact that one single research method is insufficient in solving the research problem or answering the research question. However, mixed method research design raises the challenge of finding the best way to mix the two different methods together and how to ensure the data collected are objective rather than subjective. There is also the potential that findings might be opposite or not complement one another. In addition, there may be concerns about the time-consuming nature of this method as it designs a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods in many phases of the research process. Another important point for discussion is the indistinct boundary between social science research and natural science research under the mixed method research design. Mixed method research design arguably uses natural science methods to solve social science problems.
Chapter 4 examines mixed method research in great detail and depth, from definitions, mixed method research design process, and examples.
1.8 Technology-enabled Methods and Data-driven Methods
There are two main drawbacks of the research methods described above. Human bias may be embedded in the process of data collection and analysis. In addition, there is the time-consuming nature of these methods. With development of new emerging information and communication technology (ICT) and data science as well as artificial intelligence (AI), recent research has attempted to make use of these in research.
One main consideration is the use of ICT for data collection to cover the entire population or try to achieve objective data. For example, instead of asking how people act or behave in a given context, these actions or behaviour could be automatically captured and recorded using computer vision technologies (video cameras, scanners, etc.). Such automated data collection techniques and processes may allow the collection of a full set database over a certain period of time of the whole population. However, this process requires permission and cannot infringe upon privacy.
With the application of data science and AI, it is possible to analyse the big database to discover the cause–effect relationships between the variables through application of different algorithms. This new method overcomes the limitation of the paradigm of quantitative research methods, where hypotheses are normally put forward after literature review, and sample data are collected and analysed to approve or disapprove the hypothesis.
A technology- and data-driven methodological framework is shown Figure 1.5. Depending on the objective and scope of the research and the focuses and types of the research problems, research aims and questions are laid out. Thereafter, either qualitative, quantitative, or mixed research methods may be chosen. Based on the chosen method or methods, different technology-based data collection methods can be designed and implemented. After the data collection is completed, artificial intelligence, machine learning, or data science techniques can be used to analyse the collected data.
Figure 1.5 Technology and data science-enabled research design and process.
If following the process shown in Figure 1.5, the data collected and the results derived will be more objective than the traditional methods of data collection and analysis, due to the technology-based strategy of collecting data. Furthermore, technology- and data-driven research can help save time in data processing. The main implication of this framework is the need for enhancing researchers’ technology knowledge and application skills, as well as data science-based data analysis skills.
1.9 Theory Development
1.9.1 Definitions and Types of Theory
Before beginning to construct a theory, we need to have a clear understanding about the term ‘theory’ itself. Quite often, junior researchers or research students may get scared about the term ‘theory’ or ‘knowledge contribution’. Theory is simply a statement about a phenomenon or a set of statements describing the interrelationships of the elements within a phenomenon – the ‘what’, ‘why’, or ‘how’. Theory helps us understand phenomena, explaining what has happened in the past or predicting what might happen in the future. Theory is the starting point of deductive research and the end point of inductive research, and is an integral part of the scientific research process (Chen et al. 2008).
Generally speaking, theories are divided into three levels, namely grand, middle-range, and trivial theories (Yu et al. 2019). Grand theory is a highly complex, highly abstract, and systematic theory that attempts to encompass a large part of society, organizations, and individuals (Yu et al. 2019), such as scientific management theory and complex systems theory. Grand theories are more of a paradigm, representing common beliefs and perceptions in a broad sense.
Middle-range theory values the verifiability and observability of theories and requires the ability to find theoretical grounds in practice. The object of the middle-range theory concerns only a limited range of things and does not require an explanation of all phenomena. Middle-range theory lies between the grand theory and the trivial theory, and is the bridge between the two.
Trivial theory refers to common sense built up by ordinary people in their everyday lives. Unlike grand theory, trivial theory focuses on a limited number of concepts that are relevant to only a few phenomenon in a limited number of contexts.
1.9.2 Processes and Methods of Theory Development
Development of theory may arise from a process of conducting research, either qualitatively or quantitatively, to provide patterns, ideas, and ways of thinking for finding out what is happening with the phenomena or social events, or human relationships, or an economic phenomenon, or natural phenomenon. Steps of theory development via quantitative research might include:
Understanding the current theories for the given specific area of research.
Understanding the limits of the current theories.
Describing a phenomenon or a problem that cannot be explained by current theories, or is beyond the scope of current theories.
Formulating hypotheses or propositions that might describe or explain the phenomenon.
Testing the hypotheses or propositions by collecting and analysing data to prove or disapprove the hypothesis.
The tested hypotheses or propositions become a new theory explaining the phenomena from a particular perspective.
Alternatively, researchers could conduct qualitative research through observations, interviews, and review of literature to unfold the relationships and reasons behind a phenomena. When conducting qualitative research, a theory is developed towards the end of the research, as the result of the research.
Yet another method is case study research, where theory might be proposed before the case analysis and tested through case study, or developed after a case study implementation. The choice depends on which method is used, either induction or detection methods and perspectives.
In fact, it is not so difficult to develop a theory, as long as there is a scientific research process and research design, and the research is carried out according to this process and design framework. After all, research is about building on current understanding – this means researchers need to understand the current theory on the specific topic and then go beyond that current theory to make new contribution.
A few examples are provided here to demonstrate how a theory may be developed. The researcher should ask the right and important question as a starting point, then undertake research by observation, survey, interview, experiment, and so on to identify the internal relationship of the phenomena and develop and test hypothesis for further research. It is important to go beyond common sense, beyond the phenomena surface, particularly if there do not seem to be direct relationships but rather there are intermediate steps or hidden relationships between phenomena or within the elements of a phenomenon.
Taking safety management as an example, the researchers could ask how managers’ skills may help improve safety performance in construction projects. The common theory covers three aspects of managerial skills: conceptual skills, human skills, and technical skills. But when thinking carefully, we know that there are more skill sets than that. For example, political skills are becoming more important. Therefore, one hypothesis could be that the four skill sets work together or individually to drive the improvement for safety performance in construction projects. Having set this hypothesis, one could go on undertaking research to prove or disapprove this hypothesis, which may become a revised or new theory once approved. The contribution would be linking the skill and safety and bringing political science into safety management domains.
Here is another example. A theory might be developed by analysing the cases of building energy retrofit projects. Looking into what was the driving factors for the success of building energy retrofit project development. Researchers might find out that a facilitation team was the key driving force bringing all parties and stakeholders together, and a new theoretical framework could be developed based on this finding, a framework articulating the importance of facilitation.
As another example, understanding complex risk interactions in project management has been recognized as an important research area, but how do researchers model this risk interaction network? Researchers could use social network analysis methods. The model may include risks occurring in different project stages or from different stakeholders. This requires complex systems knowledge and modelling and calculations. Researchers could also use social network analysis to see the key nodes in the network actions and how to simplify the network to simplify the risk interactions. The results of such research are a set of theories providing theoretical thinking and practical implications for managers as well as researchers.
The project risks could also impact on multiple project objectives; therefore, how to model such situations is another research that will lead to new theory and practical implications. This means we need to apply social network or complex system theories to conduct the modelling and simulation. Such research could also be extended into project life cycle risk management, capturing the reality that risk may happen in different stages of the project lifecycle. Again, there is a need to model how a risk that happens in one project stage may affect other stages. Having done such modelling and analysis, conclusions can be drawn and a phenomenon explained in creative ways. The outcomes of the research will form new statements, i.e., new theories explaining the above-mentioned project phenomena.
1.9.3 Inductive and Deductive Methods for Theory Development
Induction and deduction are widely used methods of logical thinking in scientific research. Marxist epistemology holds that all scientific research must use logical methods of induction or deduction. Induction is the method of generalizing the principles of a general conclusion from individual implementation, the method of moving from the individual to the general, the method of finding out the universal characteristics from empirical facts, and a method of summarizing scientific theorems, principles, or theories based on the accumulation of empirical materials. In the nineteenth century, Mendeleev used the inductive method to study the properties of the 63 chemical elements and the relationships between atoms, which led to the induction of the periodic law of the chemical elements and revealed the causal links between them.
In contrast to the inductive method, the deductive method starts from general premises and derives specific statements or individual conclusions. For example, according to the periodic law of the elements, Mendeleev anticipated not only the existence of new elements such as gallium, germanium, and scandium, which had not yet been discovered, but also the properties of these elements, which were successively confirmed by science.
Both inductive and deductive methods are often used for developing and testing theories in social research and management research.
1.10 Research Ethics
Ethics is ‘conforming to the standards of conduct of a given profession or group’ (Webster’s new world dictionary). It refers to an agreement among members of a group, but different groups might have agreed on different codes of conducts. This means that what is ethical or unethical is relative to a particular society. Conducting research needs to be aware of the general agreements shared by all researchers and research participants about what is proper and improper in the conduct of specific research inquiries. Being ethical in research usually includes the following principles (Babbie 2020):
Participation in research must be voluntary. In other words, no one can force the others to participate in the research. Participations include those directly involved or indirectly involved in any form of research, such as questionnaire surveys or face-to-face or phone-based interviews and face-to-face or online focused group workshops, etc.
No harm to the participants. Under no circumstances should the research participants be harmed, either physically or mentally. Human decisions should never injure the people being studied.
Information confidentiality. There is a need to keep all research information and data in a secure and confidential format to protect participants, particularly when there is sensitive and private information provided or gathered.
Research processes should provide safeguarding to the participants so that they are not in any way placed in a dangerous situation or environment. All participants need to provide informed consent.
Anonymity and confidentiality. This means the people who read about the research will not be able to identify a given response with a given respondent. This usually also includes the researcher himself or herself not being able to identify a given response with a given respondent. However, with the consensus of the participants, they can be identifiable, particularly when there is follow-up research to be carried out. Confidentiality refers to all information kept confidentially and the confidentiality agreement signed between the participants and researchers. The confidentiality of a research project is guaranteed when researchers can identify a given person’s responses but promise not to do so publicly (Babbie 2020). Anonymity is achieved in the research project when neither the researchers or the readers of the findings can identify a given response with a given respondent.
Both the researchers and participants must maintain honesty as part of their ethical standards. Lying about research purpose or giving forged answers are both unethical. This needs to be carefully considered in the research design. The actions taken by the researcher are ethical and the answers or responses provided by participants are true and complete. It is useful for the researchers to brief the research participants prior to the beginning of the research (Babbie 2020).
Researchers should also ensure ethical conduct during the analysis and reporting stages. To ensure am ethical process has been designed and implemented in the research, most institutions have an ethical review board or research ethics committees and researchers need to apply for ethical approvals. There is also professional code of ethics that is a useful reference and all research has to follow.
To safeguard the research, researchers must submit ethical approval applications to an institutional review board and obtain approval prior to the beginning of the research.
1.11 Research Impact and Citation
The journey of research has evolved from focusing merely on research design and outcome publication to a more longitudinal perspective that includes the impact and citation of research outcomes on theoretical and practical domains. This is partly due to the need to improve practice and partly driven by the advancement of information and communication technologies. As such it is necessary to plan and design a research project from a life-cycle longitudinal perspective, i.e., from research conceptualization and implementation to generating impact and improving citations. This also means researchers need to consider ‘researching–writing–publishing’ as a whole journey. Chapter 12 discusses this journey in detail, while Chapter 13 integrates all elements into a comprehensive framework.
1.12 The Book’s Contents
Given the above discussions, this book includes two interrelated parts: research methodologies and research strategies (Figure 1.6). In specific, this book introduces several important topics of research methodology, including qualitative research (Chapter 2), quantitative research (Chapter 3), mixed method research design (Chapter 4), and case study research (Chapter 5). It also discusses new research methods using emerging technologies (Chapter 6) and data science (Chapter 7). Based on the discussions of different research paradigms, we provide a new outlook and define the fifth research paradigm, where social science research and natural science research intertwine together, becoming a complete new fifth paradigm (Chapter 8).
Figure 1.6 Structure and features of the book, visualized as a house.
Following the research methods mentioned above, we have also included several chapters that are focused on research strategies, which cover how to write a manuscript for publishing in peer-reviewed international journals, from concept formation, idea development, and writing, to submission and responding to reviewer comments (Chapter 9). We also discuss thesis writing (Chapter 10). Furthermore, we have a chapter that discusses how to close the gap between research and practice and offers a conceptual research-practice nexus framework (Chapter 11) based on the author’s award-winning research outcomes. This chapter aims to enhance and improve research impact in practice.
Towards the end of the book, we provide a perspective on the researching–writing–publishing journey where we discuss the key points for formulating research ideas, strategies for producing high-quality journal articles, different thinking styles, and the relationship between thinking and writing (Chapter 12). We also provide an integrated framework that covers why conduct research, how to conduct research, and how to improve the impact of citation of research outcomes (Chapter 13), and a concluding remark that includes a clock-model of research critical success factors (RCSF) and the way forward into the future; this brings the book to a conclusion.
Numerous examples are provided for easy learning and understanding, application and practice of the concepts, methods, and techniques.
Some topics may appear several times across different chapters, in different perspectives and contexts. These repetitions also demonstrate the importance of these topics.
1.13 Unique Features of the Book
There are numerous unique features of this book, from methodological and strategic perspectives, with many examples and diagrams. Methodological features include: (i) discussion of advanced quantitative research methods, including system dynamics, agent-based modelling, social network analysis, interpretive structural modelling, and data mining with many application examples, drawing from our own experience and areas of expertise; (ii) discussion of mixed method research design, which includes the why, the what, and the step-by-step guidelines for readers to follow; (iii) discussion of the qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) method, which aims to integrate the advantages of qualitative and quantitative research methods in case study; (iv) development and application of technology-enabled experimental research methods and data-driven quantitative research methods, which are being applied increasingly in recent years, due to the improvement and maturity of information and communication technologies and availability and accessibility of massive data; and (v) development of the framework of the fifth research paradigm, where natural science research methods are integrated with social science research methods to form a completely new paradigm.
Strategic features include (i) discussion of theory development process and techniques, especially the theory classification, and inductive and deductive methods for theory development; (ii) strategies for writing, submitting, and publishing research outcomes, in specific, including paper structure and content, and techniques for responding to reviewers’ comments, with numerous worked examples; (iii) comprehensive guidance on thesis writing, including overall design, innovation, structures, contribution to the knowledge, and originality, as well as the insight into thesis examination criteria and the pitfalls to be avoided; (iv) framework and discussion for enhancing research-practice nexus and knowledge coproduction, which improves the theoretical development and understanding and the ability to solve complex problems; and (v) life-cycle longitudinal framework for improving research impact and citations, including research conceptualization, implementation, and measurement as well as postpublication promotion and impact monitoring.
These are the contents that are currently lacking and we have filled in these gaps and provided useful information to researchers and practitioners in this book. Readers will enjoy learning and applying the new research methods, theories, and principles described in this book to improve their research productivity, quality, and outcomes – from research concept formation, process design, method reasoning, outcomes publishing, and impact generating.
1.14 Summary
This chapter has discussed the foundations of research by pin-pointing the characteristics of research, general research process, and cornerstones of research. It has also provided sufficient information to help readers understand research methodologies from a philosophical point of view, by linking ontology, epistemology, axiology, logical inference, and rhetoric. Different research methods have been briefly discussed to provide an overview that will facilitate the next several chapters, which are focused on research methodologies. A particular contribution of this chapter is the discussion of definitions and development of theory, which is the soul of any research. The chapter has also discussed research ethics, which is very important in today’s research activities.
