RF and Microwave Transmitter Design E-Book

Andrei Grebennikov

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1439

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

RF and Microwave Transmitter Design is unique in its coverage of both historical transmitter design and cutting edge technologies. This text explores the results of well-known and new theoretical analyses, while informing readers of modern radio transmitters' pracitcal designs and their components. Jam-packed with information, this book broadcasts and streamlines the author's considerable experience in RF and microwave design and development.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Series

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Introduction

REFERENCES

1: Passive Elements and Circuit Theory

1.1 IMMITTANCE TWO-PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS

1.2 SCATTERING PARAMETERS

1.3 INTERCONNECTIONS OF TWO-PORT NETWORKS

1.4 PRACTICAL TWO-PORT NETWORKS

1.5 THREE-PORT NETWORK WITH COMMON TERMINAL

1.6 LUMPED ELEMENTS

1.7 TRANSMISSION LINE

1.8 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINES

1.9 NOISE

REFERENCES

2: Active Devices and Modeling

2.1 DIODES

2.2 VARACTORS

2.3 MOSFETs

2.4 MESFETs AND HEMTs

2.5 BJTs AND HBTs

REFERENCES

3: Impedance Matching

3.1 MAIN PRINCIPLES

3.2 SMITH CHART

3.3 MATCHING WITH LUMPED ELEMENTS

3.4 MATCHING WITH TRANSMISSION LINES

3.5 MATCHING NETWORKS WITH MIXED LUMPED AND DISTRIBUTED ELEMENTS

REFERENCES

4: Power Transformers, Combiners, and Couplers

4.1 BASIC PROPERTIES

4.2 TRANSMISSION-LINE TRANSFORMERS AND COMBINERS

4.3 BALUNS

4.4 WILKINSON POWER DIVIDERS/COMBINERS

4.5 MICROWAVE HYBRIDS

4.6 COUPLED-LINE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS

REFERENCES

5: Filters

5.1 TYPES OF FILTERS

5.2 FILTER DESIGN USING IMAGE PARAMETER METHOD

5.3 FILTER DESIGN USING INSERTION LOSS METHOD

5.4 BANDPASS AND BANDSTOP TRANSFORMATION

5.5 TRANSMISSION-LINE LOW-PASS FILTER IMPLEMENTATION

5.6 COUPLED-LINE FILTERS

5.7 SAW AND BAW FILTERS

REFERENCES

6: Modulation and Modulators

6.1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

6.2 SINGLE-SIDEBAND MODULATION

6.3 FREQUENCY MODULATION

6.4 PHASE MODULATION

6.5 DIGITAL MODULATION

6.6 CLASS-S MODULATOR

6.7 MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

REFERENCES

7: Mixers and Multipliers

7.1 BASIC THEORY

7.2 SINGLE-DIODE MIXERS

7.3 BALANCED DIODE MIXERS

7.4 TRANSISTOR MIXERS

7.5 DUAL-GATE FET MIXER

7.6 BALANCED TRANSISTOR MIXERS

7.7 FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS

REFERENCES

8: Oscillators

8.1 OSCILLATOR OPERATION PRINCIPLES

8.2 OSCILLATOR CONFIGURATIONS AND HISTORICAL ASPECT

8.3 SELF-BIAS CONDITION

8.4 PARALLEL FEEDBACK OSCILLATOR

8.5 SERIES FEEDBACK OSCILLATOR

8.6 PUSH–PUSH OSCILLATORS

8.7 STABILITY OF SELF-OSCILLATIONS

8.8 OPTIMUM DESIGN TECHNIQUES

8.9 NOISE IN OSCILLATORS

8.10 VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

8.11 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

8.12 DIELECTRIC RESONATOR OSCILLATORS

REFERENCES

9: Phase-Locked Loops

9.1 BASIC LOOP STRUCTURE

9.2 ANALOG PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS

9.3 CHARGE-PUMP PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS

9.4 DIGITAL PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS

9.5 LOOP COMPONENTS

9.6 LOOP PARAMETERS

9.7 PHASE MODULATION USING PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS

9.8 FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS

REFERENCES

10: Power Amplifier Design Fundamentals

10.1 POWER GAIN AND STABILITY

10.2 BASIC CLASSES OF OPERATION: A, AB, B, AND C

10.3 LINEARITY

10.4 NONLINEAR EFFECT OF COLLECTOR CAPACITANCE

10.5 DC BIASING

10.6 PUSH–PULL POWER AMPLIFIERS

10.7 BROADBAND POWER AMPLIFIERS

10.8 DISTRIBUTED POWER AMPLIFIERS

10.9 HARMONIC TUNING USING LOAD–PULL TECHNIQUES

10.10 THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS

REFERENCES

11: High-Efficiency Power Amplifiers

11.1 CLASS D

11.2 CLASS F

11.3 INVERSE CLASS F

11.4 CLASS E WITH SHUNT CAPACITANCE

11.5 CLASS E WITH FINITE DC-FEED INDUCTANCE

11.6 CLASS E WITH QUARTERWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE

11.7 CLASS FE

11.8 CAD DESIGN EXAMPLE: 1.75 GHZ HBT CLASS E MMIC POWER AMPLIFIER

REFERENCES

12: Linearization and Efficiency Enhancement Techniques

12.1 FEEDFORWARD AMPLIFIER ARCHITECTURE

12.2 CROSS CANCELLATION TECHNIQUE

12.3 REFLECT FORWARD LINEARIZATION AMPLIFIER

12.4 PREDISTORTION LINEARIZATION

12.5 FEEDBACK LINEARIZATION

12.6 DOHERTY POWER AMPLIFIER ARCHITECTURES

12.7 OUTPHASING POWER AMPLIFIERS

12.8 ENVELOPE TRACKING

12.9 SWITCHED MULTIPATH POWER AMPLIFIERS

12.10 KAHN EER TECHNIQUE AND DIGITAL POWER AMPLIFICATION

REFERENCES

13: Control Circuits

13.1 POWER DETECTOR AND VSWR PROTECTION

13.2 SWITCHES

13.3 PHASE SHIFTERS

13.4 ATTENUATORS

13.5 VARIABLE GAIN AMPLIFIERS

13.6 LIMITERS

REFERENCES

14: Transmitter Architectures

14.1 AMPLITUDE-MODULATED TRANSMITTERS

14.2 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMITTERS

14.3 FREQUENCY-MODULATED TRANSMITTERS

14.4 TELEVISION TRANSMITTERS

14.5 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TRANSMITTERS

14.6 RADAR TRANSMITTERS

14.7 SATELLITE TRANSMITTERS

14.8 ULTRA-WIDEBAND COMMUNICATION TRANSMITTERS

Index

WILEY SERIES IN MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL ENGINEERING

KAI CHANG, Editor

Texas A&M University

FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS, Fourth Edition• Gavind P. Agrawal

ASYMMETRIC PASSIVE COMPONENTS IN MICROWAVE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS• Hee-Ran Ahn

COHERENT OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS• Silvello Betti, Giancarlo De Marchis, and Eugenio Iannone

PHASED ARRAY ANTENNAS: FLOQUET ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS, BFNs, AND ACTIVE ARRAY SYSTEMS• Arun K. Bhattacharyya

HIGH-FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC TECHNIQUES: RECENT ADVANCES AND APPLICATIONS• Asoke K. Bhattacharyya

RADIO PROPAGATION AND ADAPTIVE ANTENNAS FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATION LINKS: TERRESTRIAL, ATMOSPHERIC, AND IONOSPHERIC• Nathan Blaunstein and Christos G. Christodoulou

COMPUTATIONAL METHODS FOR ELECTROMAGNETICS AND MICROWAVES• Richard C. Booton,~Jr.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELDING• Salvatore Celozzi, Rodolfo Araneo, and Giampiero Lovat

MICROWAVE RING CIRCUITS AND ANTENNAS• Kai Chang

MICROWAVE SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS AND APPLICATIONS• Kai Chang

RF AND MICROWAVE WIRELESS SYSTEMS• Kai Chang

RF AND MICROWAVE CIRCUIT AND COMPONENT DESIGN FOR WIRELESS SYSTEMS• Kai Chang, Inder Bahl, and Vijay Nair

MICROWAVE RING CIRCUITS AND RELATED STRUCTURES, Second Edition• Kai Chang and Lung-Hwa Hsieh

MULTIRESOLUTION TIME DOMAIN SCHEME FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING• Yinchao Chen, Qunsheng Cao, and Raj Mittra

DIODE LASERS AND PHOTONIC INTEGRATED CIRCUITS• Larry Coldren and Scott Corzine

EM DETECTION OF CONCEALED TARGETS• David J. Daniels

RADIO FREQUENCY CIRCUIT DESIGN• W. Alan Davis and Krishna Agarwal

RADIO FREQUENCY CIRCUIT DESIGN, Second Edition• W. Alan Davis

MULTICONDUCTOR TRANSMISSION-LINE STRUCTURES: MODAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES• J. A. Brandão Faria

PHASED ARRAY-BASED SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS• Nick Fourikis

SOLAR CELLS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS, Second Edition• Lewis M. Fraas and Larry D. Partain

FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES• Jon C. Freeman

OPTICAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES• Mitsuo Fukuda

MICROSTRIP CIRCUITS• Fred Gardiol

HIGH-SPEED VLSI INTERCONNECTIONS, Second Edition• Ashok K. Goel

FUNDAMENTALS OF WAVELETS: THEORY, ALGORITHMS, AND APPLICATIONS, Second Edition• Jaideva C. Goswami and Andrew K. Chan

HIGH-FREQUENCY ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DESIGN• Ravender Goyal (ed.)

RF AND MICROWAVE TRANSMITTER DESIGN• Andrei Grebennikov

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ANTENNA MODULES• K. C. Gupta and Peter S. Hall

PHASED ARRAY ANTENNAS, Second Edition• R. C. Hansen

STRIPLINE CIRCULATORS• Joseph Helszajn

THE STRIPLINE CIRCULATOR: THEORY AND PRACTICE• Joseph Helszajn

LOCALIZED WAVES• Hugo E. Hernández-Figueroa, Michel Zamboni-Rached, and Erasmo Recami (eds.)

MICROSTRIP FILTERS FOR RF/MICROWAVE APPLICATIONS, Second Edition• Jia-Sheng Hong

MICROWAVE APPROACH TO HIGHLY IRREGULAR FIBER OPTICS• Huang Hung-Chia

NONLINEAR OPTICAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS• Eugenio Iannone, Francesco Matera, Antonio Mecozzi, and Marina Settembre

FINITE ELEMENT SOFTWARE FOR MICROWAVE ENGINEERING• Tatsuo Itoh, Giuseppe Pelosi, and Peter P. Silvester (eds.)

INFRARED TECHNOLOGY: APPLICATIONS TO ELECTROOPTICS, PHOTONIC DEVICES, AND SENSORS• A. R. Jha

SUPERCONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY: APPLICATIONS TO MICROWAVE, ELECTRO-OPTICS, ELECTRICAL MACHINES, AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS• A. R. Jha

TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN SOLUTIONS OF EM PROBLEMS USING INTEGTRAL EQUATIONS AND A HYBRID METHODOLOGY• B. H. Jung, T. K. Sarkar, S. W. Ting, Y. Zhang, Z. Mei, Z. Ji, M. Yuan, A. De, M. Salazar-Palma, and S. M. Rao

OPTICAL COMPUTING: AN INTRODUCTION• M. A. Karim and A. S. S. Awwal

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING• Paul R. Karmel, Gabriel D. Colef, and Raymond L. Camisa

MILLIMETER WAVE OPTICAL DIELECTRIC INTEGRATED GUIDES AND CIRCUITS• Shiban K. Koul

ADVANCED INTEGRATED COMMUNICATION MICROSYSTEMS• Joy Laskar, Sudipto Chakraborty, Manos Tentzeris, Franklin Bien, and Anh-Vu Pham

MICROWAVE DEVICES, CIRCUITS AND THEIR INTERACTION• Charles A. Lee and G. Conrad Dalman

ADVANCES IN MICROSTRIP AND PRINTED ANTENNAS• Kai-Fong Lee and Wei Chen (eds.)

SPHEROIDAL WAVE FUNCTIONS IN ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY• Le-Wei Li, Xiao-Kang Kang, and Mook-Seng Leong

ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC IN COMPUTER SYSTEMS• Mi Lu

OPTICAL FILTER DESIGN AND ANALYSIS: A SIGNAL PROCESSING APPROACH• Christi K. Madsen and Jian H. Zhao

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF INFRARED TECHNOLOGY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING• Xavier P. V. Maldague

METAMATERIALS WITH NEGATIVE PARAMETERS: THEORY, DESIGN, AND MICROWAVE APPLICATIONS• Ricardo Marqués, Ferran Martín, and Mario Sorolla

OPTOELECTRONIC PACKAGING• A. R. Mickelson, N. R. Basavanhally, and Y. C. Lee (eds.)

OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION• Shunji Mori, Hirobumi Nishida, and Hiromitsu Yamada

ANTENNAS FOR RADAR AND COMMUNICATIONS: A POLARIMETRIC APPROACH• Harold Mott

INTEGRATED ACTIVE ANTENNAS AND SPATIAL POWER COMBINING• Julio A. Navarro and Kai Chang

ANALYSIS METHODS FOR RF, MICROWAVE, AND MILLIMETER-WAVE PLANAR TRANSMISSION LINE STRUCTURES• Cam Nguyen

LASER DIODES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS TO COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION PROCESSING• Takahiro Numai

FREQUENCY CONTROL OF SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS• Motoichi Ohtsu (ed.)

WAVELETS IN ELECTROMAGNETICS AND DEVICE MODELING• George W. Pan

OPTICAL SWITCHING• Georgios Papadimitriou, Chrisoula Papazoglou, and Andreas S. Pomportsis

MICROWAVE IMAGING• Matteo Pastorino

ANALYSIS OF MULTICONDUCTOR TRANSMISSION LINES• Clayton R. Paul

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY, Second Edition• Clayton R. Paul

ADAPTIVE OPTICS FOR VISION SCIENCE: PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES, DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS• Jason Porter, Hope Queener, Julianna Lin, Karen Thorn, and Abdul Awwal (eds.)

ELECTROMAGNETIC OPTIMIZATION BY GENETIC ALGORITHMS• Yahya Rahmat-Samii and Eric Michielssen (eds.)

INTRODUCTION TO HIGH-SPEED ELECTRONICS AND OPTOELECTRONICS• Leonard M. Riaziat

NEW FRONTIERS IN MEDICAL DEVICE TECHNOLOGY• Arye Rosen and Harel Rosen (eds.)

ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPAGATION IN MULTI-MODE RANDOM MEDIA• Harrison E. Rowe

ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPAGATION IN ONE-DIMENSIONAL RANDOM MEDIA• Harrison E. Rowe

HISTORY OF WIRELESS• Tapan K. Sarkar, Robert J. Mailloux, Arthur A. Oliner, Magdalena Salazar-Palma, and Dipak L. Sengupta

PHYSICS OF MULTIANTENNA SYSTEMS AND BROADBAND PROCESSING• Tapan K. Sarkar, Magdalena Salazar-Palma, and Eric L. Mokole

SMART ANTENNAS• Tapan K. Sarkar, Michael C. Wicks, Magdalena Salazar-Palma, and Robert J. Bonneau

NONLINEAR OPTICS• E. G. Sauter

APPLIED ELECTROMAGNETICS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY• Dipak L. Sengupta and Valdis V. Liepa

COPLANAR WAVEGUIDE CIRCUITS, COMPONENTS, AND SYSTEMS• Rainee N. Simons

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN UNCONVENTIONAL MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES• Onkar N. Singh and Akhlesh Lakhtakia (eds.)

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF AUTONOMOUS MICROWAVE CIRCUITS• Almudena Suárez

ELECTRON BEAMS AND MICROWAVE VACUUM ELECTRONICS• Shulim E. Tsimring

FUNDAMENTALS OF GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM RECEIVERS: A SOFTWARE APPROACH, Second Edition• James Bao-yen Tsui

RF/MICROWAVE INTERACTION WITH BIOLOGICAL TISSUES• André Vander Vorst, Arye Rosen, and Youji Kotsuka

InP-BASED MATERIALS AND DEVICES: PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY• Osamu Wada and Hideki Hasegawa (eds.)

COMPACT AND BROADBAND MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS• Kin-Lu Wong

DESIGN OF NONPLANAR MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS AND TRANSMISSION LINES• Kin-Lu Wong

PLANAR ANTENNAS FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS• Kin-Lu Wong

FREQUENCY SELECTIVE SURFACE AND GRID ARRAY• T. K. Wu (ed.)

ACTIVE AND QUASI-OPTICAL ARRAYS FOR SOLID-STATE POWER COMBINING• Robert A. York and Zoya B. Popović (eds.)

OPTICAL SIGNAL PROCESSING, COMPUTING AND NEURAL NETWORKS• Francis T. S. Yu and Suganda Jutamulia

ELECTROMAGNETIC SIMULATION TECHNIQUES BASED ON THE FDTD METHOD• Wenhua Yu, Xiaoling Yang, Yongjun Liu, and Raj Mittra

SiGe, GaAs, AND InP HETEROJUNCTION BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS• Jiann Yuan

PARALLEL SOLUTION OF INTEGRAL EQUATION-BASED EM PROBLEMS• Yu Zhang and Tapan K. Sarkar

ELECTRODYNAMICS OF SOLIDS AND MICROWAVE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY• Shu-Ang Zhou

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Grebennikov, Andrei RF and microwave transmitter design/Andrei Grebennikov. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-52099-4 (cloth)

oBook ISBN: 978-0-470-92930-8 ePDF ISBN: 978-0-470-92929-1

PREFACE

The main objective of this book is to present all relevant information required to design the transmitters in general and their main components in particular in different RF and microwave applications including well-known historical and recent novel architectures, theoretical approaches, circuit simulation results, and practical implementation techniques. This comprehensive book can be very useful for lecturing to promote the systematic way of thinking with analytical calculations and practical verification, thus making a bridge between theory and practice of RF and microwave engineering. As a result, this book is intended for and can be recommended to university-level professors as a comprehensive material to help in lecturing for graduate and postgraduate students, to researchers and scientists to combine the theoretical analysis with practical design and to provide a sufficient basis for innovative ideas and circuit design techniques, and to practicing designers and engineers as the book contains numerous well-known and novel practical circuits, architectures, and theoretical approaches with detailed description of their operational principles and applications.

Chapter 1 introduces the basic two-port networks describing the behavior of linear and nonlinear circuits. To characterize the nonlinear properties of the bipolar or field-effect transistors, their equivalent circuit elements are expressed through the impedance Z-parameters, admittance Y-parameters, or hybrid H-parameters. On the other hand, the transmission ABCD-parameters are very important for the design of the distributed circuits such as a transmission line or cascaded elements, whereas the scattering S-parameters are widely used to simplify the measurement procedure. The design formulas and curves are given for several types of transmission lines including stripline, microstrip line, slotline, and coplanar waveguide. Monolithic implementation of lumped inductors and capacitors is usually required at microwave frequencies and for portable devices. Knowledge of noise phenomena such as noise figure, additive white noise, low-frequency fluctuations, or flicker noise in active or passive elements is very important for the oscillator modeling in particular and entire transmitter design in general.

In Chapter 2, all necessary steps to provide an accurate device modeling procedure starting with the determination of the device small-signal equivalent circuit parameters are described and discussed. A variety of nonlinear models for MOSFET, MESFET, HEMT, and BJT devices including HBTs, which are very prospective for modern microwave monolithic integrated circuits, are given. In order to highlight the advantages or drawbacks of one over another nonlinear device model, a comparison of the measured and modeled volt--ampere and voltage--capacitance characteristics, as well as a frequency range of model application, are analyzed.

The main principles and impedance matching tools are described in Chapter 3. Generally, an optimum solution depends on the circuit requirements, such as the simplicity in practical realization, frequency bandwidth and minimum power ripple, design implementation and adjustability, stable operation conditions, and sufficient harmonic suppression. As a result, many types of the matching networks are available, including lumped elements and transmission lines. To simplify and visualize the matching design procedure, an analytical approach, which allows calculation of the parameters of the matching circuits using simple equations, and Smith chart traces are discussed. In addition, several examples of the narrowband and broadband power amplifiers using bipolar or MOSFET devices are given, including successive and detailed design considerations and explanations.

Chapter 4 describes the basic properties of the three-port and four-port networks, as well as a variety of different combiners, transformers, and directional couplers for RF and microwave power applications. For power combining in view of insufficient power performance of the active devices, it is best to use the coaxial-cable combiners with ferrite core to combine the output powers of RF power amplifiers intended for wideband applications. Since the device output impedance is usually too small for high power level, to match this impedance with a standard 50-Ω load, it is necessary to use the coaxial-line transformers with specified impedance transformation. For narrowband applications, the N-way Wilkinson combiners are widely used due to the simplicity of their practical realization. At the same time, the size of the combiners should be very small at microwave frequencies. Therefore, the commonly used hybrid microstrip combiners including different types of the microwave hybrids and directional couplers are described and analyzed.

Chapter 5 introduces the basic types of RF and microwave filters based on the low-pass or high-pass sections and bandpass or bandstop transformation. Classical filter design approaches using image parameter and insertion loss methods are given for low-pass and high-pass LC filter implementations. The quarterwave-line and coupled-line sections, which are the basic elements of microwave transmission-line filters, are described and analyzed. Different examples of coupled-line filters including interdigital, combline, and hairpin bandpass filters are given. Special attention is paid to microstrip filters with unequal phase velocities, which can provide unexpected properties because of different implementation technologies. Finally, the typical structures, implementation technology, operational principles, and band performance of the filters based on surface and bulk acoustic waves are presented.

Chapter 6 discusses the basic features of different types of analog modulation including amplitude, single-sideband, frequency, and phase modulation, and basic types of digital modulation such as amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, phase shift keying, or pulse code modulation and their variations. The principle of operations and various schematics of the modulators for different modulation schemes including Class S modulator for pulse-width modulation are described. Finally, the concept of time and frequency division multiplexing is introduced, as well as a brief description of different multiple access techniques.

A basic theory describing the operational principles of frequency conversion in receivers and transmitters is given in Chapter 7. The different types of mixers, from the simplest based on a single diode to a balanced and double-balanced type based on both diodes and transistors, are described and analyzed. The special case is a mixer based on a dual-gate transistor that provides better isolation between signal paths and simple implementation. The frequency multipliers that historically were a very important part of the vacuum-tube transmitters can extend the operating frequency range.

Chapter 8 presents the principles of oscillator design, including start-up and steady-state operation conditions, noise and stability of oscillations, basic oscillator configurations using lumped and transmission-line elements, and simplified equation-based oscillator analyses and optimum design techniques. An immittance design approach is introduced and applied to the series and parallel feedback oscillators, including circuit design and simulation aspects. Voltage-controlled oscillators and their varactor tuning range and linearity for different oscillator configurations are discussed. Finally, the basic circuits and operation principles of crystal and dielectric resonator oscillators are given.

Chapter 9 begins with description of the basic phase-locked loop concept. Then, the basic performance and structures of the analog, charge-pump, and digital phase-locked loops are analyzed. The basic loop components such as phase detector, loop filter, frequency divider, and voltage-controlled oscillator are discussed, as well as loop dynamic parameters. The possibility and particular realizations of the phase modulation using phase-locked loops are presented. Finally, general classes of frequency synthesizer techniques such as direct analog synthesis, indirect synthesis, and direct digital synthesis are discussed. The proper choice of the synthesizer type is based on the number of frequencies, frequency spacing, frequency switching time, noise, spurious level, particular technology, and cost.

Chapter 10 introduces the fundamentals of the power amplifier design, which is generally a complicated procedure when it is necessary to provide simultaneously accurate active device modeling, effective impedance matching depending on the technical requirements and operation conditions, stability in operation, and simplicity in practical implementation. The quality of the power amplifier design is evaluated by realized maximum power gain under stable operation condition with minimum amplifier stages, and the requirement of linearity or high efficiency can be considered where it is needed. For a stable operation, it is necessary to evaluate the operating frequency domains where the active device may be potentially unstable. To avoid the parasitic oscillations, the stabilization circuit technique for different frequency domains (from low frequencies up to high frequencies close to the device transition frequency) is discussed. The key parameter of the power amplifier is its linearity, which is very important for many wireless communication applications. The relationships between the output power, 1-dB gain compression point, third-order intercept point, and intermodulation distortions of the third and higher orders are given and illustrated for different active devices. The device bias conditions, which are generally different for linearity or efficiency improvement, depend on the power amplifier operation class and the type of the active device. The basic Classes A, AB, B, and C of the power amplifier operation are introduced, analyzed, and illustrated. The principles and design of the push--pull amplifiers using balanced transistors, as well as broadband and distributed power amplifiers, are discussed. Harmonic-control techniques for designing microwave power amplifiers are given with description of a systematic procedure of multiharmonic load--pull simulation using the harmonic balance method and active load--pull measurement system. Finally, the concept of thermal resistance is introduced and heatsink design issues are discussed.

Modern commercial and military communication systems require the high-efficiency long-term operating conditions. Chapter 11 describes in detail the possible circuit solutions to provide a high-efficiency power amplifier operation based on using Class D, Class F, Class E, or their newly developed subclasses depending on the technical requirements. In all cases, an efficiency improvement in practical implementation is achieved by providing the nonlinear operation conditions when an active device can simultaneously operate in pinch-off, active, and saturation regions, resulting in nonsinusoidal collector current and voltage waveforms, symmetrical for Class D and Class F and asymmetrical for Class E (DE, FE) operation modes. In Class F amplifiers analyzed in frequency domain, the fundamental-frequency and harmonic load impedances are optimized by short-circuit termination and open-circuit peaking to control the voltage and current waveforms at the device output to obtain maximum efficiency. In Class E amplifiers analyzed in time domain, an efficiency improvement is achieved by realizing the on/off active device switching operation (the pinch-off and saturation modes) with special current and voltage waveforms so that high voltage and high current do not concur at the same time.

In modern wireless communication systems, it is very important to realize both high-efficiency and linear operation of the power amplifiers. Chapter 12 describes a variety of techniques and approaches that can improve the power amplifier performance. To increase efficiency over power backoff range, the Doherty, outphasing, and envelope-tracking power amplifier architectures, as well as switched multipath power amplifier configurations, are discussed and analyzed. There are several linearization techniques that provide linearization of both entire transmitter system and individual power amplifier. Feedforward, cross cancellation, or reflect forward linearization techniques are available technologies for satellite and cellular base station applications achieving very high linearity levels. The practical realization of these techniques is quite complicated and very sensitive to both the feedback loop imbalance and the parameters of its individual components. Analog predistortion linearization technique is the simplest form of power amplifier linearization and can be used for handset application, although significant linearity improvement is difficult to realize. Different types of the feedback linearization approaches, together with digital linearization techniques, are very attractive to be used in handset or base station transmitters. Finally, the potential semidigital and digital amplification approaches are discussed with their architectural advantages and problems in practical implementation.

Chapter 13 discusses the circuit schematics and main properties of the semiconductor control circuits that are usually characterized by small size, low power consumption, high-speed performance, and operating life. Generally, they can be built based on the p--i--n diodes, silicon MOSFET, or GaAs MESFET transistors and can be divided into two basic parts: amplitude and phase control circuits. The control circuits are necessary to protect high power devices from excessive peak voltage or dc current conditions. They are also used as switching elements for directing signal between different transmitting paths, as variable gain amplifiers to stabilize transmitter output power, as attenuators and phase shifters to change the amplitude and phase of the transmitting signal paths in array systems, or as limiters to protect power-sensitive components.

Finally, Chapter 14 describes the different types of radio transmitter architectures, history of radio communication, conventional types of radio transmission, and modern communication systems. Amplitude-modulated transmitters representing the oldest technique for radio communication are based on high- or low-level modulation methods, with particular case of an amplitude keying. Single-sideband transmitters as the next-generation transmitters could provide higher efficiency due to the transmission of a single sideband only. Frequency-modulated transmitters then became a revolutionary step to improve the quality of a broadcast transmission. TV transmitters include different modulation techniques for transmitting audio and video information, both analog and digital. Wireless communication transmitters as a part of the cellular technologies provide a worldwide wireless radio access. Radar transmitters are required for many commercial and military applications such as phased-array radars, automotive radars, or electronic warfare systems. Satellite transmission systems contribute to worldwide transmission of any communication signals through satellite transponders and offer communication for areas with any population density and location. Ultra-wideband transmission is very attractive for their low-cost and low-power communication applications, occupying a very wide frequency range.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To Drs. Frederick Raab and Lin Fujiang for useful comments and suggestions in book organization and content covering.

To Dr. Frank Mullany from Bell Labs, Ireland, for encouragement and support.

The author especially wishes to thank his wife, Galina Grebennikova, for performing computer-artwork design, as well as for her constant support, inspiration, and assistance.

ANDREI GREBENNIKOV

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Passive Elements and Circuit Theory

The two-port equivalent circuits are widely used in radio frequency (RF) and microwave circuit design to describe the electrical behavior of both active devices and passive networks [1–4]. The two-port network impedance Z-parameters, admittance Y-parameters, or hybrid H-parameters are very important to characterize the nonlinear properties of the active devices, bipolar or field-effect transistors. The transmission ABCD-parameters of a two-port network are very convenient for designing the distributed circuits like transmission lines or cascaded elements. The scattering S-parameters are useful to characterize linear circuits, and are required to simplify the measurement procedure. Transmission lines are widely used in matching circuits in power amplifiers, in resonant circuits in the oscillators, filters, directional couplers, power combiners, and dividers. The design formulas and curves are presented for several types of transmission lines including stripline, microstrip line, slotline, and coplanar waveguide. Monolithic implementation of lumped inductors and capacitors is usually required at microwave frequencies and for portable devices. Knowledge of noise phenomena, such as the noise figure, additive white noise, low-frequency fluctuations, or flicker noise in active or passive elements, is very important for the oscillator modeling in particular and entire transmitter design in general.