RFID and the Internet of Things E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 414

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology allows for automatic identification of information contained in a tag by scanning and interrogation using radio frequency (RF) waves.

An RFID tag contains an antenna and a microchip that allows it to transmit and receive. This technology is a possible alternative to the use of barcodes, which are frequently inadequate in the face of rapid growth in the scale and complexity of just-in-time inventory requirements, regional and international trade, and emerging new methods of trade based on it. Use of RFID tags will likely eventually become as widespread as barcodes today.

This book describes the technologies used for implementation of RFID: from hardware, communication protocols, cryptography, to applications (including electronic product codes, or EPC) and middleware.

The five parts of this book will provide the reader with a detailed description of all the elements that make up a RFID system today, including hot topics such as the privacy concerns, and the Internet of Things.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Foreword

PART ONE: PHYSICS OF RFID

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1. Bibliography

Chapter 2. Characteristics of RFID Radio Signals

2.1. Description and operating principle of RFID systems

2.2. Transmission channel

2.3. First level electric model in inductive coupling

2.4. Bibliography

Chapter 3. RFID Communication Modes

3.1. Communication modes

3.2. Bibliography

PART TWO: RFID APPLICATIONS

Chapter 4. Applications

4.1. Introduction

4.2. History: evolution from barcodes to RFID tags

4.3. RFID tags

4.4. Normalization/standardization

4.5. Advantages/disadvantages of RFID tags

4.6. Description of RFID applications

4.7. Application examples

4.8. Conclusion

4.9. Bibliography

PART THREE: CRYPTOGRAPHY OF RFID

Chapter 5. Cryptography and RFID

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Identification protocols and security models

5.3. Identification protocols

5.4. Conclusion. Physical attacks on RFID devices

5.5. Bibliography

PART FOUR: EPCglobal

Chapter 6. EPCglobal Network

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Tags

6.3. EPCglobal architecture

6.4. Conclusion

6.5. Bibliography

PART FIVE: MIDDLEWARE

Chapter 7. Middleware for the Internet of Things: Principles

7.1. Distributed applications

7.2. RPC: Remote Procedure Call

7.3. Object-oriented middlewares

7.4. Summary of object-oriented middleware architectures

7.5. The XML revolution

7.6. Middleware for the Internet of Things

7.7. Conclusion

7.8. Bibliography

Chapter 8. Middleware for the Internet of Things: Standards

8.1. EPCglobal application environment

8.2. General introduction to message-oriented middleware

8.3. Service-oriented middleware

8.4. Conclusion

8.5. Bibliography

Chapter 9. Middleware for the Internet of Things: Some Solutions

9.1. EPCglobal and SUN Java RFID software

9.2. NET and RFID services platform

9.3. IBM Websphere RFID Suite

9.4. Singularity

9.5. Middleware for embedded systems

9.6. ObjectWeb projects and the Internet of Things

9.7. Conclusion

9.8. Bibliography

List of Authors

Index

First published 2011 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Adapted and updated from RFID et l’internet des choses published 2010 in France by Hermes Science/Lavoisier © LAVOISIER 2010

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

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© ISTE Ltd 2011

The rights of Hervé Chabanne, Pascal Urien, Jean-Ferdinand Susini to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

RFID et l’internet des choses. English

RFID and the internet of things / edited by Herve Chabanne, Pascal Urien, Jean-Ferdinand Susini.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-84821-298-5

1. Radio frequency identification systems. 2. Embedded Internet devices. I. Chabanne, Herve. II. Urien, Pascal. III. Susini, Jean-Ferdinand. IV. Title.

TK6570.I34R479 2011

384.6--dc22

2011008134

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-84821-298-5

Foreword

The RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology allows automatic identification of information contained in a tag by using radio waves. An RFID tag contains an antenna and a microchip to transmit and receive.

It appears as an alternative to barcodes that are facing the growth of the trade and new trade modes based on it. Indeed, if barcodes have proved, over a long period, their efficiency in data coding, they currently face some limitations such as the use of an optical reader (scanner) which has to be located at a relatively short distance from the identified object, or in a small data storage system.

The RFID technology is characterized by the deployment of three essential components: a microchip, an antenna and a reader. The tag is placed on the object or the person to be identified. It contains information that is decrypted by the server by using an antenna for transmitting signals between the reader and the chip. The radio frequencies used by the RFID technology are in the 50 kHz to 2.5 GHz range.

Therefore it is necessary to establish a comparison between the barcodes and the RFIDs, to understand why the RFIDs can replace the barcodes, and how they still have some limitations. The first difference between the two systems is their reading mode: a barcode is read by an optical laser, while an RFID tag is scanned by a reader that identifies the data contained in this tag. The reading distance of the RFID tags can be higher. Indeed, it extends from a few centimeters to 200 meters. In addition, the RFID tags can store more information than the barcodes, and the collected data can be up to several kilobytes. It is also important to note that the RFID tags can be recycled because new information can be registered in it. One of the drawbacks of the deployment of the RFID technology is its cost, which varies and can slow down its implementation, or perturbations between the tags and their sensitivity to interference waves.

The RFID technology is still a topic of great interest to many: it not only makes it possible to solve the problems faced by barcodes, but is also of importance to key sectors of economy and trade, such as distribution and transport. The implementation of this technology could revolutionize the pharmaceutical industry and represent a significant advance in the field of health which would benefit everyone: in fact, who would not expect to benefit from quality care and not like to avoid being a victim of medical errors? Applied to pharmaceutical products, smart tags would guarantee the authenticity and thus avoid counterfeiting. With regard to blood donations, their use would significantly reduce the risk of possible confusions. Medical staff would be able to authenticate the source of a blood sample without error, and thus lead to a correct transfusion.

It is clear that the RFID tags are more and more inescapable and deserve our attention. This was the main reason forustowrite this book, which providesadescription of the famous “smart tags” from a scientific viewpoint. It is divided into five parts: part 1 looks at the operation of the RFID systems. It establishes the classification of RFIDs, studies the physical aspect of tags and antennae, as well as coding techniques of RFID information. Part 2 is devoted to the application of RFID. It traces its evolution from the barcodes to the RFID tags by making a comparison between the two systems, and shows in a concrete manner various application examples of the RFID technology. Part 3 describes the cryptographic protocols of RFID.

The data contained in the tags must be identified without jeopardizing the privacy of the persons who possess them. Part 4 focuses on the global standardization of RFID: EPC (Electronic Product Code). It is a global architecture initialized by the Internet of objects and the desire to establish a large quantum of data for all products, while ensuring the specificity and authenticity of each one of them. And finally, part 5 attempts to describe the architecture to implement “the Internet of things” as efficiently as possible and by adapting to the evolution of needs: middlewares.

Guy PUJOLLE

April 2011

PART ONEPhysics of RFID

Chapter 1

Introduction1

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) systems use electromagnetic waves to transmit, at distance, energy and data to devices that perform a scheduled process of information contained in these exchanges. The origin of RFID technologies, dates back to the invention of RADAR, where, during the Second World War, fighter pilots cleverly maneuvered their planes to be remotely identified by friendly radar operators, who distinguished them from their foes (Identify Friend or Foe).

However, the RFID technology received a boost in the early 1970s. The very first RFID devices were simple resonant analog circuits. Then, advances in microelectronics allowed the integration of increasingly complex digital functions. The initial applications were designed to track and monitor dangerous materials in sensitive areas (usually military or nuclear). In the late 1970s, applications of these devices also included the civilian doman, typically the monitoring of animals, vehicles and automated production lines [DOB 07].

Usual tracking technologies such asbarcodes, inventedin1970 byan IBM engineer, have shown their limitations for applications in an altered environment, such as animal tracking or in the engine assembly lines. Indeed, the barcode must pass through a scanning window to be scanned by a mobile reader without obstacles or of dirt traces which degrade or block the reading operation. This is why RFID technologies are being developed to replace barcodes in identification functions, so as to make it possible to read or write information at a distance using electromagnetic waves.

RFID technologies and contactless smart cards consist of one or more electronic tags connected to one or more antennae or terminals that radiate an electromagnetic field through their antennae. These devices communicate by RF (Radio Frequency) or UHF (Ultra High Frequency) channels. Some RFID applications and contactless smart cards require embedded energy sources to facilitate the data exchange between the tags and the terminal readers. Other more common RFID technologies and contactless smart cards perform remote energy transmission to enable data exchange.

Depending on the frequencies used, the transmitted energy necessary for operations can be stored in a geometric volume, site of an electromagnetic induction effect (as in the case of low frequencies or radio frequencies), or propagated (as in the case of Ultra High Frequency).

The deployment of RFID technologies presupposes that a number of electrical electronic, mechanical and material parameters have been controlled [ELR 04].

Indeed, given the nature of energy and data transmissions between the devices of the RFID system, the geometric space in which the energy transmission and data exchanges are performed may reveal communication failures between tags and terminals. In particular, the phenomena of echo due to reflection and absorption signals (as in the case of UHF) must be controlled. The coupling intensity in the near field (as in case of LF or HF frequencies) can degrade the signal to noise ratio or, in other cases, lead to very high impedance mismatch at the power stage level and cause a malfunction of the baseband station [BAR 05]. The antenna orientation of RFID tag/terminal pairs in correlation with the energy and data propagation should be minimized and the writing and reading distance should be optimized by taking into account the complete front-end architecture (stages of power, reception and power control). These issues (operational zones and antenna configurations) mainly relate to physical and electrical properties.

Regarding electronic aspects, the anti-collision processing should allow us to establish data exchange between all the RFID tagsinthe operating zoneofthe terminal(s) under the conditions predefined by RFID system specifications and ISO standards. The processing time of transmission, which should be secured by cryptographic algorithms, should be optimized (in terms of bandwidth and data rates), so that the processing time is compatible with the high flux of expected transactions.

Finally, the interoperability between different RFID systems, their robustness (in terms of electrical features) and their compatibility with ISO standards must be guaranteed. The mechanical parameters (connections between chips and antennas) and materials (from a point of view of electric behaviors) are all very important in this context.

By nature of their capture and data processing abilities, the RFID technology is well suited for automation of the complete supply chain, with better utilization flexibility and operation under varying environmental constraints, even when the object is in movementand occupies various positions. RFID technologies followthe unprecedented development of international trade exchanges. These technologies make it possible to save money by avoiding logistical and human errors and by limiting fraud, irrespective of their origin [ROU 05].

Information system architectures that aggregate data from RFID systems are based on normative networks, which define international ISO standards, or the coalition of managers and assignees such as EPCglobal Inc. which implements EPC (Electronic Product Code) codes. These codes are allocated to objects for identification at a worldwide level, while providing an interconnection service to servers dedicated to identification and localization of objects by the Internet.

Today, due to the joint progress of micro-electronics, microcomputer and telecommunications, RFID systems are not only reserved for automatic identification, but have also spread to other areas such as secure access to buildings, to networks or the completion of secured transactions between remote electronic devices.

1.1. Bibliography

[BAR 05] BARBU S., Design and implementation of an RF metrology system for contactless identification systems at 13.56 MHz, PhD Thesis, University of Marne La Vallée, 2005.

[DOB 07] DOBKIN D.M., The RF in RFID, Elsevier, Oxford, 2007.

[ELR 04] ELRHARBI S., BARBU S., GASTON L., Why Class 1 PICC is not suitable for ICAO / NTWG E-passport - New proposal for a Class 1 PCD, Contribution ISO/IEC JTC1/SC17/WG8/TF2 num. N430, ISO/IEC JTC1/SC17/WG8/TF2, June 2004.

[ROU 05] ROURE F., GORICHON J., SARTORIUS E., RFID technologies: industrial and society issues, Report of CGTI committee num. Report N° II-B.9 - 2004, CGTI, January 2005.

1 Chapter written by Simon ELRHARBI and Stefan BARBU.

Chapter 2

Characteristics of RFID Radio Signals1

This chapter describes the main characteristics of electrical signals exchanged in RFID systems.

2.1. Description and operating principle of RFID systems

RFID systems typically consist of fixed elements (called base station, reader, coupling device, terminal, etc.), whose function is to identify and process, by using radio waves, the information contained in one or more deported elements such as transponders, tags, badges, electronic tokens, or contactless smart cards. The different designations of the fixed and deported elements may vary, depending on applications, contexts, and their hardware and software resources. The fixed elements are themselves connected to servers for data processing at middleware and application levels for analysis, archiving and traceability (Figure 2.1).

2.1.1. Classification of RFID systems

Because of the variety of devices, features, applications and uses, there are a multitude of possible classifications due to the avaliability of a variety of devices, features and applications. However, we can retain some of the recurrent criteria found in these systems, such as:

operating frequencies;

types of transponders;

modes of energy and data transmission;

features.

Figure 2.1.Different elements of an RFID system

2.1.2. Available operating frequency ranges

As RFID systems use electromagnetic waves, they have to comply with a number of regulations that can be applied at a national, regional or international level. In addition to local jurisdictions, RFID systems are subject to a number of works of standard committees which define radio frequency emission standards in terms of available radio frequencies, power levels and associated bandwidths. The available frequency ranges are of the ISM (Industrial-Scientific-Medical) type. RFID systems use the ISM frequencies and can be classified into four categories (Figure 2.2 and 2.3):

low frequencies or LF ( frequencies below 135 kHz);

radio frequencies or HF (frequencies around 13,56 MHz);

ultra-high frequencies or UHF (frequencies around 434 MHz, 869 915 MHz and 2,45 GHz);

microwave or SHF (frequencies around 2,45 GHz).

2.1.3. Transponder types

In general, we distinguish between memory transponders and the microprocessor transponders (see sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2 for more details). All transponders contain non-volatile memories (NVM). The basic operations on data in memory and microprocessor transponders are inputs/outputs, reading/writing operations in NVM memories and executions of cryptographic functions. Output operations deliver data outside and writing operations modify contents of an NVM memory. Therefore they are particularly sensitive. This is why a logic security block is added to NVM memories, and is interposed between the NVM block and the input/output block. The role of the logic security block is to connect each output or writing operations to the hardware security of a chip.