Rural Social Work E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 801

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

A thoughtful text integrating strengths, assets, and capacity-building themes with contemporary issues in rural social work practice

Now in its second edition, Rural Social Work is a collection of contributed readings from social work scholars, students, and practitioners presenting a framework for resource building based on the strengths, assets, and capacities of people, a tool essential for working with rural communities.

This guide considers methods for social workers to participate in the work of sustaining rural communities. Each chapter features a reading integrating the themes of capacity-building and rural social work; discussion questions that facilitate critical thinking around the chapter; and suggested activities and assignments.

Rural Social Work, Second Edition explores:

• Important practice issues in rural communities, including the challenges of working with stigmatized populations such as gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered people, the homeless, and people living with HIV/AIDS
• Practice models that hold special promise for rural social workers, including evidence-based practice and community partnership models
• Newer research tools such as asset mapping, social network analysis, concept mapping, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Exploring how social workers can integrate the tremendous resources that exist in rural communities into their practice, Rural Social Work, Second Edition provides a solid introduction to the complex, challenging, and rewarding work of building and sustaining rural communities.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

About the Editors

About the Contributors

Part One: Conceptual and Historical Foundations of Rural Social Welfare

Chapter 1: Down-Home Social Work

Defining Rural

Rurality and Social Work Practice

A Multisystem Model for Down-Home (Rural) Social Work

Rationale for the Down-Home Model of Rural Social Work

Implications for Rural Social Work

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 2: Rural Is Real

The Rural Social Work Caucus and the National Institute on Social Work And Human Services in Rural Areas

Activities of the National Rural Social Work Caucus

Achievements of the National Rural Social Work Caucus

A Generalist Approach

Including Rural Social Work in Educational Curricula

A Brief History of the Rural Social Work Professional Policy Statement

The 2002 and 2011 Rural Social Work Professional Policy Statements

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

Internet Resources

References

Chapter 3: Social Welfare and Rural People

Colonial Period

Early National Period

The Civil War and After

The Progressive Era

World Wars, Prosperity, Depression, and Prosperity Again

Recent Developments

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 4: Out of Sight, Out of Mind

Female Delinquency

Girl-Saving Efforts

Efland Home as an Asset

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Part Two: Human Behavior and Rural Environments

Chapter 5: Accomplishing the Four Essential Tasks for Higher Education Access

Making Sense of Social Networks

Understanding College Access: Four Essential Tasks

Natural Helping Networks and School–Community Partnerships

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities And Assignments

References

Chapter 6: African Americans Living in Rural Community

Diversity and Social Work Practice

Afrocentric Perspective

Using an Afrocentric Perspective to Build Assets

African Americans in Rural Areas

Understanding Human Behavior of African Americans in Rural Environments

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 7: Latino Populations in Rural America

New Immigration Patterns

Needs of Latino Populations in Rural America

Cultural Characteristics of Latino Populations

Acculturation

Strategies for Building Capacity

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 8: Building Community Among Rural Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgendered Persons

Challenges for Rural Glbt Individuals and Communities

Three-Stage Process for Building Community

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 9: Rural Children and Adolescents

Consultation and Advocacy

Assessment

Direct Interventions and Program Development

Academic Help: Alternative Schools

Social Skills and Independent Living Skills

Mentoring

After-School Programs

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Part Three: Practice Issues in Rural Contexts

Chapter 10: Evidence-Based Practice in the Rural Context

What Is Evidence-Based Practice?

Evidence-Based Practice and the Rural Social Work Practice Setting

Real-World Example: Implementation of Evidence-Based Practice in a Rural Setting

What Are the Challenges and Possibilities for Implementing Evidence-Based Practice in Rural Settings?

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 11: Wraparound in Rural Child and Youth Mental Health

Mental Health Prevalence and Risk Factors of Rural Children and Youth

Mental Health Service Delivery to Children, Youth, and Families in Rural Communities

Wraparound Service Delivery in Systems of Care

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 12: Help-Seeking Pathways to Care

Case Illustration

Help-Seeking Theory

Cultural Pathways to Care Model

Guidelines for Interventions along Cultural Pathways to Care

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 13: Social Workers and Rural Congregations

Characteristics of Rural Congregations

Communicating with Rural Congregations

Rural Congregations as Community Partners

Social Workers and Rural Congregations

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 14: Working Together to Improve Services for People Living With HIV/AIDS

Context for Practice: Northeast Texas

Service Delivery Networks

The SHRT Network Development Project

Discussion

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 15: Building Capacity to Overcome Challenges in the Delivery of Hospice and Palliative Care in Rural Communities

Reviewing the Literature: Challenges for Hospice and Palliative care in Rural Communities

Building Capacity: Insights from Rural Hospice Social Workers

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

Internet Resources

References

Part Four: Policy Issues Affecting Rural Populations

Chapter 16: Capacity for Conservation

Overview of Sustainability

Importance of Sustainability to Rural Communities and to Populations at Risk

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

Internet Resources

References

Chapter 17: Living in Limbo

Understanding Rural Homelessness

Reasons for the Growth in Homelessness

Recognizing the Assets of Those Experiencing Homelessness

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 18: Location Matters

History of GIS

Rural Issues

Tracking Service Utilization and Changes

GIS and Policy

Participatory GIS

Challenges with GIS

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Part Five: Using Research to Evaluate Practice in Rural Settings

Chapter 19: Using an Assessment Framework for Research in a Rural Context

Rural Research Literature

Rural Research Methods

Mapping the Assets of a Rural Community

Examples of Research Studies

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 20: Using Concept Mapping for Assessment and Planning in Rural Communities

Community Assessment and Planning Approaches

Overview of Concept Mapping

Rural East Texas Health Network (RETHN)

Assessing Cultural Competence in a Rural System of Care for Children's Mental Health

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Chapter 21: Rural Networks

Social Network Analysis

The Safe Schools/Healthy Student (SS/HS) Collaboration

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Classroom Activities and Assignments

References

Appendix A NASW Rural Policy Statement

Appendix B Online Training and Resources on the EBP Process and Practice Issues for Rural Settings

Appendix C Ideas Ratings for Service Providers and Consumers (Mean Scores)

Author Index

Subject Index

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © iStockphoto.com/Ron_Thomas

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Rural social work : building and sustaining community capacity / [edited by] T. Laine Scales, Calvin L. Streeter, H. Stephen Cooper. – Second edition.

1 online resource.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.

ISBN 978-1-118-44516-7 (print)

ISBN 978-1-118-67309-6 (ebk)

ISBN 978-1-118-67298-3 (ebk)

1. Social service, Rural–United States. 2. Rural development–United States. I. Scales, T. Laine. II. Streeter, Calvin L. III. Cooper, H. Stephen.

HV91

361.30973′091734–dc23

2013008868

We dedicate this volume to our children,April Scales, Brian and Aaron Streeter, and Hayden and Savannah Cooper.

May they forever be blessed by the strength and resilienceof their country neighbors and be inspiredto preserve the land and the life for generations to come.

Preface

T. Laine Scales, Calvin L. Streeter, and H. Stephen Cooper

Imagine you have just returned home from a brisk walk through the countryside on a warm and sunny summer day. You are hot, tired, and very thirsty. As you enter your home, you see a glass of cool, refreshing water sitting on the kitchen table. The glass is filled to the halfway mark. How do you see the glass? Is it half-full or is it half-empty?

If you are thirsty, you probably focus on the glass as half-full, and you are grateful that someone has left it for you to drink. If the water in the glass isn't enough to quench your thirst, however, you may focus on the glass as half-empty. In this case, whether you view the glass as half-full or half-empty probably doesn't matter, but how we answer the age-old question, “Is the glass half-empty or half-full?” may suggest how we perceive the world.

It has been said that perception is reality. What we believe to be true often takes over our thoughts so much that it really becomes true. When we view the glass as half-empty, we focus on the negative aspects of life, and we can become consumed with negativity and overcome with despair. But when we see the glass as half-full, we focus on the positive elements in our lives and the world around us.

John Kretzmann and John McKnight (1993), in their book, Building Communities From the Inside Out, challenged us to view the glass as half-full rather than half-empty. They contend that our focus on the half-empty glass leads us to see only the deficiencies and problems facing our communities. In rural areas this often means we see communities where few opportunities exist to retain young people, where we are too spread out to afford hard-surface roads, good Internet access, or cable television for everyone, where residents must leave town to acquire many goods and services, and where farms and local businesses are controlled by big corporations from afar.

By viewing the glass as half-full, we begin to see the depth of the human spirit and the richness of the creative potential that exist in rural communities. We see people who are talented and experienced in a variety of areas. We see strong social networks and associations. We see that with rural services the lines are short, the hassles are few, and our business is easy to take care of. We see beautiful landscapes where we can easily enjoy nature. We see people getting things done that need to be done by using what is available. In other words, we see the capacity for strengths and assets rather than only problems and deficiencies.

As social workers, it is easy to become overwhelmed with a sense of despair because of the serious personal problems and societal conditions we are called upon to address. We see the child who has been verbally and physically abused. We witness the terrible toll that alcohol and drug abuse can take on a family. Daily we confront the reality of poverty, prejudice, and oppression in our society. Because our professional lives are wrapped up in the misery and trauma of the less advantaged in our community, it is no wonder that social workers are sometimes accused of seeing the glass as half-empty. For social workers in rural communities where resources are scarce, it may be even more difficult to view the glass as half-full.

A view that focuses on capacity, however, allows helping professionals to see people as citizens of the community, not just as clients. Every citizen has capacities that can be tapped to make life in the community better. Rural communities contain a wide range of assets and strengths, such as voluntary associations, close personal relationships among people, local institutions, histories and traditions, and land and property. Models of professional practice that focus on capacity-building can empower rural people to use their resources in innovative ways to create new assets. It can help them determine their own direction, set their own priorities, and leverage both internal and external resources in ways that make sense for their community.

Social work has a long tradition of practice focused on strengths and assets. For example, Dennis Saleebey and his colleagues at the University of Kansas School of Social Welfare have spent much of the last two decades developing, testing, and promoting a strengths perspective for social work practice (Saleebey, 2009). Drawing on the profession's commitment to building on people's strengths, rather than focusing on their deficiencies, problems, or disabilities, the strengths-based perspective provides an orientation to practice that seeks to uncover and reaffirm people's abilities, talents, survivor skills, and aspirations. It assumes that a clear and unyielding focus on the strengths found in individuals, families, neighborhoods, groups, and communities will increase the likelihood that people will reach the goals they set for themselves.

Three Streams of Thought on Building Capacity for Assets and Strengths

In addition to the work at the University of Kansas, at least three significant streams of work during the last two decades have helped shift our focus from deficiencies to capacity. Although somewhat different in their approach, they share a common theme. All three embrace and celebrate the strengths and capacities of individuals and communities.

The first of these is the work of Kretzmann and McKnight (1993), mentioned previously. Their book, Building Communities From the Inside Out, provides a conceptual framework for asset-based community development. In their book, Kretzmann and McKnight outline a set of tools for community practice that can be used to map assets and build capacities in our communities. At the heart of their model are relationships. From their perspective, asset mapping and capacity-building are about identifying resources and fostering relationships in the community.

In addition, Kretzmann and McKnight have established the Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) Institute at Northwestern University to provide resources and technical support for people seeking to “build community from the inside out.” Challenging the traditional approach to solving community problems, which focuses service providers and funding agencies on the needs and deficiencies of people and their communities, the ABCD Institute demonstrates that community assets are key building blocks in sustainable rural community revitalization efforts (Snow, 2001). These community assets include the skills of local residents, the power of local associations, the resources of public, private, and nonprofit institutions, and the physical and economic resources of local places. Central to their approach is the premise that every person has capacities, abilities, and gifts. The key is to identify and embrace those assets. To facilitate this process, the Institute has developed a Capacity Inventory, designed to identify the capacities of community members. The Institute now has more than 50 highly skilled practitioner/trainers who work with communities all across the country to promote asset-based community development.

A second stream of work focused on capacity-building is located at the Search Institute in Minneapolis, Minnesota. In an effort to identify the elements of an asset-based approach to healthy youth development, the Search Institute devised a framework of developmental assets for children and youth. This framework identified 40 critical factors for young people's growth and development.

The assets are divided into external and internal assets. The external assets focus on positive experiences that young people receive from the people and institutions in their lives and include a supportive environment, evidence that the community values youth and their contribution to community life, clearly stated boundaries and expectations, and opportunities for constructive use of time. However, a community's responsibility for its young people does not end with the provision of external assets. There needs to be a similar commitment to nurturing the internal qualities that guide choices and create a sense of centeredness, purpose, and focus. By developing these qualities, young people increase their capacities for learning, positive values to guide their choices, social competencies to build relationships, and a strong sense of their own power, purpose, worth, and promise.

When drawn together, the assets offer a set of benchmarks for positive child and adolescent development (Benson, 1997). The developmental assets framework clearly shows the important roles that families, schools, congregations, neighborhoods, youth organizations, and others in the community play in shaping young people's lives and increasing the community's capacity for positive growth.

The Search Institute's framework of developmental assets for children and youth has caught on all across the country, with asset-building initiatives flourishing in small towns and rural communities throughout the United States. For example, in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, the THRIVE Initiative is working to spread awareness of the 40 development assets and encourage asset-building throughout the community. In Manchester, New Hampshire, Making It Happen is helping the community view all young people as “at promise,” not “at risk,” by promoting healthy choices and reducing risky behaviors while building developmental assets in children and youth. In Annandale, Minnesota, Youth First is a grassroots initiative to inspire and challenge the entire community to become asset-builders for youth in the community. In Georgetown, Texas, The Georgetown Project is devoted to the framework of developmental assets as a means to build a healthy community where all children and youth can grow into capable, caring, and resilient adults. And in countless other communities across the country, the developmental asset framework is providing the foundation for youth development initiatives that emphasize the positive contribution that children and youth make in the life of the community.

The work of Dr. Mike Sherraden and his colleagues in the Center for Social Development at the Brown School of Social Work at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, represents a third exciting area of work focused on the increasing capacity for economic well-being. With a focus on developing financial resources for poor families, Sherraden (1991) outlined his ideas about asset-based welfare policy in his seminal book titled Assets and the Poor: A New American Welfare Policy.

Challenging our traditional models of public assistance for low-income families, Sherraden proposed asset-building as an antipoverty strategy. He argues that existing consumption-based welfare policies make it impossible for people to get out of poverty, because they penalize families for accumulating personal economic assets. From his perspective, the way to move people out of poverty is to encourage them to increase their capacity to accumulate assets, which they can then leverage to purchase a home, capitalize a small business, or pay for an education for their children. The mechanism for doing this is something called individual development accounts (IDAs).

Sherraden and his colleagues led a national demonstration project on asset-building using IDAs called the American Dream Demonstration as the first large-scale test of the efficacy of IDAs as a route to economic independence for low-income Americans (Schreiner et al., 2001; Sherraden, 2002). Since then, IDA projects have emerged all across the United States and in many countries around the world. For example, the Community Action Partnership of Western Nebraska's IDA program called Assets Building Choices is designed to help low-income families and individuals achieve economic independence by building long-term assets. RAISE Texas supports asset-building efforts in underserved small cities and rural markets in Texas by increasing access to IDA programs and other financial mainstream products. The Rural California Asset Development Network provides supportive financial education, asset-specific training, and access to banking in poor, rural, and immigrant communities. The Food, Conservation and Energy Act of 2008 included provisions for the Beginning Farmer and Rancher Individual Development Account (BFRIDA), a program designed to help beginning farmers and ranchers of limited means build the capital necessary to expand their agricultural businesses through matched savings accounts. The Native American Asset-Building Initiative supports innovative asset-building projects that feature IDAs, financial education, and related services that enable low-income Native American people to improve their economic status and become economically self-sufficient.

Exploring Asset Building in Rural Communities

We believe that practice models that keep us focused on the strengths, assets, and capacities of people are critical for social work practice in rural communities. That belief led us to create this resource for the classroom. It is designed to assist social work students and teachers as they integrate themes of capacity-building and social work practice in the rural context.

Because all three authors of this book are educators involved in the day-to-day challenge of integrating rural content into our courses with few current and classroom-friendly readings, we began to discuss with other educators what type of new resource would be useful. The ideal resource would be more than a mere collection of readings. It would be interesting and accessible for students at the BSW and MSW levels, and it would provide discussion questions and assignments to facilitate the study of the material.

We envisioned this book as a valuable educational resource on contemporary issues in rural social work practice and as a forum where scholars, students, and practitioners can share their current research and practice experience in rural communities. We reviewed other rural resources for social workers and found several ways in which we wanted this resource to be distinctive.

First, in contrast to other resources for students, these readings consistently integrate strengths, assets, and capacity-building themes, some of the newer, most talked-about theoretical foundations for social work. We have emphasized the depth of the human spirit and the richness of the creative potential that exists in rural communities. We introduce newer research tools, such as asset mapping, social network analysis, concept mapping, and geographic information systems (GIS). We also include practice models that hold special promise for rural social workers, such as wraparound and systems of care, evidence-based practice, community partnership models, and the role of faith-based organizations in rural communities. The readings highlight the tremendous resources that exist in rural communities and demonstrate ways to integrate them into contemporary social work practice.

We also address some of the most important practice issues facing rural social workers today, such as the challenges of working with stigmatized populations such as gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered people; hospice and palliative care services; the homeless; immigration policy; and people living with HIV/AIDS. These and other contemporary practice and policy issues are very important to social workers, but they have not been addressed thoroughly in other resources on rural social work.

The intent of Rural Social Work: Building and Sustaining Community Capacity is to provide material for readers who are learning to use capacity-building frameworks and, at the same time, suggest ways for social workers to participate in sustaining rural communities. We expect that our readers will have a wide variety of experiences with rurality. Some of our readers may live and work in rural communities and may have read widely on rural social work. Many readers may live rural lifestyles, but perhaps they have not had an opportunity to reflect on their own cultures and how the rural environment impacts social work practice. Others may be destined for social work in urban areas, and they are preparing themselves to work with clients who have migrated to their city from rural areas. For all of these readers, our hope is that these articles, discussion questions, and assignments stimulate meaningful dialogue about how asset-building frameworks can enhance practice with rural populations.

Getting the Most from this Resource

Following this preface on asset-building perspectives and their application to community building in rural contexts, this book contains 21 chapters written by social work scholars, students, and practitioners. Each chapter includes three elements: (1) an article that integrates the themes of capacity-building and rural social work, (2) discussion questions that facilitate critical thinking around the chapter, and (3) suggested activities and assignments to provide opportunities for practical application of the concepts presented in the chapter.

The chapters are organized into five parts, with an organizing framework following curriculum areas often used by programs accredited by the Council on Social Work Education:

1. Part 1. Conceptual and Historical Foundations of Rural Social Welfare

2. Part 2. Human Behavior and Rural Environments

3. Part 3. Practice Issues in Rural Contexts

4. Part 4. Policy Issues Affecting Rural Populations

5. Part 5. Using Research to Evaluate Practice in Rural Settings

This framework for organizing will assist teachers who wish to integrate a few readings on rural issues into each course. Students may buy the book early in their program, and instructors may use this book to supplement other textbooks, which often carry an urban focus. The work will also be useful in introductory courses in both MSW and BSW programs, as it introduces new social work students to a variety of curriculum areas they will be studying and encourages students to consider these areas within a rural context. Finally, we expect the book will be particularly well suited for the growing number of specialized courses in rural social work.

Lead teachers have written brief introductions to each of the five parts that explore the connections between the readings and the curriculum area covered in that section. These veteran teachers and scholars have prepared students and instructors for the section of readings as if they were preparing their students for a new unit in their own classes. We intend for these introductory sections to invite readers to anticipate particular themes and connections as they work through the chapters.

The discussion questions and assignments are designed to provide maximum autonomy for student learners. We believe that students should be at the center of their own learning, so we designed the activities to be used with as little or as much guidance as the teacher believes his or her particular class will need. Teachers are encouraged to adapt these assignments as they wish and to create their own questions and assignments to fit their unique contexts.

No matter how students, teachers, and practitioners might choose to use this resource, we are confident that they will find good readings, discussion questions, and assignments to help them think about rural social work in new ways. We have learned a great deal from reading and editing the work of these well-informed and experienced contributors. We hope others' experiences with this resource will be equally enjoyable and stimulating.

References

Benson, P. L. (1997). All kids are our kids: What communities must do to raise caring and responsible children and adolescents. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kretzmann, J. P., & McKnight, J. L. (1993). Building communities from the inside out: A path toward finding and mobilizing a community's assets. Chicago, IL: ACTA Publications.

Saleebey, D. (2009). The strengths perspective in social work practice (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Schreiner, M., Sherraden, M., Clancy, M., Johnson, L., Curley, J., Grinstein-Weiss, M.,... Beverly, S. (2001). Savings and asset accumulation in individual development accounts. Research report from St. Louis, MO: Center for Social Development, Washington University.

Sherraden, M. (1991). Assets and the poor: A new American welfare policy. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Sherraden, M. (2002). Individual development accounts: Summary of research. Research report from St. Louis, MO: Center for Social Development, Washington University.

Snow, L. K. (2001). The organization of hope: A workbook for rural asset-based community development. Chicago, IL: ACTA Publications.

Acknowledgments

We have many people to thank, beginning with the lead teachers and contributors who worked diligently to prepare and revise their work. We are grateful to the reviewers who gave helpful feedback and to Wiley's Rachel Livsey, Amanda Orenstein, and Thomas Caruso who have been so efficient and pleasant. We especially appreciate Jeanie Fitzpatrick and Rachel Whitenton for their careful attention to detail in the manuscript preparation.

Many people have inspired, guided, and influenced our professional and personal development. We call those people capacity builders. I (Laine) would like to acknowledge my dad, Charlie Scales, who, along with my mom, provided my first learning about rural communities. Growing up in rural Kentucky and North Carolina, I watched (and helped) my parents as they tirelessly gave their time and energy in building natural helping networks to sustain our small communities. I am also indebted to Dr. Donoso Escobar, my teacher and friend, who first taught me that rurality is not just a matter of where we are located geographically, but also an important cultural study, and that social workers can (and need to) do this essential work.

I (Cal) was influenced by countless asset builders, many of whom didn't know they were influencing me, who have shaped who I am today. I would like to thank all those who have helped me along the way. In particular, I want to acknowledge my parents, Lloyd and Delores Streeter. My earliest memories of rural community life center around my parents' active participation in the life of their small farming community in central Nebraska. Working together with neighbors, sharing their dreams and aspirations, influencing one another's opinions, and supporting and encouraging one another during difficult times was a normal and natural part of their life. They were and continue to be asset builders for many people, young and old. I would also like to express my gratitude to my wife, Diane, and my children, Brian and Aaron, who remind me daily of the importance of family in our ongoing journey through life.

I (Steve) appreciate my parents, Hayden and Judith Cooper, who decided to raise my siblings and me in a rural community. The resulting experiences, as well as lessons about rural life taught by my grandparents, Lois Beeney and Jack Harrington, fostered a deep appreciation for life in a rural community. In fact, I went on to attend college in a rural community, where I have lived my entire adult life. I developed a passion for rural social work practice in that community, and I have witnessed the extraordinary capacity of rural communities to address the most difficult issues. Many people have contributed to my passion for and understanding of rural communities, including Linda Morales, Freddie Avant, Laine Scales, Barbara Nowak, David Cozadd, Cal Streeter, and Dennis Poole. Finally, I would like to express my deep gratitude for my wife, Angela, and our children, Hayden and Savannah, all of whom are constant reminders of the most important things in life.

About the Editors

T. Laine Scales earned her MSW at the Carver School of Church Social Work, in Louisville, Kentucky, and her PhD at the University of Kentucky. She is Associate Dean of Graduate Studies and Professional Development and Professor of Higher Education at Baylor University, in Waco, Texas. She served for 15 years as a faculty member in social work at Baylor University and at Stephen F. Austin State University, in Nacogdoches, Texas, where she taught rural social work. Dr. Scales has published in the areas of social welfare history, spirituality and religion in social work, and rural social work. She has authored or co-edited 10 books, including All That Fits a Woman: Training Southern Baptist Women for Charity and Mission, 1907–1926 (Mercer University Press, 2000), Spirituality and Religion in Social Work Practice: Decision Cases With Teaching Notes (Council on Social Work Education, 2002), Decision Cases for Generalist Practice: Thinking Like a Social Worker (Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2006), and Social Environments and Human Behavior: Contexts for Practice With Groups, Organizations, Communities, and Social Movements (Brooks/Cole, 2012).

Calvin L. Streeter earned his MSW and PhD from Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri. He is the Meadows Foundation Centennial Professor in the Quality of Life in the Rural Environment at The University of Texas at Austin School of Social Work. Dr. Streeter teaches in the areas of macro social work practice and research. In addition to his interest in rural social work, his recent research has focused on school reform, school-based services, and disability services. His scholarship has been featured in more than 80 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, encyclopedia entries, monographs, conference proceedings, technical papers, and research reports, as well as numerous national and international conference presentations. He is active in many local and national causes and has served on numerous nonprofit boards and taskforces.

H. Stephen Cooper earned an MSW from Stephen F. Austin State University and a PhD in Social Work at the University of Texas at Austin. He is Associate Professor of Social Work and Associate Dean, College of Liberal and Applied Arts, at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas. He has also served as the Coordinator for the School's Initiative for Rural Research and Development. Dr. Cooper teaches both BSW and MSW courses, primarily in the areas of human behavior, research, policy, and community/organizational theory and practice. His work experience includes law enforcement, child/adolescent community mental health, adolescent residential treatment, therapeutic wilderness programming, administration, and network planning/development. Dr. Cooper's research interests include child and adolescent mental health, juvenile delinquency, rural social work, community practice, and civic engagement. He is a co-author of Social Environments and Human Behavior: Contexts for Practice With Groups, Organizations, Communities, and Social Movements (Brooks/Cole, 2012).

About the Contributors

Donna M. Aguiniga earned her MSW from Boise State University and her PhD from the University of Texas at Austin School of Social Work. Currently, Dr. Aguiniga is an Assistant Professor with the Western Illinois University Department of Social Work. Dr. Aguiniga's research and practice interests are in rural community development, child welfare, and social work education.

Nathan F. Alleman received his MA from Geneva College and his PhD in educational policy, planning, and leadership from The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor at Baylor University in Waco, Texas, in the graduate Higher Education and Student Affairs program. He has published on the history of higher education, faith-based higher education, faculty worklife issues, and low-income and rural college access issues.

Freddie L. Avant received his MSW from the University of Missouri-Columbia and his PhD in social work with a concentration in administration, policy, and planning from Jackson State University, in Jackson, Mississippi. He is a Professor and Director/Associate Dean of the School of Social Work at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, where he teaches in both the BSW and MSW programs. He has been teaching social work and engaged in social work practice for more than 25 years. His social work practice background and research interests are in the areas of mental health, school social work, rural social work, forensic social work, and social work leadership and heath care. He has written and published in the area of social work practice with an emphasis on working with rural communities and individuals with rural lifestyles.

Kathleen Belanger earned an MSSW from the University of Texas at Austin and PhD from the University of Houston. She is a Professor at Stephen F. Austin State University, teaching in the MSW program. She has worked with the Texas Department of Family and Protective Services in directing contracts, developing information systems, and challenging racial disproportionality. Her books include Challenging Racial Disproportionality in Child Welfare: Research, Policy and Practice (with D. Green, R. McRoy, and L. Bullard) and Guidelines for Cultural Competence in Rural Child Welfare (with S. Brooks), along with publications related to racial disproportionality, rural life, and spirituality. She serves on the Human Services Panel of the Rural Policy Research Institute, and consults with two child welfare National Resource Centers. Her awards include the Champion for Children Award from the Child Welfare League of America for rural advocacy.

Amy Z. Boelk earned her MSSW from the University of Wisconsin–Madison and her PhD from the University of Texas, Austin. Presently, she is Associate Professor and Field Coordinator in the BSW program at the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point. As a former hospice social worker, Dr. Boelk has a significant interest in end-of-life care. In addition to her work on end-of-life care in rural areas, she has published and presented on the topics of family conflict at the end of life and recovery from parental suicide. Forthcoming is a chapter in the first Oxford Handbook of Oncology Social Work.

Tanya Smith Brice earned an MSW from the College of Social Work at the University of South Carolina and a PhD in Social Work from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She is an Associate Professor at Baylor University's School of Social Work. She has also served as Director of the MSSW program at Abilene Christian University and as an Assistant Professor at the University of South Carolina's College of Social Work. Her research interests include social welfare history, with a particular focus on the contribution of African American women in the development of the profession; the impact of race relations on Christianity; and the examination of structural oppression and its impact on vulnerable populations. Her research has been published in peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and encyclopedia entries. She has made numerous presentations of her research at international, national, and regional conferences and other venues.

Wilma Cordova earned an MSW from Michigan State University, in East Lansing, Michigan. Presently, she is an Associate Professor at Stephen F. Austin State University, where she teaches in both the BSW and MSW programs. Prior to coming to SFASU, Wilma had a private practice in Southern New Mexico. Her research and practice interests are in the area of Latino issues in a rural context, including immigration, education, and mental health. One other area of interest is learning to implement innovative teaching techniques. Wilma has published articles about HIV/AIDS in rural areas, disaster preparedness, and cultural competence.

Michael R. Daley, PhD, LCSW PIP, ACSW, is Professor of Social Work at the University of South Alabama in Mobile. He is a past president of the Rural Social Work Caucus and the Association of Baccalaureate Social Work Program Directors (BPD). He is currently a member of the CSWE Council on Leadership Development and has served as Chair of the NASW National Ethics Committee, is past president of the Texas Chapter of the NASW, and an NASW national delegate from Alabama. Dr. Daley has lived and worked in rural communities and has been associated with the Rural Caucus for more than 25 years. He has written several articles and book chapters on issues related to rural social work.

Amanda M. Davis anticipates completing her graduate degree in political science in December 2012. Amanda is a graduate assistant with the Illinois Institute for Rural Affairs (IIRA). Amanda specializes in macro social work research and provides support to the IIRA Data Analysis and Technical Assistance Center. Amanda has provided support to the West Central Illinois Continuum of Care Consortium, where she participates in the biannual point-in-time count of homeless persons. She has also worked as a graduate assistant under the IIRA's Value-Added Sustainable Development Center, which is home to the IIRA Wind Energy Program.

Tamara S. Davis earned an MSSW from the University of Louisville, Kentucky, and her PhD from the University of Texas at Austin School of Social Work. She completed a postdoctoral fellowship at the Hogg Foundation for Mental Health. Currently, she is an Associate Professor at The Ohio State University College of Social Work, where she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses on mental health policy and programs; community practice; social policy, planning, and administration; and study abroad to England and Poland. Dr. Davis focuses her scholarship in the areas of culture and diversity in social work education and practice, service inequities among diverse populations, caregiver involvement in child and youth mental health, and participatory evaluation and research methods. She recently co-authored Finding and Evaluating Evidence: Systematic Reviews and Evidence-Based Practice (Bronson & Davis, Oxford University Press, 2012).

Alex Espadas earned an MSW and PhD from the Social Work Graduate School at the University of Houston, Texas. Presently, he is working with schools in the city of Cancun, Mexico, helping to develop and implement programs focused on adolescents with a high risk for violence, substance abuse, and poor school achievement, and he is adjunct faculty at the College of Social Work at the University of South Carolina. Previously, Dr. Espadas served as a research associate at the University of Texas–Houston Mental Science Institute, counselor for Spanish-speaking patients at the Harris County Psychiatric Hospital, and drug counselor at the University of Texas Drug Treatment Program. Dr. Espadas's research and practice interest are access to treatment issues among Hispanic immigrants and recidivism among psychiatric patients.

Samuel A. Hickman earned an MSW from West Virginia University, in Morgantown. He has served as the Executive Director of the National Association of Social Workers, West Virginia Chapter, for more than 27 years. Sam is the current Secretary of the National Rural Social Work Caucus, and he has been active in the organization since 1980. Before joining NASW, he was employed as director of a postdisaster crisis mental health intervention program funded by the National Institute of Mental Health, a consultation and education specialist in a community mental health center, manager of a team of indigenous community social services outreach workers in a community health service program, a nursing home social services director, and a hospital social work director. He has written and/or spoken most recently on the Affordable Care Act and its impact on social work, understanding rural social work through the lens of Appalachian culture, social work ethics, and professional continuing education.

L. Neal Holly earned an MA in higher education administration from Appalachian State University, in Boone, North Carolina, and received his PhD in higher education administration from the College of William & Mary, in Williamsburg, Virginia. Currently, he is a Research and Policy Analyst for the West Virginia Higher Education Policy Commission. Neal's research has centered on low-income student postsecondary access and success. In particular, his work has focused on the impact of state-level education policies and initiatives on low-income enrollment, and college-going efforts in rural communities. He has co-authored two major reports on college access efforts in the state of Virginia, as well as contributed to peer-reviewed publications and presentations at the national level.

Susan A. Murty received her PhD from the George Warren Brown School of Social Work at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri. Previously, she earned her MSW from the University of California at Berkeley. Currently, she is an Associate Professor at the School of Social Work at the University of Iowa, where she has served as Coordinator of the MSW Program and Coordinator of the End-of-Life Care Field of Practice. She also teaches in the Critical Cultural Competence Certificate Program at the University of Iowa. Her teaching and scholarship have covered rural and community-based social work, network analysis, domestic violence, end-of-life care, service learning, cultural competence, Latino immigrants, and life review among elders. She is currently engaged in oral history research with elders in a village in Mexico and with older Latino immigrants in Iowa.

F. Ellen Netting received her MSSW from the University of Tennessee–Knoxville, and her PhD from the University of Chicago. She is Professor Emerita at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, where she served as the Samuel S. Wurtzel Endowed Chair and taught in the BSW, MSW, and PhD programs. Her practice experience includes directing a county office on aging, directing a foster grandparent program, serving as trainer for a 16-county area agency on aging, and consulting with numerous local and state health and human service organizations. She has collaborated on 10 books, 30 book chapters, and 175 refereed journal articles, including Social Work Macro Practice, now in its fifth edition (2012) and used in 120 schools of social work throughout the United States. Her primary scholarship interests include health and human service delivery issues for frail elders in long-term care, nonprofit management and organizational analysis, faith-based organizations, and volunteerism.

Linda Openshaw earned her doctor of social work degree from the University of Utah in Salt Lake City. She is currently Professor and MSW Program Director at the School of Social Work at Texas A&M University–Commerce. She teaches across the MSW curriculum. She is the author of Social Work in Schools: Principles and Practice and has authored several book chapters and peer-reviewed journal articles on school social work, mental health, and spirituality. She is an item writer and has served in several capacities, including a member of the Examination Committee for the Association of Social Work Boards (ASWB). She has been teaching the LCSW Supervision Course, for Clinical Social Workers who want to become supervisors in Texas, for the past three years. Linda worked for 14 years as a school social worker in Utah and Texas and for three years in community mental health in Utah and California.

Danielle E. Parrish earned her PhD from the University of Texas at Austin School of Social Work and completed a postdoctoral fellowship at the Health Behavior Research and Training Institute at the University of Texas at Austin. Currently, she is an Assistant Professor in the Graduate College of Social Work at the University of Houston, where she teaches courses on clinical assessment and research. Although much of Dr. Parrish's scholarly work focuses more broadly on evidence-based practice and the translation of behavioral health research into real practice settings, she also conducts research on social anxiety disorder in youth and is currently working on two federally funded intervention studies focused on reducing the risk of HIV and alcohol- and nicotine-exposed pregnancy among high-risk females in primary care and juvenile justice settings.

Dennis L. Poole earned an MSW from West Virginia University in Morgantown, and a PhD in Social Policy at Brandeis University, in Waltham, Massachusetts. He is Professor at the University of South Carolina College of Social Work, teaching in the MSW program. Past Dean of the College, he teaches courses in community building and nonprofit management. He is also a Senior Fellow at the RGK Center for Philanthropy and Community Service at the University of Texas, where he is conducting research on nonprofit community engagement capacity. Dr. Poole's publications include six books and more than 65 peer-reviewed journal articles, books chapters, and essays, mostly on nonprofit management, community building, and social innovations. In the middle of his academic career, he took a seven-year leave of absence to serve as Executive Director of the Community Development Support Association in Oklahoma. He has taught study abroad courses in Mexico with 15 student groups, and he is developing a study abroad course in Guatemala.

Jessica H. Retrum received her MSSW from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1997 and her PhD from the University of Denver at the Graduate School of Social Work in 2010. Dr. Retrum is currently a Research Associate at the University of Denver School of Public Affairs. Prior to her doctoral studies, Dr. Retrum had eight years of clinical experience in health-related social work, hospice, home care, inpatient, and developmental disabilities. Her research interests are in social work and gerontology, particularly with community-dwelling older adults with chronic and terminal illness and their social supports as well as interorganizational collaboration and health systems. She has written in the areas of hospice and palliative care, social work, and public health.

Amy C. Russell earned her PhD and MSW from the University of Houston School of Social Work program. She is currently an Assistant Professor at the School of Social Work, Texas State University–San Marcos. She is also the Director of the Richter Research Institute for the school, which supports faculty research and grant-writing endeavors. Prior to her career in social work, she worked in community mental health in multiple capacities to increase the quality of life for persons with severe and persistent mental illness. She teaches primarily graduate-level social work research. Amy has researched, published, and presented on liberated identity, queer issues, mentoring social work students in research, and programmatic/student learning outcomes. Her research agenda includes an emphasis on creative methodologies, such as classic grounded theory, image, and art.

Jon E. Singletary is Diana R. Garland Chair of Children and Family Studies and Associate Dean for Baccalaureate Studies in the School of Social Work, at Baylor University, in Waco, Texas. Having received his MSW and PhD degrees from Virginia Commonwealth University, in Richmond, Dr. Singletary's interests are in community organizing and social movements, particularly as they involve congregations and faith-based organizations. He also holds a Master of Divinity degree from Baptist Theological Seminary of Richmond and served as pastor of a Mennonite congregation in Richmond. Dr. Singletary has published more than 20 peer-reviewed articles, 35 presentations on communities and congregations, and is co-author of Social Environments and Human Behavior: Contexts for Practice With Groups, Organizations, Communities, and Social Movements (Brooks/Cole, 2012).

Paul H. Stuart earned his MSW from the University of California at Berkeley, and his PhD degree in History and Social Welfare from the University of Wisconsin, Madison. He is a Professor in the School of Social Work, Robert Stempel College of Public Health and Social Work, Florida International University, in Miami. He was a social worker in the Indian Health Service on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota and has taught at Augustana and Sioux Falls Colleges in South Dakota, at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, at the University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire, and at the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa. A specialist in social welfare history, he co-edited the Encyclopedia of Social Welfare History in North America (Sage Publications, 2005), with John M. Herrick.

Kathi R. Trawver received an MSW from the University of AlaskaAnchorage and a PhD from the University of Texas at Austin School of Social Work. She is now an Assistant Professor at the University of Alaska Anchorage, where she teaches undergraduate and graduate practice and research courses and serves as the BSW Program Coordinator. Dr. Trawver has more than 20 years of experience providing child welfare, mental health, and advocacy social work services to rural Alaskan children, families, and adults. Currently, her research interests focus on the intersection of serious mental illness and the criminal/juvenile justice system, as well as problem-solving courts, student mental health and other disabilities, and evidence-based practice. She is the co-editor of the Psychosocial Treatment of Schizophrenia (Clinician's Guide to Evidence-Based Practice Series) published by John Wiley & Sons (2010).

Griselda Villalobos earned an MSW from New Mexico State University in Las Cruces. Presently, she is Assistant Professor at the University of Texas at El Paso Department of Social Work. She obtained her PhD degree from the University of Texas at Austin in 2009. She was employed with New Mexico State University as a College Assistant Professor from 2006 through 2009. Griselda is a licensed clinical social worker in the state of Texas, with expertise in treating depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Griselda has dedicated her research career to investigating issues related to Latinos and mental health. Dr. Villalobos' chapter entitled “Mental Health Disparities on the U.S. Mexico Border” was recently published in an edited book entitled Social Justice on the U.S. Mexico Border Region.

Jim Winship is Professor and Chair of the Social Work Department of the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater. He received an MSW and PhD from the University of Georgia, in Athens. He worked with homeless parents in a shelter in rural Wisconsin for nine years, and he has consulted and provided training around the country on case management with families experiencing homelessness. He has been a board member of the National Association for the Education of Homeless Children and Youth and formerly was chair of the Rural Social Work Caucus.

Part One

Conceptual and Historical Foundations of Rural Social Welfare

Paul H. Stuart

Does rural social welfare differ from urban social welfare? And do social workers who practice in rural areas or with rural people experience a different reality than that which is encountered by other social workers? If so, what are the differences, both in policy and practice? Social work is often described as an urban profession, as the origins of the profession in the United States were found in the rapidly growing urban centers during the Progressive Era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, much Progressive Era social work practice involved work with immigrants from rural Europe and migrants from rural America, who made up the populations that swelled turn-of-the-century cities. And social workers have been practicing in rural areas since at least World War I. The chapters in this section provide information on the rural roots of social welfare in the United States and some insights on what is special about social work practice with rural people. More importantly, they provide an orientation to rural social work and social welfare.

One answer to the question of what sets rural social work apart has been that rural areas—and by extension rural social welfare—can be distinguished from their urban counterparts by reference to what is lacking. Initially, the U.S. Census Bureau defined rural and urban areas by the number of people in the area. In the 1790 census, places of fewer than 2,500 people were designated as rural areas, whereas places with more than 2,500 were classified as urban. This classification continued to be used until 1991, when the Census Bureau developed a more nuanced definition. Smaller population was often associated with deficits. Thus, cities had relatively rich social welfare resources and were traditionally centers for innovation and experimentation, in contrast to rural areas, which had fewer resources and were often viewed as unchanging and set in their ways. Cities were also the locations of major social institutions, such as universities, hospitals, and religious institutions, whereas rural areas could be characterized by a lack of these amenities. Thus, much of the thinking about rural social work and social welfare emphasized the deficits that seemed to characterize rural communities.

If rural policy and practice is conceptualized from a deficit model, then the role of a social worker may be to make connections between people and the (often missing) services they need. Some rural social work practice is focused on community deficits and finding ways to work around those deficits. Such a view emphasizes what rural areas do not have, rather than the strengths of rural people and rural communities. In Chapter 1, “Down-Home Social Work: A Strengths-Based Model for Rural Practice,” two social work educators, Michael R. Daley and Freddie L. Avant, state the case for a reconceptualization of rural social work practice. Instead of a focus on deficits, they argue in favor of a broader framework for rural social work practice—a generalist framework that takes into account both the person and the environment. Rural may be a concept that cannot be defined simply by population density or deficits in services, they suggest. Rather, a rural culture is something that people identify with, including some people who are currently living in standard metropolitan statistical areas (SMSAs), the most urban places, according to the current Census Bureau classification system.

In rural cultures people relate to each other in informal or personalized ways. Primary family and friendship groups are often more important than formal resources, such as agencies and other official sources of information and assistance. Social workers need to be aware of this attitude, whether they work in rural areas or in urban communities, as rural people migrate to cities, where some are in need of services. How can social workers be aware of the culture of their clients? Daley and Avant provide some clues, but because rural people self-identify as rural, the best strategy is to ask them.

The importance of informal relations in rural cultures is illustrated in Chapter 2, “Rural Is Real: History of the National Rural Social Work Caucus and the NASW Professional Policy Statement on Rural Social Work.” In this chapter, rural social work practitioner Samuel A. Hickman provides a description and history of the Rural Social Work Caucus. Founded in the 1970s, the caucus, now known as the National Rural Social Work Caucus, represents the interests of rural social work practitioners and social work educators who focus on rural practice. The caucus has encouraged attention to rural issues by the National Association of Social Workers, the Council on Social Work Education, and other organizations, and was responsible for the 1981, 2002, and 2011 Professional Policy Statements on Rural Social Work, which were adopted by the National Association of Social Workers Delegate Assembly. The caucus is less formally organized than many other professional organizations, but it gets a lot done, as Hickman shows.

The history of social welfare policy in the United States reflects the nation's varying attitude toward rural areas. In Chapter 3, “Social Welfare and Rural People: From the Colonial Era to the Present,” I, Paul Stuart (chapter author), trace the development of social welfare in the United States as the nation evolved from a predominantly rural and agricultural country to a modern urban and industrialized nation. The locus for social welfare activity and innovation shifted from the local community to the state and eventually to the nation, while the view of rural areas shifted as well. Initially viewed as ideal democratic communities, rural areas were increasingly seen as backward and isolated during the 20th century. Along with rapid urban development, a deficit view of rural communities came to dominate discussions.

Rural and frontier areas were stimulated by the enactment of the “Western measures” of the 1862 Congress. The Homestead Act, the Land Grant College Act, the Department of Agriculture Act, and the Pacific Railroad Act represented major social investments that transferred assets in the form of land, education, research, and transportation to frontier settlers and rural residents in general. Corresponding asset-building measures may be needed to revitalize rural communities in the 21st century.

As Americans came to view rural areas as backward, another function of rural communities suggested itself. Urban problems—or urban people who had problems—could be moved to rural areas, where they could be “out of sight, out of mind.” Mental hospitals, prisons, and other institutions were located in rural areas, far away from population centers. From the “orphan trains” of the late 19th and early 20th centuries to the New Deal Civilian Conservation Corps and Great Society Job Corps programs of the mid-20th century, Americans have endeavored to relocate urban people with problems to rural areas. In part, this reflected a belief in the restorative powers of rural environments, but it also reflected a desire to remove problems far away from an increasingly urban society.