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- Sprache: Englisch
SARCOPENIA An in-depth examination of sarcopenia's underexplored yet widespread impact within the field of gerontology Sarcopenia is common in older men and women, and yet awareness of its clinical relevance is still relatively low. Only formally included in the International Classification of Diseases in 2016, the condition may impact societies with serious health-related and financial consequences unless consistent, effective methods of identification and management are adopted. This second edition of Sarcopenia provides geriatricians and other healthcare professionals with a revised and expanded examination of this understudied and underdiagnosed condition. Edited by two leading authorities on the subject, it covers the epidemiology and diagnosis of sarcopenia, as well as treatment options and possible prevention strategies. Eight newly written chapters build upon existing knowledge with fresh data on topics including sarcopenia's biomarkers and its impact on the healthcare economy. This important text: * Defines sarcopenia and explains its clinical relevance * Covers all recent scientific evidence * Outlines treatment options * Considers prevention strategies * Discusses sarcopenia as a public health priority * Features eight new chapters covering topics such as sarcopenia's clinical management, its biomarkers, and its financial impact Containing vital information for clinicians and other professionals working in geriatric care, nursing homes, nutrition, cancer, endocrinology, surgery, sports medicine and many other specialties, Sarcopenia, second edition, is a groundbreaking and essential new resource.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
CHAPTER 1: Definitions of Sarcopenia
SARCOPENIA: BIRTH AND FIRST STEPS
GROWTH AND ADOLESCENCE OF SARCOPENIA
MATURITY OF SARCOPENIA: RECENT DEFINITIONS
NEW PLAYERS: BONE, FAT, AND MUSCLE
THE FRONTIERS: FRAILTY, CACHEXIA, MALNUTRITION
THE RESEARCH ARENA
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 2: Epidemiology of Muscle Mass Loss with Age
INTRODUCTION
MUSCLE MASS DIFFERENCES AMONG AGE GROUPS
CHANGE IN MUSCLE MASS WITH AGING
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 3: The Role of Mitochondria in Age‐Related Sarcopenia
MUSCLES TRANSFORM CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY
EVIDENCE THAT MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION DECLINES WITH AGING AND ITS CONSEQUENCES ON MUSCLE HEALTH AND FUNCTION
CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF MITOCHONDRIAL MASS AND OXIDATIVE CAPACITY IN AGING SKELETAL MUSCLE
ARE AGE‐RELATED CHANGES IN MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION AT THE ROOT OF SARCOPENIA?
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 4: Motor Unit Remodeling
OVERVIEW OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
AGE‐RELATED MU REMODELING
LOSS OF MUSCLE FIBERS
REDUCED FIRING CAPACITY OF MUs
MECHANISMS OF MU REMODELING
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 5: Nutrition, Protein Turnover and Muscle Mass
INTRODUCTION
EVIDENCES FOR A ROLE FOR NUTRITION IN SARCOPENIA
ANABOLIC RESPONSE TO PHYSICAL EXERCISE IN OLDER PERSONS
COMBINATION OF NUTRITIONAL AND TRAINING STRATEGIES
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE DIRECTION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6: Recognizing Persons at Risk for Sarcopenia
SARC‐F
OTHER SCREENING TESTS FOR SARCOPENIA
CONCLUSION
DISCLOSURES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 7: Adverse Outcomes and Functional Consequences of Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
MORTALITY
MOBILITY LIMITATIONS
FALLS AND FRACTURES
QUALITY OF LIFE
METABOLIC CONSEQUENCES
SECONDARY SARCOPENIA
CONTROVERSIES
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 8: A Lifecourse Approach to Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
A LIFECOURSE APPROACH
USE OF COHORT STUDIES ACROSS THE LIFECOURSE
LIFECOURSE CONSEQUENCES OF SARCOPENIA
LIFECOURSE DETERMINANTS OF SARCOPENIA
CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS
CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 9: Acute Sarcopenia
DEFINITION
EPIDEMIOLOGY
PATHOGENESIS
OUTCOMES
TREATMENT
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 10: Sarcopenia, Frailty, and Intrinsic Capacity
INTRODUCING THE FRAILTY CONCEPT
THE PHYSICAL PHENOTYPE ACCORDING TO FRIED AND THE DEFICIT MODEL ACCORDING TO ROCKWOOD
SARCOPENIA AND FRAILTY – OVERLAP AND DIFFERENCES
THE FUTURE RELEVANCE OF FRAILTY
INTRINSIC CAPACITY
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 11: Osteosarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
EPIDEMIOLOGY
CLINICAL ASSESSMENT
TREATMENTS
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 12: Sarcopenic Obesity
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF SARCOPENIC OBESITY
PATHOGENESIS OF SO
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
TREATMENT
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 13: Sarcopenia and Cognitive Impairment
INTRODUCTION
AGING AND COGNITIVE DECLINES
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DECLINES
SARCOPENIA AND COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 14: Sarcopenia and Other Chronic Organ Diseases
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE
CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
CHRONIC HEART FAILURE
DIABETES MELLITUS
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (RA)
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 15: Imaging of Skeletal Muscle
INTRODUCTION
DUAL X‐RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 16: Measurements of Muscle Mass: Equations and Cut‐off Points
INTRODUCTION
ANTHROPOMETRY – METHOD DESCRIPTION
ANTHROPOMETRY – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH
BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE – METHOD DESCRIPTION
BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH
DXA – METHOD DESCRIPTION
DXA – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH
CT AND MRI – METHOD DESCRIPTION
CT AND MRI – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH
EMERGING METHODS
OVERVIEW OF METHODS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 17: Deuterated Creatine Dilution to Assess Muscle Mass (D3‐Cr Muscle Mass) in Humans: Methods, Early Results, and Future Directions
INTRODUCTION
METHODS AND OPERATIONAL APPROACH
CONSIDERATION OF BODY SIZE IN ANALYSIS OF MUSCLE MASS
SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONAL HUMAN STUDIES THAT HAVE IMPLEMENTED THE D3‐Cr DILUTION METHOD
NEXT STEPS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 18: Measurement of Muscle Strength and Power
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGY
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 19: Measurements of Physical Performance
INTRODUCTION
WHAT INFORMATION IS PROVIDED TO A CLINICIAN WHEN ADOPTING PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES?
SARCOPENIA AND PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE
MEASURES OF PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 20: Biomarkers for Physical Frailty and Sarcopenia: A “Two‐Body Problem”
INTRODUCTION
BIOMARKERS FOR PHYSICAL FRAILTY AND SARCOPENIA: WHERE DO WE STAND?
MULTI‐MARKER RESEARCH STRATEGIES: MOVING THE FIELD FORWARD
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 21: Quality of Life and Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW OF QOL AND SARCOPENIA
THE SARQOL QUESTIONNAIRE
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 22: Exercise Interventions to Prevent and Improve Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
BENEFITS OF PA AND AGING
TYPES OF EXERCISE
EXERCISE INTERVENTIONS AND SARCOPENIA
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 23: Nutritional Approaches to Treat Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION – SARCOPENIA ETIOLOGIES AND EFFECT OF NUTRITIONAL INTERVENTION
DIETARY PROTEIN INTAKE AND MUSCLE ANABOLISM
COMBINING PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION WITH EXERCISE
TIMING OF PROTEIN CONSUMPTION
OTHER NUTRITIONAL APPROACHES
STATE OF THE ART
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 24: Beta‐hydroxy‐beta‐methylbutyrate (HMB) and Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF HMB ON MUSCLE CELLS
HMB IN THE DAILY DIET
HMB INTERVENTION STUDIES IN OLDER ADULTS AND IN DISEASE CONDITIONS
HMB WITH EXERCISE
EFFICACY OF HMB IN ATHLETES
SAFETY OF HMB
HMB IN THE EUROPEAN SOCIETY FOR CLINICAL NUTRITION AND METABOLISM GUIDELINE
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 25: The Future of Drug Treatments
INTRODUCTION
CARDIOVASCULAR DRUGS
HORMONE REPLACEMENT
METABOLIC AGENTS
Β‐HYDROXY Β‐METHYLBUTYRATE
OTHER POSSIBLE PHARMACOLOGIC APPROACHES
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 26: Sarcopenia: Is It Preventable?
INTRODUCTION
AGE‐RELATED CHANGES IN BODY COMPOSITION
PREVALENCE OF SARCOPENIA
PREVENTION
PREVENTION STRATEGY
PHYSICAL EXERCISE
NUTRITIONAL BASICS
QUATERNARY PREVENTION: WARNING AGAINST NON‐EVIDENCE‐BASED INTERVENTIONS
REFERENCES
27 Financial Impact of Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
DATA FROM COHORT STUDIES: AGE‐ASSOCIATED SARCOPENIA IN COMMUNITY‐DWELLING OLD
RETROSPECTIVE DATA FROM SURGICAL SETTINGS ON THE FINANCIAL IMPACT OF LOW MUSCLE MASS
FINANCIAL IMPACT OF LOW SKELETAL MUSCLE MASS AND STRENGTH – SARCOPENIA – IN A GENERAL HOSPITAL SETTING
CRITICAL DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 28: Sarcopenia Management for Clinicians
MANAGEMENT OF SARCOPENIA IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
IDENTIFYING REVERSIBLE FACTORS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Characteristics of prospective studies investigating the age‐relate...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 SARC‐F screen for sarcopenia.
Table 6.2 Validations of SARC‐F.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Studies that described the incidence and prevalence of acute sarcop...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Criteria for the phenotypic definition of frailty developed by Fri...
Table 10.2 List of variables used for the 70‐item Frailty Index by Rockwood e...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Factors released by muscle and bone.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Treatment of sarcopenic obesity in older adults.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Correlation between individual anthropometric parameters and appen...
Table 16.2 Characteristics of studies that developed sarcopenia cut‐off point...
Table 16.3 Characteristics of studies that developed sarcopenia cut‐off point...
Table 16.4 Overview of methods to assess muscle mass in older persons.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Standard values of the isometric hand strength on the dynamometer ...
Table 18.2 Standard values of the Martin vigorimeter.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Studies assessing QoL in age‐related sarcopenia.
Table 21.2 Studies assessing QoL with disease‐related sarcopenia.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Type of exercise and its influence on sarcopenia.
Chapter 26
Table 26.1 Level of prevention according to the condition of the patient (pre...
Table 26.2 Preventive intervention system with universal, selective, and indi...
Table 26.3 Health categories for risk stratification of complications during ...
Table 26.4 Nutritional interventions in the prevention strategy for sarcopeni...
Chapter 27
Table 27.1 Summary of factors relating to low muscle mass associated with hig...
Chapter 28
Table 28.1
Meals on wheels
mnemonic for treatable factors accompanying or contrib...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Differences in fat‐free mass and lean mass using different body c...
Figure 2.2 Differences in muscle cross‐sectional area and lean mass using di...
Figure 2.3 Annual decline (%) in skeletal muscle mass in older men and women...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Phosphocreatine (PCr) shuttle: the ATP generated by the complex V...
Figure 3.2 Hypothesized mechanisms leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, dec...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Motor unit remodeling and the denervation–reinnervation phenomeno...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Regulation of muscle protein mass.
Figure 5.2 Activation of insulin signaling pathway by amino acids.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Lifecourse normative data for grip strength from 12 British studi...
Figure 8.2 Relationship between grip strength and diabetic status in older m...
Figure 8.3 Association of grip strength with admission outcomes per standard...
Figure 8.4 Grip strength mean values from included samples, by region [33]....
Figure 8.5 Forest plot of studies assessing the association between birth we...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Pathogenesis of acute sarcopenia following surgical interventions...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Modal pathway to adverse outcomes in older persons.
Figure 10.2 Clinical frailty scale.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Muscle and bone cross talk, pathophysiology, and clinical outcom...
Figure 11.2 Algorithm for the clinician’s approach to osteosarcopenia.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Mechanisms leading to sarcopenic obesity: interplay between adip...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Patient image from a whole body composition measurement made by ...
Figure 15.2 Mid thigh CT scans and segmentation of muscle groups using analy...
Figure 15.3 MRI image of distal femur at left showing yellow box indicating ...
Figure 15.4 Three dimensional reconstruction fan image from the mid‐thigh fr...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Schematic representation of the bioelectrical impedance measurem...
Figure 16.2 Schematic representation of the regions of interest commonly use...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Creatine pool size and muscle mass estimation in humans.
Figure 17.2 Options for dosing adult participants and collecting urine in cl...
Figure 17.3 Schematic of body composition components as measured by dual ene...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Double leg press.
Figure 18.2 Nottingham power rig.
Figure 18.3 The Jamar dynamometer.
Figure 18.4 Martin Vigorimeter.
Figure 18.5 Principles of the stair climb test.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Cut‐off points of usual gait speed and risk of adverse outcomes....
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Proposition for a conceptual model of quality of life in sarcope...
Figure 21.2 (a) Number of studies reporting difference in QoL in primary sar...
Figure 21.3 The Sarcopenia Quality of Life (SarQoL), a specific questionnair...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Scatter plot depicting the correlation between body mass index (...
Figure 22.2 A life course model of sarcopenia.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Protein content in various foods.
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 Metabolism of beta‐hydroxy‐beta‐methylbutyrate (HMB) in the body...
Figure 24.2 An overview of potential pathways of beta‐hydroxy‐beta‐methylbut...
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Effect of ACE inhibitors on skeletal muscle.
Figure 25.2 Effect of statin on skeletal muscle.
Figure 25.3 Effect of testosterone on skeletal muscle.
Figure 25.4 Effect of GH on skeletal muscle.
Figure 25.5 Effect of creatine on skeletal muscle.
Figure 25.6 Effect of vitamin D on skeletal muscle.
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Clinical decision‐making algorithm for the preventive management...
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 Relationship between low muscle mass and/or strength and health‐...
Figure 27.2 Vicious circle between sarcopenia and hospitalization.
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Sarcopenia
Second Edition
Edited by
Alfonso J. Cruz‐Jentoft
Hospital Universitario Ramón y CajalMadrid, Spain
and
John E. Morley
St. Louis University School of MedicineSt. Louis, USA
This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Edition HistoryFirst edition published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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List of Contributors
Hidenori AraiNational Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Aichi, Japan
Jürgen M. BauerCenter for Geriatric Medicine and Network Aging Research, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
Ivan BautmansFrailty in Ageing Research Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
Charlotte BeaudartDivision of Public Health, Epidemiology and Health Economics, WHO Collaborating Center for Public Health aspects of musculo‐skeletal health and ageing, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
Yves BoirieUniversité Clermont Auvergne, Unité de Nutrition Humaine, Clermont‐Ferrand, FranceINRA, UMR 1019, Unite de Nutrition Humaine, CRNH, Clermont‐Ferrand, FranceCHU Clermont‐Ferrand, Service de Nutrition Clinique, Clermont‐Ferrand, France
Olivier BruyèreDivision of Public Health, Epidemiology and Health Economics, WHO Collaborating Center for Public Health aspects of musculo‐skeletal health and ageing, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
Riccardo CalvaniDepartment of Geriatrics, Neurosciences and Orthopedics, Teaching Hospital “Fondazione Policlinico A. Gemelli” at the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy
Peggy M. CawthonCalifornia Pacific Medical Center, Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, USADepartment of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
Tommy CederholmTheme Ageing, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, SwedenClinical Nutrition and Metabolism, Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Matteo CesariDipartimento di Scienze Cliniche e di Comunità, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Unità di Medicina Interna ad Indirizzo Geriatrico, IRCCS Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri, Milan, Italy
Liang‐Kung ChenCenter for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, TaiwanDepartment of Geriatric Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming University, Taipei, TaiwanAging and Health Research Center, National Yang Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Antonio CherubiniGeriatria, Accettazione Geriatrica e Centro di ricerca per l’invecchiamento IRCCS INRCA, Ancona, Italy
Paul CoenTranslational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes, Florida Hospital, Orlando, FL, USA
Alfonso J. Cruz‐JentoftServicio de Geriatría, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal (IRYCIS), Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Richard DoddsAGE Research Group, Newcastle University Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle, UK
Michael DreyDepartment of Medicine IV, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Munich, Germany
Gustavo DuqueDepartment of Medicine‐Western Health, Melbourne Medical School, University of Melbourne, St Albans, Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaAustralian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), University of Melbourne and Western Health, St Albans, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
William J. EvansDepartment of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USADivision of Geriatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
Luigi FerrucciTranslational Gerontology Branch, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD, USA
Beatrice GasperiniDepartment of Geriatrics and Rehabilitation, Santa Croce Hospital, Azienda Ospedaliera Ospedali Riuniti Marche Nord, Fano, Italy
Anton GeerinckDivision of Public Health, Epidemiology and Health Economics, WHO Collaborating Center for Public Health aspects of musculo‐skeletal health and ageing, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
Bret H. GoodpasterTranslational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes, Florida Hospital, Orlando, FL, USA
Christelle GuilletUnité de Nutrition Humaine, CHU Clermont‐Ferrand, Service de Nutrition Clinique, CRNH Auvergne, INRA, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont‐Ferrand, France
Sandra HelmersAssistance Systems and Medical Device Technology, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
Ben KirkDepartment of Medicine‐Western Health, Melbourne Medical School, University of Melbourne, St Albans, Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaAustralian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), University of Melbourne and Western Health, St Albans, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Francesco LandiDepartment of Geriatrics, Neurosciences and Orthopedics, Teaching Hospital “Fondazione Policlinico A. Gemelli” at the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy
Thomas F. LangUC San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Keliane LibermanFrailty in Ageing Research Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
Federica MacchiDepartment of Medicine, Geriatric Division, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
Emanuele MarzettiUniversità Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Institute of Internal Medicine and Geriatrics, Rome, ItalyFondazione Policlinico Universitario “Agostino Gemelli” IRCCS, Rome, ItalyDepartment of Geriatrics, Neurosciences and Orthopedics, Teaching Hospital “Fondazione Policlinico A. Gemelli”, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy
Beatriz Montero‐ErrasquínServicio de Geriatría, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
John E. MorleyDivision of Geriatric Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
Nicole NoriDepartment of Medicine, Geriatric Division, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
Kristina NormanDepartment of Nutrition and Gerontology, German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam‐Rehbrücke, Nuthetal, GermanyCharité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt‐Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
Graziano OnderDepartment of Geriatrics, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy
Laura OrlandiniHealth Care of the Older Person, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, UK
Stany PerkisasGeriatric Medicine, Medical School, Department Geriatrics, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Mark D. PetersonDepartment of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Michigan‐Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Mathew PiaseckiClinical, Metabolic and Molecular Physiology, MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research, Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Anna PiccaDepartment of Geriatrics, Neurosciences and Orthopedics, Teaching Hospital “Fondazione Policlinico A. Gemelli” at the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy
Steven PhuDepartment of Medicine‐Western Health, Melbourne Medical School, University of Melbourne, St Albans, Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaAustralian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), University of Melbourne and Western Health, St Albans, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Jean‐Yves ReginsterDivision of Public Health, Epidemiology and Health Economics, WHO Collaborating Centre for Public Health aspects of musculoskeletal health and ageing, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
Andrea P. RossiDepartment of Medicine, Geriatric Division, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
Avan Aihie SayerAGE Research Group, Newcastle University Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle, UK
Laura SchaapDepartment of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
José A. SerraChair Geriatric Department, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Facultad de Medicina. Universidad Complutense, CIBER‐FES, Madrid, Spain
Cornel SieberInstitute for Biomedicine of Aging, Friedrich‐Alexander‐University of Erlangen‐Nürnberg, Nuremberg, GermanyDepartment of Medicine, Kantonsspital Winterthur, Winterthur, Switzerland
Maurits VandewoudeGeriatric Medicine, Medical School, Department Geriatrics, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Marjolein VisserDepartment of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
R. VisvanathanAdelaide Geriatrics Training and Research with Aged Care (G‐TRAC Centre), Discipline of Medicine, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, South Australia, AustraliaNational Health and Medical Research Council Centre of Research Excellence on Frailty and Healthy Ageing, University of Adelaide, South Australia, AustraliaAged & Extended Care Services, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Central Adelaide Local Health Network, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Stefano VolpatoDepartment of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
Stéphane WalrandUniversité Clermont Auvergne, Unité de Nutrition Humaine, Clermont‐Ferrand, FranceINRA, UMR 1019, Unite de Nutrition Humaine, CRNH, Clermont‐Ferrand, France
Jean WooDepartment of Medicine & Therapeutics, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Solomon YuNational Health and Medical Research Council Centre of Research Excellence in Frailty and Healthy Ageing, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Yves RollandINSERM Unit 1027; Université de Toulouse; Gérontopole, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
Mauro ZamboniDepartment of Medicine, Geriatric Division, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
Marta ZampinoIntramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD, USA
Jesse ZankerDepartment of Medicine‐Western Health, Melbourne Medical School, University of Melbourne, St Albans, Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaAustralian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), University of Melbourne and Western Health, St Albans, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Preface
Since the original coining of the term sarcopenia in 1988, there has been a rapid increase in the development of scientific approaches to its pathophysiology, definition (together with ethnic appropriate cut‐offs), and management. This was highlighted when sarcopenia was established as a muscle disease with its own ICD‐CM diagnosis code (ICD‐10‐CMM62.84). Primary sarcopenia (age related) is of central interest to geriatricians, nutritionists, gerontologists, epidemiologists, biologists, physical and occupational therapists, and all health professionals who provide care for older persons. Secondary sarcopenia has become an increasingly important, treatable side effect of chronic diseases, e.g. congestive heart failure or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, in many persons.
Since the first edition of Sarcopenia some eight years ago, there have been major advances in the understanding of the basic science concepts of how aging interacts with muscles to alter its function. This has been coupled with an increased knowledge in methodology to measure muscle mass and function. There has been a realization that the decline in function due to muscle loss is the hallmark in the development of sarcopenia. This has led to more sophisticated definitions of the disease and a recognition that these definitions require ethnic‐specific definitions. While the primary treatment of sarcopenia relies on resistance and other exercises together with nutritional approaches, a large number of pharmacological agents to treat sarcopenia are under development. These exciting and rapid changes have led us to produce a second edition of this book.
This new edition remains a clear and precise reference work for all those health professionals, exercise physiologists, and researchers interested in understanding the complexity of sarcopenia. This book provides the state of art of the complexity involved in the biological aspects of age‐related muscle wasting alongside the direct effects of disease on muscles. It explores the rapidly increasing epidemiological knowledge demonstrating the devastating effects of sarcopenia on health outcomes and quality of life of individuals. It explores in detail the modern diagnostic and management approaches to recognizing and improving outcomes in individuals with sarcopenia. To do this we have assembled a wide range of authors from around the world, who are experts in this topic area. We also focus on primary and secondary prevention of sarcopenia as important approaches to enhance the quality of life in older persons.
This book represents a state‐of‐the‐art textbook, with a comprehensive approach to sarcopenia. We hope it will be a valuable reference tool to all those who are interested in this topic. Our authors have taken complex topics and written about them in a clear way allowing access to the knowledge for those starting out in the field, as well as expert researchers and clinicians who are interested in recognizing and treating sarcopenia.
Alfonso J. Cruz‐Jentoft and John E. Morley
CHAPTER 2Epidemiology of Muscle Mass Loss with Age
Marjolein Visser
Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
INTRODUCTION
The development of new body composition methods in the early 1970s and 1980s led to more research on this topic, including the study of differences in body composition between young and older persons. These initial studies were followed by much larger studies covering a wide age range investigating how body composition varied across the life span. Variations in lean body mass and fat‐free mass were described between age groups. These studies served as the important scientific basis for developing the concept sarcopenia. Sarcopenia was originally defined as the age‐related loss of muscle mass [1]. The term is derived from the Greek words sarx (flesh) and penia (loss). The development of this concept further stimulated research in this specific body composition area. More recently, large‐scale studies among older persons have included accurate and precise measurements of skeletal muscle mass. Moreover, these measurements have been repeated over time, enabling the sarcopenia process to be studied.
This chapter will discuss the results of epidemiological studies investigating the age‐related loss of skeletal muscle mass. First, several cross‐sectional studies will be presented comparing the body composition between younger and older persons. Then prospective studies will be discussed investigating the change in body composition with aging. The chapter will conclude with the results of more recent, prospective studies that precisely measured change in skeletal muscle mass in large samples of older persons.
MUSCLE MASS DIFFERENCES AMONG AGE GROUPS
Comparisons among young and older men and women with regard to muscle size have been made in several small studies starting in the 1980s. The results showed that healthy women in their 70s had a 33% smaller quadriceps cross‐sectional area as obtained by compound ultrasound imaging compared with women in their 20s [2]. Using the same methodology and age groups, healthy older men had a 25% smaller quadriceps cross‐sectional area [3]. In a study investigating thigh composition using five computed tomography (CT) scans of the total thigh, smaller muscle cross‐sectional areas were observed in older men compared with younger men even though their total thigh cross‐sectional area was similar. The older men had a 13% smaller total muscle cross‐sectional area, 25.4% smaller quadriceps, and 17.9% smaller hamstring cross‐sectional area [4]. Using magnetic resonance imaging of the leg anterior compartment, muscle area was measured in young and older men and women [5]
