Sea Ice E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
New edition of the leading resource on the Arctic and Southern Oceans with contributions from the world’s experts on sea ice
Sea Ice delivers insights into the very latest understanding of sea ice dynamics, how we measure (and model) its extent, the ecosystems that depend on sea ice, and the effect of climate change on its distribution. The book also discusses how sea ice influences the oceanography of underlying waters and the influence that sea ice has on the world’s climate.
This newly revised and updated Fourth Edition looks at ice-based food webs and the impact on global geopolitics as well as changes in human activity in the Arctic.
Written by a team of more than 80 of the world’s leading experts from 13 countries, Sea Ice includes information on:
- Sea ice thickness distribution and snow and surface processes on sea ice
- The short-term and long-term dynamics of Arctic versus Antarctic Sea ice
- Current methods of satellite remote sensing of sea ice
- The ecology of sea ice, from microbes to mammals to marine birds
- The cycling of contaminants across the ocean-sea ice-atmosphere interface
In its new edition, Sea Ice remains the leading multidisciplinary resource on the subject for all policy makers, researchers, and students with an interest in the polar regions and their role in the world’s oceanic systems.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Sea ice thickness distribution
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The sea ice thickness distribution
1.3 Measurement techniques on different scales
1.4 Global sea ice thickness distributions
1.5 Dynamic and thermodynamic thickness changes and long-term trends
1.6 Recent advancements and future directions
References
Chapter 2: Snow on sea ice and how it varies through the seasons
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The relationship between snow and sea ice
2.3 General characteristics of snow on ice
2.4 The temporal evolution of the snow and sea ice surface
2.5 Measurement of snow depth distribution
2.6 Modeling snow on sea ice
2.7 The outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3: Sunlight and sea ice – optical properties
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Radiative transfer
3.3 Apparent optical properties
3.4 Measurements on different scales
3.5 Radiative transfer modeling
3.6 Changing ice, changing light
3.7 Summary
Acknowledgments
Glossary
References
Chapter 4: Sea ice from an engineer’s perspective
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Engineering properties of ice
4.3 Sea ice failure and ice loading
4.4 Experiments and observations
4.5 Simulations of ice failure processes
4.6 Future aspects
References
Chapter 5: Methods of satellite remote sensing of sea ice
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Measurement principles and methods
5.3 Sea ice parameters
5.4 Uncertainties
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6: The rise and fall of Antarctic sea ice: Large-scale variability
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Data sources and approaches
6.3 Seasonal and regional variability
6.4 Trends and variability
6.5 Ice–climate connections
6.6 The rise: drivers of 1979–2016 trends and variability
6.7 The fall: Drivers of the 2016 to present record lows
6.8 The historical perspective
6.9 Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7: The fitful decline of Arctic sea ice
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sea ice extent
7.3 Sea ice thickness
7.4 Sea ice type/age as a proxy for thickness
7.5 Snow depth on sea ice
7.6 Melt onset
7.7 Sea ice motion
7.8 MOSAiC
References
Chapter 8: Sea ice and Arctic Ocean oceanography
8.1 Introduction
8.2 New perspectives on Arctic oceanography: From Nansen’s Fram drift to MOSAiC
8.3 Ocean–sea ice interactions: General principles
8.4 Ocean–sea ice interactions at large scales
8.5 Ocean–sea ice interactions at small scales
8.6 Conclusion: Ocean–sea ice interactions in a warming climate
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9: Oceanography and sea ice in the Southern Ocean
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Geographic and oceanographic setting
9.3 Stratification and deep-water ventilation
9.4 Sea ice conveyor belt and water mass transformation
9.5 The future
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10: Sea ice in Earth System Models
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Representing sea ice in an ESM
10.3 Learning from ESMs
10.4 Summary and outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11: Phyloecology of sea ice bacteria and archaea
11.1 Introduction to the microbial perspective
11.2 The tree of life in ice
11.3 Challenges and opportunities
11.4 Conclusion: The future of life in sea ice
References
Notes
Chapter 12: Primary production associated with sea ice
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sea ice as habitat
12.3 Algae inhabiting sea ice
12.4 Measuring primary production in sea ice
12.5 Under-ice blooms
12.6 Large-scale estimates of ice-associated primary production
12.7 Recent trends and future implications
References
Chapter 13: Sea ice food webs in transition
13.1 Arctic and Antarctic sea ice as habitats for organisms
13.2 Biodiversity
13.3 Impacts of advective processes on sea ice biota
13.4 Organismal adaptations to light-limited environments
13.5 Carbon budgets within sea ice–associated food webs and sympagic–benthic coupling
13.6 Sea ice food webs in transition
13.7 Remaining knowledge gaps and considerations
References
Chapter 14: Marine mammals and sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic
14.1 Marine mammal diversity in the Arctic and Antarctic
14.2 Access to ice-covered areas by scientists: Research and knowledge of polar marine mammals
14.3 Access to ice-covered areas by polar marine mammals
14.4 Breeding and the influences of ice
14.5 Foraging
14.6 Molting, resting, and refuge
14.7 Climate change threats to marine mammals
14.8 Mitigation and conservation strategies
References
Chapter 15: Sea ice: A seabird world of its own
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Sea ice and seabird zoogeography
15.3 Response of seabird populations to sea ice change
15.4 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 16: Nutrients and organic matter dynamics in sea ice
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Definitions and biogeochemical importance of nutrients and organic matter in sea ice
16.3 Sources of nutrients and organic matter to sea ice
16.4 Processes modifying nutrients and organic matter within the sea ice
16.5 Sinks for sea ice nutrients and organic matter
16.6 Future outlook and challenges
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 17: Gas dynamics in sea ice
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Methods
17.3 Gas content profile and air volume fraction distribution
17.4 Physical and biogeochemical processes regulating sea ice gas content
17.5 The specific case of CO
2
17.6 Trace climate active gases
17.7 Summary and future challenges
References
Chapter 18: Sea ice, aerosols and clouds
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The atmosphere over sea ice
18.3 Clouds over sea ice environments
18.4 Aerosols over sea ice environments
18.5 Climate impacts of aerosols in the sea ice environment
18.6 Future research directions
References
Chapter 19: Cycling of contaminants across the ocean–sea ice–snow–atmosphere interface
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Contaminants in sea ice
19.3 Sources of contaminants in sea ice
19.4 Transport of contaminants across the OSSA interface
19.5 Transformation of contaminants across the OSSA interface
19.6 Biological uptake of sea ice–borne contaminants
19.7 Differences of contaminant behavior between the Arctic and the Antarctic sea ice environment
19.8 Case studies
19.9 Perspectives: Contaminants in a changing Arctic environment
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 20: Numerical models of sea ice biogeochemistry
20.1 Introduction
20.2 The use of numerical models for sea ice biogeochemical studies
20.3 How to develop a sea ice biogeochemical model
20.4 Model intercomparisons
20.5 Future perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 21: Paleo sea ice reconstruction in the Southern Ocean: Ancient warm periods
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Initiation of sea ice, ~35 Ma
21.3 Sea ice extent during MCO, ~17–14.5 Ma
21.4 Sea ice extent during warm intervals of the Pliocene, 5.3–2.6 Ma
21.5 Sea ice during Pleistocene warm intervals – MIS31, MIS11 (and MIS5e)
21.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 22: Sea ice in Arctic marginal seas
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Sea of Okhotsk
22.3 Hudson Bay
22.4 Baltic Sea
22.5 Change of the ice cover in marginal seas in the past decades
22.6 Sea ice ecosystems in Arctic marginal seas
22.7 Changes in ice cover in Arctic marginal seas in the coming decades and its effects
22.8 The effect of sea ice change on ecosystems
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 23: It’s all about the happy people: A tale of joy and life around the sea ice
A letter to the readers
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Collaborative research: Centering Indigenous knowledge in Western research
23.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Note
Chapter 24: Geopolitics of sea ice
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Why geopolitics?
24.3 Cold matters: The strategic nature of sea ice scientific knowledge
24.4 The geopolitical lure of opening Arctic water
24.5 “Winners and losers” and the place of justice and responsibility for sea ice loss
24.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Notes
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Preface
Figure 1 Image from the Fram Strait in the twilight of March 1993 (RV Polarstern ARKIX/1A...
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Sea ice thickness in the Arctic derived from the European Space Agency satellite...
Figure 1.2 Illustration of the different dynamic and thermodynamic processes contributing t...
Figure 1.3 Sea ice thickness profile and thickness distribution (probability density functi...
Figure 1.4 (a)–(d) Illustration of the contribution of the different processes changing the...
Figure 1.5 Ice floe cross-section showing definitions of ice and snow thickness terms and p...
Figure 1.6 Schematic of a moored upward-looking sonar (ULS), with : sea ice draft, : inst...
Figure 1.7 Illustration of airborne sea ice observations using an EM-Bird, a laser scanner,...
Figure 1.8 Sea ice thickness maps of the northern and southern hemispheres, derived from Cr...
Figure 1.9 Selected Arctic regions and corresponding net winter (November–March) sea ice ex...
Figure 1.10 Seasonal/spatial cycle of sea ice dynamics and thermodynamics along the drift tr...
Figure 1.11 Arctic sea ice thickness changes (means) for autumn (red/dotted red) and winter ...
Figure 1.12 Mean sea ice thickness distribution in the Fram Strait before and after 2007, ba...
Figure 1.13 Sea ice elevation (7.5-km-long) profiles from 3 September 2019 in the Western Ar...
Figure 1.14 Time series of consolidated ice and sub-ice platelet layer thickness derived fro...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The seasonal cycle of snow processes of the snow–sea ice systems. Descriptions of...
Figure 2.2 A schematic of a sea ice floe covered by a snow cover for (a) positive and (b) n...
Figure 2.3 (a) A stellar dendrite (branched snowflake), showing schematically how vapor diff...
Figure 2.4 Four common types of snow grains found on sea ice.
Figure 2.5 Glazing and rain on snow can affect the snow surface in several ways. (a): Surfac...
Figure 2.6 (a) Strongly flooded snow (approximately 5 cm) on Antarctic sea ice in the easter...
Figure 2.7 Metamorphic pathways for snow grains under different environmental conditions. Cr...
Figure 2.8 (a) The snow cover on sea ice in the Chukchi Sea off the coast of Barrow, Alaska,...
Figure 2.9 Generalized snow stratigraphy column for the SHEBA area, 1997–1998. Symbols follo...
Figure 2.10 Snow layer formation during the winter of 1997–1998 on the sea ice during SHEBA (...
Figure 2.11 Snow drift features common on sea ice. The near-infrared photograph is from the s...
Figure 2.12 Seasonal cycle of monthly mean bulk snow densities from the 1954–1991 North Pole ...
Figure 2.13 Seasonal cycle of mean snow bulk densities in primarily first-year (yellow), mult...
Figure 2.14 The thermal conductivity of snow as a function of density and snow type.
Figure 2.15 Maps of the total monthly mean snowfall for the (a) Arctic and (b) Antarctic, and...
Figure 2.16 The reduction in Arctic spring snow depth on sea ice in the western Arctic. This ...
Figure 2.17 The mean (symbols) and standard deviation (error bars) in monthly snow depth on A...
Figure 2.18 Photos showing four stages and key characteristics of Arctic melt pond evolution....
Figure 2.19 Fraction of sea ice covered by melt ponds from moderate resolution imaging spectr...
Figure 2.20 (a) Map of all snow buoy drift trajectories deployed since 2013 in the Weddell Se...
Figure 2.21 The surface air temperature, snow depth (gray), sea ice temperatures, and surface...
Figure 2.22 (a) Schematic of a SIMBA buoy.
Figure 2.23 Changes in internal sea ice and snow cover temperature profiles obtained by snow ...
Figure 2.24 (a) Schematic of a snow buoy.
Figure 2.25 Daily mean surface height evolution from two snow buoys deployed on Antarctic sea...
Figure 2.26 The snow depth distribution on the ice of the Beaufort Sea NE of Barrow, Alaska. ...
Figure 2.27 Spring snow depth distributions given as the fractional area of (a) undeformed se...
Figure 2.28 (a): Dual altimetry-derived snow depths averaged over April 2019–2021 from Kacimi...
Figure 2.29 Projected changes in (a) snowfall, (b) annual mean snow depth, and (c) snow cover...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 The solar spectrum (nm), electromagnetic spectrum (m), and the visible spectrum ...
Figure 3.2 Schematic of the interaction of sunlight with sea ice. The three primary sea ice...
Figure 3.3 Spectral absorption coefficients of pure, bubble-free ice and clear seawater. Th...
Figure 3.4 Depth dependence of scattering coefficient for bare ice and ponded ice (Light et...
Figure 3.5 Schematic of Apparent Optical Properties sensors with their relevant equations a...
Figure 3.6 (a) Photographs illustrating the seasonal evolution of multiyear sea ice. (b) Sp...
Figure 3.7 The photographs illustrate both the changes and the constants of the surface of ...
Figure 3.8 Plots of transmittance for selected cases: melting snow (0.10 m) on multiyear (M...
Figure 3.9 Extinction coefficients for various ice types, including dry snow, wet snow, mul...
Figure 3.10 Field measurements of optical properties. Different methods allow measurements o...
Figure 3.11 Field photos of optical measurements: (a) surface albedo along a transect line u...
Figure 3.12 Seasonal evolution of average total albedo for MOSAiC (blue; Light et al., 2022)...
Figure 3.13 Light transmittance through first-year sea ice and a refrozen lead. Measurements...
Figure 3.14 Seasonality of spectral radiative properties of sea ice. The example shows measu...
Figure 3.15 Spatial distribution of light transmittance through sea ice under (a) summer and...
Figure 3.16 (a) Schematic showing the decrease in albedo as the ice edge retreats and highly...
Figure 3.17 Annual total solar heat input through Arctic sea ice. (a) Average and (b) trend ...
Figure 3.18 Monthly mean values of solar heat input through ice-covered areas during 2011.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Two examples of structures requiring ice engineering research: (a) ice-breaking r...
Figure 4.2 Two types of ice-loading processes: (a) ice failing against an inclined structure...
Figure 4.3 Nominal indentation pressure is scale dependent as described by pressure-area cur...
Figure 4.4 Three regimes of the dynamic ice–structure interaction: intermittent crushing, fr...
Figure 4.5 Cross section of an ice ridge. The three main parts of the ridge are the sail abo...
Figure 4.6 Laboratory-scale experiments performed in an ice basin: (a) ice-loading process o...
Figure 4.7 Ice engineering simulation: a three-dimensional discrete element simulation of in...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic of a typical satellite viewing geometry for microwave radiometers and v...
Figure 5.2 The electromagnetic spectrum (-axis) and atmospheric opacity (-axis). Sea ice r...
Figure 5.3 Schematic of concepts for active (left) and passive (right) remote sensing. Depen...
Figure 5.4 Schematic of footprint sizes for different satellite sensors. Mind that the radio...
Figure 5.5 (a) Emitted spectral radiance of a black body radiator following Planck’s l...
Figure 5.6 Winter example of how different satellite sensors saw the Arctic sea ice cover o...
Figure 5.7 Summer example of how different satellite sensors saw the Arctic sea ice cover o...
Figure 5.8 Schematic showing the principles of sea ice freeboard and thickness retrieval fro...
Figure 5.9 Winter examples of geophysical sea ice quantities derived from satellite observat...
Figure 5.10 Summer examples of geophysical sea ice quantities derived from satellite observat...
Figure 5.11 Comparison of a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image with 150 m spatial resolutio...
Figure 5.12 Sea ice strain rates, i.e. ice deformation, calculated from sea ice motion using ...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Map of Antarctica showing the boundaries of the five sectors used in this chapte...
Figure 6.2 Sea ice concentration for key months showing mean (%, left column), standard dev...
Figure 6.3 Mean seasonal cycle of sea ice extent for the Antarctic (thick black line) and e...
Figure 6.4 Average sea ice drift patterns (vectors) for April–November 1992–2022, with mean...
Figure 6.5 Monthly average snow thickness (top row) and ice thickness estimates from ICESat...
Figure 6.6 Monthly sea ice extent from January 1979 to September 2024. Magenta bands repres...
Figure 6.7 Variability in the timing of the ice season. Top row: Trends in seasonal timings...
Figure 6.8 Temporal correlations between detrended anomalies in the spring ice edge retreat...
Figure 6.9 Trends in ice drift and surface pressure for April–June 1992–2015 are shown in t...
Figure 6.10 Difference in total freeboard (snow depth and ice freeboard) between ICESat-2 (2...
Figure 6.11 Schematic representation of key modes of atmospheric variability that influence ...
Figure 6.12 Anomalies in sea ice concentration during the record spring 2016 retreat. Left p...
Figure 6.13 Patterns of sea ice and ocean temperature anomalies show strongly similar region...
Figure 6.14 Sea ice extent variability estimates from proxy data compared to recent ice exte...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Spatial pattern of monthly sea ice concentration trends (percent per decade throu...
Figure 7.2 Sea ice extent time series for 1953–2024. (a) Monthly and annual average trends f...
Figure 7.3 (a) October through April monthly average sea ice thickness, calculated over an I...
Figure 7.4 Annual sea ice volume loss (orange) and gain (blue) between annual maximum and mi...
Figure 7.5 Sea ice age coverage map for the week before minimum total extent (when age value...
Figure 7.6 (a) Arctic sea ice melt onset dates and dates of the annual sea ice extent (SIE) ...
Figure 7.7 Annual average drift speed for westward (blue line) and northward (orange line) v...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Schematic of Arctic Ocean circulation showing both the warm Atlantic water pathwa...
Figure 8.2 Drift of Nansen’s Fram in the late 1800s (a; Nansen, 1900) and the MOSAiC expedit...
Figure 8.3 Observational approaches in the Arctic Ocean at different spatial and temporal sc...
Figure 8.4 Different autonomous ice-tethered buoys, as deployed during MOSAiC: (a) unmanned ...
Figure 8.5 Schematic representation of the processes important for the sea ice–ocean interac...
Figure 8.6 Satellite observations of sea ice concentration during the March maxima and the S...
Figure 8.7 Section across the Arctic Ocean deep basins, continuing into the Nordic Seas show...
Figure 8.8 Past (a) and present-day (b) characteristics and mechanisms associated with the A...
Figure 8.9 Picture taken from the International Space Station along the Kamchatka Coastline,...
Figure 8.10 Schematic summarizing how eddy and sea ice interact with each other. Halocline ed...
Figure 8.11 Snapshots of ocean currents and eddy activity at the surface (a, c) from a global...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Map of the Southern Ocean, its sea ice, and Antarctica with selected place names...
Figure 9.2 Map of the ship tracks undertaken during the Discovery Investigations, hand-draw...
Figure 9.3 Bathymetry and topography of the Southern Ocean and Antarctica. Depths below sea...
Figure 9.4 Bottom temperatures on the shelf around Antarctica. Note the existence of two pr...
Figure 9.5 Schematic of the Southern Ocean overturning circulation, water masses, and strat...
Figure 9.6 Sample profiles from different locations in the Atlantic sector of the Southern ...
Figure 9.7 Salinity (green) and temperature (orange/red) control of upper ocean (100 m) den...
Figure 9.8 Schematic of two polynya types. A sensible heat polynya is shown on the right, w...
Figure 9.9 Map of annual sea ice production in polynyas (averaged over the period 1992–2023...
Figure 9.10 Map of Southern Ocean open-ocean convection. (a) Mean September sea ice cover fo...
Figure 9.11 Variations of the sea ice melt contribution to the near-surface water in the Wed...
Figure 9.12 Sea ice freshwater transport from the coast to the open ocean (blue arrows) and ...
Figure 9.13 Schematic of the processes occurring adjacent to Antarctica on the continental s...
Figure 9.14 Distribution of Argo float coverage in the global ocean in 2023. Note the declin...
Figure 9.15 Spatial distribution of observations in the Southern Ocean (south of 55°S) in th...
Figure 9.16 Schematic of a cyber-infrastructure-based Southern Ocean Observing System (SOOS)...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Examples of ocean and sea ice grids in ESMs from Coupled Model Intercomparison P...
Figure 10.2 Examples of ocean and sea ice grids from the Model for Prediction Across Scales ...
Figure 10.3 Schematic of sea ice processes within a grid cell of an ESM. The ice-thickness d...
Figure 10.4 April–June sea ice grid-cell mean thickness tendencies (cm/s) from thermod...
Figure 10.5 Times series of annual Antarctic and Arctic sea ice extent anomalies between 197...
Figure 10.6 Distributions of sea ice area as a function of concentration in each hemisphere ...
Figure 10.7 Schematic overview of some major sea ice–related feedbacks.
Figure 10.8 (a) The near-surface annual and zonal mean temperature change in the past 31 yea...
Figure 10.9 Annual mean Antarctic sea ice concentration (shading) and sea-level pressure (co...
Figure 10.10 (a) The fraction of models from the Climate Model Intercomparison Project 6 (CMI...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Algae (diatoms) growing at the ice–water interface of first-year sea ice near Ut...
Figure 11.2 Niches in the sea ice environment.
Figure 11.3 Shannon diversity indices for a collection of 2449 samples from metabarcoding su...
Figure 11.4 Cumulative sum of relative abundances of Bacteria and Archaea amplicon sequence ...
Figure 11.5 Relative abundances of bacteria from metabarcoding surveys of 16S rRNA genes in t...
Figure 11.6 (a) Ternary distribution of
Polaribacter
amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) in se...
Figure 11.7 (a) Ternary distribution of
Psychroflexus
(and relatives) amplicon sequence vari...
Figure 11.8 (a) Ternary distribution of
Flavobacterium
amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) in ...
Figure 11.9 (a) Ternary distribution of
Aquiluna
(and relatives) amplicon sequence variants ...
Figure 11.10 (a) Ternary distribution of
Octadecabacter
(and relatives) amplicon sequence var...
Figure 11.11 (a) Ternary distribution of
Colwellia
amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) in sea i...
Figure 11.12 (a) Ternary distribution of
Glaciecola
and
Paraglaciecola
amplicon sequence vari...
Figure 11.13 (a) Ternary distribution of
Marinobacter
amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) in se...
Figure 11.14 (a) Ternary distribution of Marine Group II Archaea (phylum Thermoplasmatota) am...
Figure 11.15 (a) Ternary distribution of
Candidatus
Nitrosopumilus (Marine Group I Archaea) a...
Figure 11.16 False-color image of frost flowers growing on nilas ice in the Beaufort Sea, 2004.
Figure 11.17 Distribution of amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) in seawater, sea ice, and sedi...
Figure 11.18 Distribution of amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) in seawater, sea ice, and sedi...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Highly idealized schematic illustration of sea ice ecosystems in the Arctic and A...
Figure 12.2 (a) Pennate and centric sea ice diatoms from bottom ice samples from the Chukchi ...
Figure 12.3 The seasonal cycle of spatially integrated primary production for the Arctic (a) ...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Sea ice communities in the Arctic and Antarctica. Sea ice provides a wide range ...
Figure 13.2 Selection of sea ice meiofauna species from the Arctic: (a) cf. Euplotidae; (b) ...
Figure 13.3 Selection of sea ice macrofauna species from the Arctic: (a)
Apherusa glacialis
,...
Figure 13.4 Selection of protists and sea ice fauna from the Antarctic. (a)
Fragilariopsis c
...
Figure 13.5 Sea ice meiofauna composition (pie charts) and total abundance (red circles) acr...
Figure Box 13.1 (a) Ice corers are commonly used to collect meiofauna and other specimens from t...
Figure 13.6 Pan-Arctic distribution of sea ice macrofauna (ice amphipods and mysids). Distri...
Figure Box 13.2 Life cycle of
Boreogadus saida
in ice-covered seas. Adults and immatures (age 1+...
Figure 13.7 Conceptual model illustrating the intimate connection between ice-associated fau...
Figure 13.8 Schematic of the connection between sea ice decline and food web interactions of...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Narwhals are perhaps the most ice-adapted cetacean, capable of using areas with ...
Figure 14.2 A Weddell seal, finished with its annual molt, resting on the fast ice.
Figure 14.3 A crabeater seal resting on floating pack ice in Wilhelmina Bay, Antarctic Penin...
Figure 14.4 A leopard seal alert and watching out for potential prey.
Figure 14.5 A Ross seal during the annual molt. Molting epidermis can be seen around the fla...
Figure 14.6 Harp seals are the most abundant pinniped in the Northern Hemisphere, numbering ...
Figure 14.7 The hooded seal can be recognized by an elastic nasal cavity located at the top ...
Figure 14.8 The fluke of a humpback whale as it is diving down to forage most likely on Anta...
Figure 14.9 Killer whales are worldwide species and are found in the Arctic and Southern Oce...
Figure 14.10 Bearded seals use their whiskers to locate prey on the ocean floor, including cl...
Figure 14.11 A group of crabeater seals molting together on floating pack ice. Crabeater seal...
Figure 14.12 Increasing numbers of Pacific walruses have hauled out on land in recent years a...
Figure 14.13 Continued loss of Arctic sea ice is expected to lead to increased competition fo...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Arctic terns roosting on a portion of a grounded Antarctic iceberg. Besides offe...
Figure 15.2 Flock of Adélie penguins on an ice floe in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica.
Figure 15.3 A group of emperor penguins at the edge of fast ice in the western Ross Sea.
Figure 15.4 A snow petrel wends its way among ice floes in the Weddell Sea, April 2014.
Figure 15.5 Mandt’s black guillemots, one of the few northern circumpolar ice-obligate speci...
Figure 15.6 An ivory gull on Newfoundland fast ice scavenging a seabird carcass, likely an a...
Figure 15.7 A flock of dovekies finding the only ice in the area on which to sit.
Figure 15.8 An assemblage of spectacled eiders in a Bering Sea lead.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Schematic of the sea ice growth and melt cycle, and the processes affecting diss...
Figure 16.2 Photomicrographs of sea ice thin sections containing biological material. Images...
Figure 16.3 Representation of the main sources of dissolved and particulate material to Arct...
Figure 16.4 A schematic and idealized representation of physical incorporation processes of ...
Figure 16.5 Representation of nitrogen dynamics in sea ice considering the compartmentalizat...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Schematic representation of the different gas extraction methods for bulk ice gas...
Figure 17.2 (a–d) Results of the intercomparison study. Whisker box plot of bulk ice gas conc...
Figure 17.3 Three-dimensional representations of the air inclusions and the corresponding air...
Figure 17.4 Vertical profiles of bulk temperature, bulk salinity, brine salinity, and gas con...
Figure 17.5 Vertical profiles of N
2
, Ar, and N
2
/Ar ratio and cross-plot between N
2
and Ar. Th...
Figure 17.6 (a) seasonal evolution of mean full depth air volume fraction for first-year ice ...
Figure 17.7 Solubility of Ar, O
2
, and N
2
(µmol l
−1
) in liquid brine defined as . The brine free...
Figure 17.8 Schematic representation of the controlling factors of sea ice and brine gas solu...
Figure 17.9 Seasonal evolution of Argon bulk ice solubility profile defined as with standa...
Figure 17.10 Microphotographs of sea ice cooling experiments show decreases in discrete brine ...
Figure 17.11 (a) Cracks, ice spicules, and cavitation from a water droplet freezing from the o...
Figure 17.12 Microphotographs of sea ice warming experiments showing increases in discrete bri...
Figure 17.13 Vertical profiles of O
2
, Ar, O
2
/Ar ratio, particulate organic carbon (POC; Roukae...
Figure 17.14 (a) pCO
2
within brines (pCO
2
brines) versus sea ice temperature integrated over t...
Figure 17.15 (a, b) The bulk ice CH
4
concentration against normalized depth in the Arctic.
Figure 17.16 (a) The temporal variations in the Arctic of chlorophyll-a (Chl ) and DMS concen...
Figure 17.17 Vertical distribution of sea ice DMSPt and chlorophyll- concentrations for two r...
Figure 17.18 Depth profiles of iodinated halocarbons, brine volume, and bulk salinity at one s...
Figure 17.19 Syntheses of gas dynamic processes in sea ice.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Mean vertical profiles of temperature (a) and relative humidity (b) between Janu...
Figure 18.2 Lidar image showing the mixed phase of arctic clouds, containing both liquid wat...
Figure 18.3 Arctic (a, b) and Antarctic (c, d) low cloud cover (i.e. frequency of occurrence...
Figure 18.4 Monthly variations of the SW (blue), LW (red), and net (black) CRE at the surfac...
Figure 18.5 Arctic (a, b) and Antarctic (c, d) liquid (a, c) and ice (b, d) water paths from...
Figure 18.6 (a) Scanning electron microscopy image and (b) energy dispersive X-ray spectra f...
Figure 18.7 Aerosol composition from MERRA-2: speciated contribution to average surface aero...
Figure 18.8 Aerosol size distribution (cm
−3
) measured at five Arctic stations (Alert, Tiksi,...
Figure 18.9 Sea ice sea salt/sea spray aerosol production processes and their connections to...
Figure 18.10 Schematic representation of the effects of ARI on SW radiation and temperature f...
Figure 18.11 Schematic representation of the effect of CCN and INP on polar cloud microphysic...
Figure 18.12 (a) Aerosol effective radiative forcing (ERF) at top-of-atmosphere (TOA) at the ...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 A general schematic of biogeochemical cycling of contaminants across the ocean–s...
Figure 19.2 Relationship between the bulk salinity (
S
) of sea ice and the bulk concen...
Figure 19.3 A general schematic of mercury cycling in the sea ice environment. Colors denote...
Figure 19.4 A general schematic of -hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and the associated enanti...
Figure 19.5 A conceptualized schematic of oil compounds behaviors in the sea ice environment...
Figure 19.6 A general schematic of microplastics behaviors in the sea ice environment.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 A schematic view of the numerical modeling approaches used for sea ice biogeoche...
Figure 20.2 Schematic representation of the different choices of biologically active layer (...
Figure 20.3 Schematic of the main processes driving the exchange of nutrients at the ocean–i...
Figure 20.4 Schematic of light transmission through the surface-scattering layer (SSL) and t...
Figure 20.5 Schematic of a simple model with one nutrient (N), one algal functional type (P)...
Figure 20.6 Classical formulations of the limiting factors within the algal growth (Eq. (20.12))...
Figure 20.7 Schematic representing the past (a, c, e) and expected future (b, d, f) biologic...
Figure 20.8 Conversation between a global climate modeler and a five-star observer from a mo...
Figure 20.9 Comparison of untuned (a, c, e) and tuned (b, d, f) models against observations ...
Figure 20.10 Simulations of historical and future pan-Arctic ice algal accumulation under the...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Evolution of the past 65 million years of climate, highlighting key periods of b...
Figure 21.2 “LR04 stack” of oxygen isotopic records from benthic foraminifera. These data ar...
Figure 21.3 Map highlighting distribution of sediment cores that are interpreted as recordin...
Figure 21.4 Map highlighting distribution of sediment cores that are interpreted as recordin...
Figure 21.5 Map highlighting distribution of sediment cores that are interpreted as recordin...
Figure 21.6 Map highlighting distribution of sediment cores that are interpreted as recordin...
Figure 21.7 Map highlighting distribution of sediment cores that are interpreted as recordin...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Map of seasonal (gray) and perennial (white) sea ice extent in the Northern Hemi...
Figure 22.2 Frequency of sea ice existence in the Sea of Okhotsk, compiled from 30 years dat...
Figure 22.3 Interannual variations of (a) mean sea ice thickness and (b) ice volume in the s...
Figure 22.4 Sea ice thickness (m) derived from CryoSat-2 for March 2011–2023 (ice thickness ...
Figure 22.5 Map of the Okhotsk coastal polynyas, showing (a) locations of the individual pol...
Figure 22.6 A schematic picture of sea ice growth processes inferred from the sea ice inner ...
Figure 22.7 Locations of Hokkaido, Japan (a) and Saroma-ko Lagoon (b). Lagoon is connected t...
Figure 22.8 Average sea ice concentration for the fifth day of each month November–July (199...
Figure 22.9 Sea ice occurrence probability in the Baltic Sea and annual ice cover duration d...
Figure 22.10 Frequency of sea ice existence (sea ice concentration > 15%) for the fifth day o...
Figure 22.11 Timing of sea ice freeze-up (left) and breakup (center) and the length of the se...
Figure 22.12 Schematic representation of successional stages in Arctic marginal sea ice ecosy...
Figure 22.13 Global temperature anomaly (relative to the 1850–1900 average) in a set of...
Figure 22.14 Bias-shifted projections of the average freeze-up day (left), breakup day (cente...
Figure 22.15 Possible ecosystem effects caused by the decrease in ice cover duration and thic...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Photo and observation of Anagi Crew and collaborators, including Craig George, w...
Figure 23.2 Utqiaġvik whalers breaking trail, March 2023.
Figure 23.3 Alex Kaleak Sr. cutting wood for his crew’s boat frame.
Figure 23.4 Polar bear feeding off of whale carcass, June 2023.
Figure 23.5 Whaling crew members using their snowmachines and a block and tackle pulley syst...
Figure 23.6 Photos of spring whaling camp and umiaq at ice edge near Utqiaġvik, prepared for...
Figure 23.7 Whaling crew starting to butcher the whale, May 2023.
Figure 23.8 Whaling crews scouting for whales, April 2023.
Figure 23.9 David Elavgak (left) and Monika Elavgak (right) serving during Aaŋa Crew’s 2024 ...
Figure 23.10 Nalukataq (Blanket toss). A celebration of the spring whale harvest, where the w...
Figure 23.11 Blanket toss.
Figure 23.12 AAOKH Observer Billy Adams’ depiction of Utqiaġvik’s seasonal subsistence huntin...
Figure 23.13 Aaŋa Crew members standing in a circle ready for prayer. Nalukataq 2024.
Figure 23.14 Craig during his interview on 16 April 2023.
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 The boardgame Northwest Passage (1969).
Figure 24.2 Continental shelf submission in the Central Arctic Ocean.
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Snow processes that dominate the seasonal cycle of the snow–ice systems, corresp...
Table 2.2 Iñupiaq words for snow features.
Table 2.3 New and recent snow densities.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Relationships between various radiometric quantities relevant to heat deposition...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 List of commonly used sensors for microwave radiometry in sea ice research (none...
Table 5.2 List of commonly used sensors and satellites for microwave scatterometry (radar)...
Table 5.3 List of commonly used SAR sensors in sea ice research (nonexclusive). Many of th...
Table 5.4 List of radar and laser altimeters used for sea ice thickness retrieval (nonexcl...
Table 5.5 List of commonly used visible and thermal infrared satellite sensors in sea ice ...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Trends in sea ice extent for 1979–2015 in 10
3
km
2
per decade.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Monthly and annual average Arctic sea ice extent estimates. Average extent for 1...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Maximum algal biomass as Chl reported for independent studies of Arctic sea ic...
Table 12.2 Maximum algal biomass as Chl reported for independent studies of Antarctic sea...
Table 12.3 Primary production (mg C m
−2
) rates reported for Arctic sea ice. Valu...
Table 12.4 Primary production (mg C m
−2
) rates reported for Antarctic sea ice.
Table 12.5 Photosynthesis rates per unit Chl biomass (mg C mg
−1
Chl
a
h
−1
) rates reported...
Table 12.6 Photosynthesis rates per unit Chl biomass (mg C mg
−1
Chl
a
h
−1
) rates reported...
Table 12.7 Estimates of historical/current total annual primary production in sea ice. When...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 List of taxa of meio- and macrofauna associated with sea ice.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Seabird species of the Antarctic and Arctic and their relationship to sea ice; O...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 List of iron (Fe) field data currently available in the literature for dissolved...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Deployment of
in situ
sensor in polar sea ice.
Table 17.2 Bubble diameter in millimeters and air volume fraction (Va, %) reported in liter...
Table 17.3 Gas transport processes.
Table 17.4 Gas diffusivity as diffusion coefficient in seawater, sea ice, and air.
Table 17.5 Observations and quantification of calcium carbonate precipitation in the Arctic...
Table 17.6 Overview of CO
2
flux measurements using the chamber technique. Positive fluxes i...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Basic physical and chemical properties 1 atm, 25 °C) of selected cont...
Table 19.2 Mercury concentrations in seawater, sea ice, and snow from the Arctic and the An...
Table 19.3 Concentration ranges of - and -hexachlorocyclohexane (- and -HCH) measured i...
Table 19.4 Concentrations of total PAHs in air, snow, sea ice, seawater, and sediments from...
Table 19.5 Microplastic concentrations in snow, sea ice, seawater, and sediments in the Arc...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Sea ice biogeochemical models and their components.
Table 20.2 Main highlights from the intercomparison of 1D sea ice biogeochemical models, be...
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Core identification and location information for sediment cores discussed, group...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Main features of sea ice in the marginal Arctic seas treated in this chapter.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Sea Ice
Its Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geology and Societal Importance
Edited by David N. Thomas
University of Helsinki, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Viikinkaari 1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
Fourth Edition
This edition first published copyright year 2025
© copyright year copyright holder [John Wiley & Sons Ltd.]
Edition History
There were 3 previous editions:
1st Edition in 2003
2nd Edition in 2010
3rd Edition in 2017
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Names: Thomas, David N. (David Neville), 1962- editor.
Title: Sea ice : Its physics, chemistry, biology, geology and societal importance / Edited by: Professor David N Thomas, University of Helsinki, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Viikinkaari 1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
Description: 4th edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2025. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2025007755 | ISBN 9781394213733 (hardback) | ISBN 9781394213740 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394213757 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394213764 (obook)
Subjects: LCSH: Sea ice.
Classification: LCC GB2403.2 .S43 2025 | DDC 551.34/3—dc23/eng/20250531
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2025007755
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © David N. Thomas
Contributors
David Ainley
H.T. Harvey & Associates, 983 University Avenue, Bldg D, Los Gatos, CA 95032, USA
Luisa von Albedyll
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Klußmannstraße 3d, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
Stefanie Arndt
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
&
Institute of Oceanography, University of Hamburg, Bundesstraße 53, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Kevin R. Arrigo
Department of Environmental Earth System Science, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 9430, USA
Cecilia M. Bitz
Atmospheric Sciences, Box 351640, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1640, USA
Angela C. Bliss
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
Kristina A. Brown
Centre for Earth Observation Science, Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
Karley Campbell
Department of Arctic & Marine Biology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
Courtney Carothers
College of Fisheries & Ocean Sciences, 1007 West 3rd Avenue, Anchorage, AK 99501-1936, USA
Giulia Castellani
Institute of Environmental Physics (IUP), University of Bremen, Otto-Hahn-Allee 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
R. Eric Collins
Centre for Earth Observation Science, Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
Finlo Cottier
Formerly: Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, UK and UiT, The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
Odile Crabeck
Astrophysics, Geophysics and Oceanography Department, Université de Liège, Allée du 6 Août, 4000 Liège, Belgium
Alex Crawford
Centre for Earth Observation Science, Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
Malin Daase
Department of Arctic & Marine Biology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
&
The University Centre in Svalbard, Longyearbyen, Norway
Bruno Delille
Astrophysics, Geophysics and Oceanography Department, Université de Liège, Allée du 6 Août, 4000 Liège, Belgium
Jody W. Deming
School of Oceanography, College of the Environment, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98185, USA
George Divoky
Cooper Island Arctic Research, 652 32nd Avenue East, Seattle, Washington 98112, USA
Klaus Dodds
Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham Surrey, TW20 0E, UK
Eeva Eronen-Rasimus
Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, Viikki Campus, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
Zachary Espinosa
Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1640, USA
François Fripiat
Department Geosciences, Environment and Society, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Av. F.D. Roosevelt, 50, CP160/03, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
Zhiyuan Gao
Centre for Earth Observation Science, Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
Craig George
Barrow, AK, USA
Christian Haas
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Klußmannstraße 3d, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
&
University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
F. Alexander Haumann
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Klußmannstraße 3d, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
&
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
Donna D.W. Hauser
The International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, PO Box 757340, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7340, USA
Hayo Hendrikse
Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Delft University of Technology, PO Box 5048, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands
Henry P. Huntington
Ocean Conservancy, 23834 The Clearing Drive, Eagle River, AK 99577, USA
Polona Itkin
Department of Physics and Technology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
Hermanni Kaartokallio
Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, Viikki Campus, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
Alex Kaleak Sr.
Barrow, AK, USA
Diedre Kaleak
Barrow, AK, USA
Nina Karnovsky
Department of Biology, Pomona College, R. C. Seaver Biology Building, 175 W Sixth Street, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
Stefan Kern
Center for Marine and Atmospheric Science, Institute of Oceanography, Bundesstrasse 53, D-20146 Hamburg, Germany
Erin H. Kunisch
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Postboks 8900, NO-7491 Trondheim, Torgarden, Norway
Kristin L. Laidre
Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Lab, University of Washington, 1013 NE 40th Street, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
Delphine Lannuzel
Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, IMAS Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
Rémy Lapere
University of Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, Grenoble INP, IGE, 38000 Grenoble, France
Yueng-Djern Lenn
School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, Anglesey LL59 5AB, UK
Eva Leu
Akvaplan-Niva AS, CIENS, Gaustadalleen 21, 0349 Tromsø, Norway
Joe Mello Leavitt
Barrow, AK, USA
Amy Leventer
Geology Department, Colgate University, Hamilton, NY 13346, USA
Bonnie Light
Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington, 1013 NE 40th Street, Seattle, WA 98105-6698, USA
Stephanie M. Lim
Department of Environmental Earth System Science, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 9430, USA
Camille Lique
University of Brest, CNRS, Ifremer, IRD, Laboratoire d’Océanographie Physique et Spatiale (LOPS), IUEM, F29280, Plouzané, France
Ted Maksym
Applied Ocean Physics & Engineering, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 266 Woods Hole Rd., Mailstop 12, Woods Hole, MA 02543-1050, USA
Louis Marelle
Sorbonne Université-LATMOS, Tour 45-46, 4, Plas Jussieu, 75252 Paris Cedex 5, France
Robert A. Massom
Australian Antarctic Division, Private Bag 80, c/o University of Tasmania, Sandy Bay, Tasmania 7001, Australia
&
The Australian Antarctic Program Partnership & ARC Australian Centre for Excellence in Antarctic Science at the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, 20 Castray Esplanade, Battery Point, Tasmania 7004, Australia
Walter N. Meier
National Snow and Ice Data Center, University of Colorado, UCB 449, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
Klaus M. Meiners
Australian Antarctic Division, Private Bag 80, c/o University of Tasmania, Sandy Bay, Tasmania 7001, Australia
Michael P. Meredith
British Antarctic Survey, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, UK
Sebastien Moreau
Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, Tromsø, Norway
C.J. Mundy
Centre for Earth Observation Science, Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
Marcel Nicolaus
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Klußmannstraße 3d, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
Daiki Nomura
School of Fisheries Sciences, 3-1-1 Minato-cho, Hokkaido University, Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan
Dirk Notz
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstr. 53, D-20146 Hamburg, Germany
Don Perovich
