Seafood Processing E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: IFST Advances in Food Science
- Sprache: Englisch
Part of the new IFST Advances in Food Science Series, Seafood Processing: Technology, Quality and Safety covers the whole range of current processes which are applied to seafood, as well as quality and safety aspects. The first part of the book (‘Processing Technologies’) covers primary processing, heating, chilling, freezing, irradiation, traditional preservation methods (salting, drying, smoking, fermentation, etc), frozen surimi and packaging. The subjects of waste management and sustainability issues of fish processing are also covered. In the second part (‘Quality and Safety Issues’), quality and safety analysis, fish and seafood authenticity and risk assessment are included.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013
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Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction to Seafood Processing—Assuring Quality and Safety of Seafood
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Seafood spoilage
1.3 Seafood hazards
1.4 Getting the optimum quality of the raw material
1.5 Seafood processing
1.6 Quality, safety and authenticity assurance
1.7 Future trends
References
Part I: Processing Technologies
Chapter 2: Shellfish Handling and Primary Processing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Shellfish harvesting
2.3 Bivalve shellfish handling
2.4 Shellfish primary processing
2.5 Bivalve shellfish depuration
2.6 Shellfish labelling
2.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 3: Chilling and Freezing of Fish
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Post-mortem changes at chilled storage temperatures
3.3 Effect of freezing temperatures on quality-related processes
3.4 Fresh fish chain
3.5 Frozen fish chain
3.6 Legislation
3.7 Recommendations
References
Chapter 4: Heat Processing of Fish
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic principles
4.3 Best available technology for thermal processing of fish
4.4 Quality changes during heat treatment of fish
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 5: Irradiation of Fish and Seafood
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Quality of irradiated fish and fishery products and shelf life extension
5.3 Microflora of irradiated fish and fishery products
5.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Preservation of Fish by Curing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Salting
6.3 Marinating
6.4 Smoking
References
Chapter 7: Drying of Fish
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Principles of drying
7.3 Drying methods
7.4 Changes in fish muscle during drying
7.5 Packing and storage of dried fish products
References
Chapter 8: Fish Fermentation
8.1 Definition of the term fermentation in food technology
8.2 Fermented foods worldwide
8.3 Lactic acid fermentation
8.4 Traditional salt/fish fermentation
8.5 Future trends in fish fermentation technology
References
Chapter 9: Frozen Surimi and Surimi-based Products
9.1 Fish material for frozen surimi
9.2 Principles and process of frozen surimi production
9.3 Characteristics of fish material and manufacturing technology
9.4 Denaturation of fish protein by freezing and its prevention
9.5 Evaluation of surimi quality
9.6 Surimi-based products
9.7 Future prospective
References
Chapter 10: Packaging of Fish and Fishery Products
10.1 Introduction
10.2 MAP principles and importance for packaging fresh fish
10.3 Non-microbial effects of MAP
10.4 Effects of MAP on fish spoilage
10.5 Effects of MAP on the microbial safety of fish products
10.6 Application of MAP on fish and fishery products
10.7 Packaging materials and future developments
References
Chapter 11: Fish Waste Management
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Treatment methods
11.3 Uses of fish waste
11.4 Inputs and outputs in fisheries
References
Electronic Sources
Chapter 12: Fish Processing Installations: Sustainable Operation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Assessment tools
12.3 Process operations
12.4 Production efficiency
12.5 On-board processing
12.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Value-added Seafood
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Value-added product development
13.3 Market-driven
13.4 Values-driven
13.5 Health-driven
13.6 Resource-driven
13.7 Technology-driven
13.8 Conclusions
References
Part II: Quality and Safety Issues
Chapter 14: Seafood Quality Assessment
14.1 Why is quality assessment of aquatic animals multifarious and complex?
14.2 Fish composition
14.3 Fish freshness
14.4 Sensory methods
14.5 Chemical methods
14.6 Physical methods
14.7 Instrumental methods and automation
14.8 Imaging technologies and machine vision
14.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Microbiological Examination of Seafood
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Seafood microbiology
15.3 Microbiological parameters of seafood analysis
15.4 Microbiological analysis using conventional culture techniques
15.5 Microbiological examination using indirect rapid methods
15.6 Microscopy based rapid methods
15.7 Immuno-based techniques
15.8 Molecular methods for microbial determination
15.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Fish and Seafood Authenticity—Species Identification
16.1 Molecular techniques applied to seafood authentication
16.2 Molecular techniques based on protein analysis
16.3 Molecular techniques based on DNA analysis
References
Chapter 17: Assuring Safety of Seafood—Risk Assessment
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Differentiating risk from hazard
17.3 Hazards, risks and food safety risk assessment
17.4 Hazard Identification/Risk Profile
17.5 Exposure assessment
17.6 Hazard Characterization
17.7 Risk Characterization
17.8 Qualitative Risk Assessment
17.9 Semi-quantitative Risk Assessment
17.10 Quantitative Risk Assessment
17.11 Reality check
17.12 Uncertainty and variability
17.13 Data gaps
17.14 Risk management approaches
17.15 Final thoughts
References
Index
This edition first published 2014
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Seafood processing : technology, quality and safety / Ioannis S. Boziaris.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-118-34621-1 (cloth)
1. Fishery processing. I. Boziaris, Ioannis S., editor of compilation.
SH335.S34 2014
664′.94— dc23
2013024198
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.
Cover image: Fish processing building in Sotra, Bergen © Simonas Vaikasas, courtesy of Shutterstock
Sea Crab © w-i-n-d, courtesy of iStock
Seafood © Cristian Baitg, courtesy of iStock
Cover design by www.hisandhersdesign.co.uk
About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series
The Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) is the leading qualifying body for food professionals in Europe and the only professional organisation in the UK concerned with all aspects of food science and technology. Its qualifications are internationally recognised as a sign of proficiency and integrity in the industry. Competence, integrity, and serving the public benefit lie at the heart of the IFST philosophy. IFST values the many elements that contribute to the efficient and responsible supply, manufacture and distribution of safe, wholesome, nutritious and affordable foods, with due regard for the environment, animal welfare and the rights of consumers.
IFST Advances in Food Science is a series of books dedicated to the most important and popular topics in food science and technology, highlighting major developments across all sectors of the global food industry. Each volume is a detailed and in-depth edited work, featuring contributions by recognized international experts, and which focuses on new developments in the field. Taken together, the series forms a comprehensive library of the latest food science research and practice, and provides valuable insights into the food processing techniques that are essential to the understanding and development of this rapidly evolving industry.
The IFST Advances series is edited by Dr Brijesh K. Tiwari, Senior Research Officer in the Department of Food Biosciences at the Teagasc Food Research Centre, Dublin, Ireland.
Forthcoming titles in the IFST series
List of Contributors
Preface
Demand for fish and seafood has consistently increased during recent years and fish protein is the major animal protein consumed in many parts of the world. Seafood is a very perishable product and the risk of contamination of seafood products by biological hazards is very high. Processing is necessary to assure the prolonged shelf life and safety of seafood.
The seafood processing industry currently has to face new challenges. Production has increased and seafood products need to be transported over long distances. Increasing demands from legislation and from the consumer for better quality and safer products have to be taken into account. Seafood now has to be high quality, nutritious, safe and have the convenience of an extended shelf life. To meet these criteria, seafood processing has had to assimilate all the new advances in food science and technology and in quality and safety assurance. Current technologies have evolved rapidly (e.g. modified atmosphere packaging, minimal heat processing, rapid freezing, injection salting), while emerging technologies such as high-pressure processing are beginning to be used. Advanced quality and safety methods, such as modern and rapid techniques for assessing quality and safety, species identification techniques and risk assessment tools, all have significant applications in the seafood sector.
This book covers the whole range of technologies currently used for the main processing of seafood. Quality and safety aspects are also dealt with. The first part of the book covers primary processing, chilling and freezing, heat processing, irradiation, traditional preservation methods (salting, smoking, acidification, drying and fermentation) as well as packaging. Surimi production, fish waste treatment, sustainability and value-added seafood product development is also covered in this section. The second part of the book deals with the determination of seafood quality, microbiological examination, authenticity and risk assessment.
Chapter 1
Introduction to Seafood Processing—Assuring Quality and Safety of Seafood
Ioannis S. Boziaris
Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece
1.1 Introduction
Demand for seafood has consistently increased during recent years with fish protein being the major animal protein consumed in many parts of the world. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2012), fresh seafood represents 40.5% of the world's seafood production, while processed products (frozen, cured, canned, etc.) represent 45.9%. To assure the quality of raw material used for processing, fish has to be treated carefully before and after harvest. Often fish and shellfish undergo some type of handling or primary processing (washing, gutting, filleting, shucking, etc.), before the main processing occurs, to assure their quality and safety, as well as to produce new, convenient and added-value products (e.g. packed fish fillets instead of unpacked, whole ungutted fish).
Processing of seafood mainly inhibits and/or inactivates bacteria and enzymes which results in shelf-life extension and also assures food safety. While the main role of processing is preservation, processing not only extends shelf life but also creates a new range of products.
Seafood processing uses almost all the processing methods available to the food industry. The most widely used methods to preserve fish involve the application of low temperatures (chilling, super-chilling, freezing). Improvements in packaging technology (modified atmosphere packaging, MAP) and the application of chilling maximise quality retention as well as extending shelf life. Heating inactivates bacterial pathogens and spoilage microorganisms, which contributes to the stability and safety of the products. Irradiation is a well-established, non-thermal method, while high-pressure processing of seafood is being continuously increased. Traditional methods of preservation (curing, fermentation, etc.) are also used in the production of a variety of products.
1.2 Seafood spoilage
Seafood deteriorates very quickly due to various spoilage mechanisms. Spoilage can be caused by the metabolic activity of microorganisms, endogenous enzymatic activity (such as autolysis and the enzymatic browning of crustaceans shells) and by the chemical oxidation of lipids (Ashie et al., 1996; Gram and Huss, 1996; Huis in't Veld, 1996).
Seafood flesh has a high amount of non-protein nitrogenous (NPN) compounds and a low acidity (pH > 6), which support the fast growth of microorganisms that are the main cause of spoilage. The growth and metabolic activity of the spoilage microorganisms, especially specific spoilage organisms (SSOs), result in the production of metabolites that affect the organoleptic properties of the product (Ashie et al., 1996; Gram and Huss, 1996). Briefly, SSOs may initially represent only a small proportion of the microbiota (indigenous and exogenous); however, they subsequently proliferate to become the part of the dominant microbiota that has spoilage potential (the qualitative ability to produce off-odours) and spoilage activity (the quantitative ability to produce metabolites) (Gram and Dalgaard, 2002). Inhibiting the growth of SSOs increases the shelf life of seafood. Pseudomonas and Shewanella species spoil marine fish and crustaceans stored aerobically at low temperatures, while Photobacterium phosphoreum, various lactic acid bacteria and Brochothrix thermosphacta usually predominate in spoilage associated with MAP (Gram and Huss, 1996; Dalgaard, 2000).
Immediately following death, autolysis resulting from the action of endogenous enzymes, initially causes loss of the characteristic fresh odour and taste of fish and then softens the flesh (Huss, 1995; Ashie et al., 1996). The main changes that take place are initially the enzymatic degradation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and related products and subsequently the action of proteolytic enzymes. Enzymes are also responsible for colour changes. After microbial growth, enzymatic browning is the most important spoilage mechanism of crustaceans (Ashie et al., 1996; Boziaris et al., 2011). Browning of the crustacean shell is the result of the action of polyphenol oxidase on tyrosine and its derivatives such as tyramine (Martinez-Alvarez et al., 2007). Inhibition or inactivation of polyphenol oxidase by various means (heating, additives, etc.) as well as oxygen reduction or exclusion can prevent the loss of the original colour of the crustacean shell.
Chemical oxidation of lipids (oxidative rancidity) is one of the most important spoilage mechanisms, especially in fatty fish. Oxygen is necessary for the development of oxidative rancidity; hence, oxygen reduction or exclusion limits the oxidation reaction (Ashie et al., 1996).
All these mechanisms advance almost simultaneously contributing to the spoilage; however, fresh and lightly preserved seafood spoils mainly due to the action of microorganisms. For products in which microbial growth is retarded or inhibited, non-microbial mechanisms play a more determinative role.
1.3 Seafood hazards
Contamination of seafood by chemicals, marine toxins and microbiological hazards can be high. Various bacterial pathogens present in aquatic environments—either naturally (pathogenic Vibrio, Clostridium botulinum, Aeromonas hydrophilla), or as contaminants (Salmonella spp., pathogenic Escherichia coli)—can contaminate seafood, while contamination with other bacteria such as Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, etc., can occur during processing (Feldhusen, 2000; Huss et al., 2000). Seafood can also be contaminated by viruses (such as hepatitis A virus, Norwalk-like viruses, Astrovirus, etc.), marine biotoxins (which cause several diseases such as diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP), paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) and fish ciguatera poisoning) and chemical contaminants (such as heavy metals) (Huss, 1994). Generally, processing mainly controls microbiological hazards but leaves chemical hazards or biotoxins virtually unaffected. Effective control of chemical hazards and biotoxins has to be applied mostly during primary production and the pre-harvest stages.
From a safety point of view, seafood can be classified in to seven groups according to the risk of microbial contamination and the processing method (Huss et al., 2000). Molluscs, especially those that are to be eaten without cooking, belong to the group with the highest risk. The second group contains the fish and crustaceans that will be consumed after cooking. The third and fourth groups contain lightly preserved (NaCl < 6% w/v in aqueous phase, pH > 5) and semi-preserved (NaCl > 6% w/v in aqueous phase, pH < 5) products, respectively. The fifth group contains the mild-heated products, such as pasteurized and hot-smoked seafood, while the sixth contains the heat processed products. Finally dried, dry-salted and smoke-dried seafood products have the lowest risk.
1.4 Getting the optimum quality of the raw material
Pre-harvest and post-harvest handling of fish affects its quality. A number of biochemical changes start immediately following the death of the fish. The most important change is the onset of rigor mortis, during which the initially relaxed and elastic muscles become hard and stiff. At the end of rigor mortis the muscles relax again but are no longer elastic. The mechanism of rigor mortis is described in Chapter 3. The significance of rigor mortis is important in post-mortem processing. Filleting fish in rigor may produce fillets with gaping and give lower yields, while whole fish and fillets frozen before the onset of rigor can give better products (Huss, 1995). The onset of rigor mortis and its duration depend on various factors such as the size of the fish, the temperature and the physical condition of the fish, including stress (Huss, 1995). For instance, in either starved or stressed fish the glycogen reserves are depleted and rigor mortis starts immediately. Rapid chilling of fish is important not only to inhibit bacterial growth but also for managing the onset and duration of rigor. Abe and Okuma (1991) suggested that the onset of rigor mortis depends on the difference between the sea temperature and the storage temperature. When this difference is high, the onset of rigor is fast and vice versa.
1.4.1 Pre-mortem handling
Handling of fish before death affects rigor mortis. It is important in wild fish to use methods of capture that do not stress and exhaust fish, while in farmed fish, pre-harvest starvation, harvesting and slaughtering practices that do not stress fish are essential to maximise seafood quality and shelf life (Bagni et al., 2007; Borderias and Sanchez-Alonso, 2011). The digestive tract contains a high bacterial population that produces digestive enzymes that result in intense post-mortem autolysis giving strong off-odours in the abdominal area (Huss, 1995). Starvation reduces the amount of faeces in the intestines and delays spoilage. In general, the starvation period is 1–3 days. Harvesting, stunning and killing methods greatly affect post-mortem changes and subsequent fish quality. When fish are rapidly killed, stress can be reduced, improving quality (Ottera et al., 2001; Bagni et al., 2007). Many methods can be used for stunning and killing fish, such as asphyxiation, live chilling in ice slurry, electrical stunning and electrocution, carbon dioxide narcosis, knocking or spiking. Asphyxiated and electrically stunned fish are more stressed than spiked, knocked and live-chilled fish (Poli et al., 2005). Knocking on the head is reported as the optimal killing method for obtaining the best quality flesh in turbot (Roth et al., 2007).
For shellfish, suitable pre- and post-harvest handling is required to achieve a safe seafood product. Shellfish are filter-feeders and can concentrate contaminants from the aquatic environment. Preventive measures are required to deter the accumulation of pathogenic microorganisms, biological toxins and chemical contaminants. Water quality is one of the most important factors, while treatments such as depuration and subsequent suitable handling and processing are essential (see Chapter 2).
Regarding the handling of crustaceans, such as lobsters and crabs, considerably fewer studies have been published compared to finfish and molluscan shellfish. The quality and prolonged shelf life of lobsters and crabs can be maintained by keeping them alive as long as possible. Norway lobster and crab individuals stored at chilling temperature or in ice spoil rapidly mainly due to microbial growth, which occurs after their death (Robson et al., 2007; Boziaris et al., 2011). The effect of post-harvest handling on the quality of crustaceans has been recently reviewed (Neil, 2012).
1.4.2 Post-mortem handling
After killing and chilling fish, minimal processing such as washing, gutting or filleting can take place. The results of the effect of gutting on the quality and shelf life of fish are contradictory. Microbial counts in ungutted sea bream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) were found to be slightly lower compared to gutted fish while the quality and shelf life assessed by sensory and chemical methods was found to be the same (Cakli et al., 2006). Erkan (2007) reported that the shelf life of gutted and ungutted sea bream was similar. On the other hand, Papadopoulos et al. (2003) found that gutted sea bass have a shorter shelf life compared to their ungutted counterparts.
Fish are filleted to produce value-added products. In general the practice of filleting in rigor is avoided because the yield is low and may cause gaping. Filleting is usually performed before or after rigor with various advantages and disadvantages in each case. Pre-rigor fillets of Atlantic salmon had lower bacterial numbers, the odour-flavour scores were higher, the gaping was lower, but the water loss was higher compared to post-rigor fillets (Rosnes et al., 2003).
1.5 Seafood processing
Processing imposes hurdles to the actions of microorganisms (Leistner and Gorris, 1995), hence inhibiting or inactivating them, which results in the prevention of spoilage and the extension of shelf life. Additionally, processing can also retard or inhibit non-microbial spoilage mechanisms (Table 1.1). From the safety point of view, processing can remove or eliminate pathogenic bacteria making seafood safer for consumption.
Table 1.1 Current food and seafood processing methods
Process
Hurdle
Objective
Chilling
Low temperature
Inhibition of microbial growth
Chilling and packaging under modified atmosphere
Low temperature, reduced O
2
, elevated CO
2
Inhibition of microbial growth, slowing down chemical oxidations
Freezing
Low temperature
Inhibition of microbial growth, slowing down enzymatic activity and chemical oxidations
Freezing and glazing or vacuum packaging
Low temperature, reduced O
2
Inhibition of microbial growth, oxidative rancidity and enzymatic browning
Heating
High temperature
Inactivation of microorganisms and enzymes
Irradiation
Ionizing radiation
Inactivation of microorganisms and enzymes
Salting
Low
a
w
Inhibition of microbial growth
Marination
Low pH, organic acids,
Inhibition and/or inactivation of microorganisms
Drying
Low
a
w
Inhibition of microbial growth
Smoking
Low
a
w
, high temperature (in hot smoking), antimicrobial substances from smoke
Inhibition of microbial growth
Curing (combination of salting, smoking, acidification, drying)
Low
a
w
and pH, high temperature (in hot smoking), antimicrobial substances from the smoke
Inhibition of microbial growth
Fermentation
Low pH, organic acids, bacteriocins, bacterial antagonism
Inhibition of microbial growth
A range of processing methods can be used to preserve seafood. Processing methods can be applied either singly or in combination (Table 1.1). Cold storage is the simplest way to preserve seafood. Chilling of whole fish in ice takes place after harvesting and killing, while packed gutted or filleted fish are refrigerated. Fish shelf life can be extended by super-chilling, where fish is stored a few degrees below 0 °C (see Chapter 3). Packaging under reduced O2 and elevated CO2 (modified atmosphere packaging, MAP) in combination with cold storage (0–2 °C) can extend the shelf life of various seafoods (see Chapter 10). Freezing is also one of the most widely used preservation methods for seafood (see Chapter 3).
Heat processing remains one of the major methods for extending the shelf life of seafood because as well as giving a long shelf life it also gives a high level of safety and convenience (see Chapter 4). Irradiation is a widely used non-thermal process for preserving fish and seafood. Irradiation guarantees the safety of the product and also increases its shelf life, despite the lack of trust for this method by consumers. It is a very effective method for inactivating microorganisms without considerably decreasing foodstuff quality (see Chapter 5).
Traditional methods of preservation such salting, smoking, marination, drying and fermentation (see Chapters 6, 7 and 8) are widely used throughout the world. Traditionally preserved fish is highly appreciated, mainly due to its excellent stability during storage, special organoleptic characteristics and nutritional value.
Quite considerable amounts of fish are used for surimi production. Surimi is a fish protein concentrate with gelling abilities that has become an important intermediate raw material for food production all over the world. Surimi is further processed into surimi-based products such as kamaboko and crab-meat analogues (see Chapter 10).
The seafood industry consumes a lot of energy and produces a considerable amount of waste. Methods to treat fish waste and to convert it into useful products such as feed, natural pigments and other products have been developed (see Chapter 11). The sustainable operation of fish processing plants, which involves not only waste treatment and disposal as well as the recovery of by-products, but also energy efficiency and water usage, are also of concern (see Chapter 12).
1.6 Quality, safety and authenticity assurance
Freshness and quality of seafood is assessed using sensory, microbiological and chemical methods (Olafsdottir et al., 1997). Sensory assessment is subjective and requires highly trained personnel to be reliable, hence it is unattractive for routine examination, while microbiological results are retrospective, thus the determination of the chemical spoilage parameters related to microbial growth, is more practical for routine use (Dainty, 1996). Total volatile base-nitrogen (TVB-N) and trimethylamine-nitrogen (TMA-N) are the main chemical parameters related to the microbial growth of microorganisms such as Pseudomonas spp., Shewanella putrefaciens and Photobacterium phosphoreum (Gram and Huss, 1996; Gram and Dalgaard, 2002). However, the most used parameter, TVB-N, is considered as a poor indicator of teleostean fish freshness (Castro et al., 2006). Current research is focusing on other metabolites produced during the storage of aquatic products, such as volatiles other than nitrogenous compounds (Duflos et al., 2006; Soncin et al., 2008). Additionally, a range of physical and automated instrumental methods that can give fast reliable measurements a without destruction of the sample are being developed, such as VIS/NIR spectroscopy, electronic nose, etc. (see Chapter 14).
A variety of microbiological parameters are also examined to assess the microbiological quality and safety of seafood. Despite the disadvantages of traditional culture techniques, they are still considered standard methods. However, advances in molecular microbiology and automated rapid methods offer alternative tools for quick and reliable analysis (see Chapter 15).
To protect consumers and prevent fraud in the marketing of fishery and aquaculture products, fast and reliable methods for species identification, even for processed products, are required. Recent developments in molecular biology and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques, as well as the use of molecular markers and databases have greatly contributed to this field of study (see Chapter 16).
Finally, in the past two decades the concept of risk assessment has greatly improved the way that seafood hazards are evaluated and controlled, leading towards to an integrated approach of food/seafood safety. The presentation of the four elements of risk assessment (hazard identification, exposure assessment, hazard characterization and risk characterization) are analysed in Chapter 17.
1.7 Future trends
Current processing technologies are quickly evolving (modified atmosphere packaging, minimal heat processing, rapid freezing, etc.), while emerging technologies such as high pressure processing (HPP), radio-frequency heating, flexible retort packaging, and pH-shift processing, etc., will be applied extensively in seafood processing. HPP is currently applied mostly in oysters. Pressure severs the adductor muscle from the shell, which results essentially in a shucked oyster while inactivation of pathogenic Vibrios and other microorganisms occurs (see Chapter 2). HPP will soon extend its applications to various seafood products.
Value-added seafood products are becoming increasingly important in satisfying consumer demands for safe, high-quality, convenient, healthy and nutritious seafood throughout the world (see Chapter 13). Market requirements and the new technologies in seafood processing will soon be the driving force for many innovations in seafood processing.
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Part I
Processing Technologies
Chapter 2
Shellfish Handling and Primary Processing
Yi-Cheng Su1 and Chengchu Liu2
1Seafood Research and Education Center, Oregon State University, Astoria, Oregon, USA
2College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
2.1 Introduction
The United States ranks as the third largest consumer of fish and shellfish, behind China and Japan. Americans consumed a total of 4.833 billion pounds of seafood with an average consumption of 7.2 kg (15.8 pounds) of fish and shellfish per person in 2009 (NOAA, 2010). In 2010, US commercial fishermen landed 8.2 billion pounds of seafood with a value of billion (NOAA, 2011). It is estimated that about 86% of the seafood consumed in the United States is imported and nearly half of the imported seafood comes from aquaculture or farmed seafood. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture outside the United States has expanded dramatically in the past three decades and now supplies half of the world's seafood demand. The world production of molluscan shellfish increased from 1.7 million tonnes in 1950 to 9.1 million tonnes in 1990 and reached 20.8 million tonnes in 2010 (FAO, 2010, 2012). The rapid increase in aquaculture production of molluscs is attributable to an increase in consumption of molluscan shellfish over the past decade.
2.1.1 Health hazards associated with molluscan shellfish
Molluscan shellfish are filter-feeders and can concentrate toxic substances and microorganisms through filtering the water in which they grow for nutrients. Many studies have illustrated that contaminants, such as heavy metals (Eisenberg and Topping, 1984; Presley ., 1990; Jiann and Presley, 1997; Fang ., 2003), bacteria (Lipp ., 2001), viruses such as human noroviruses or hepatitis A virus (HAV) (Richards, 1987; Lewis and Metcalf, 1988; Beril ., 1996; Costantini ., 2006) and marine toxins produced by algae (USFDA, 2012b) can be accumulated in shellfish. Therefore, bivalves can serve as vehicles for human diseases.
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
