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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
SECURITY AND PRIVACY VISION IN 6G Prepare for the future of mobile communication with this comprehensive study 6G is the next frontier in mobile communication, with development of 6G standards slated to begin as early as 2026. As telecommunications networks become faster and more intelligent, security and privacy concerns are critical. In an increasingly connected world, there is an urgent need for user data to be safeguarded and system security enhanced against a new generation of threats. Security and Privacy Vision in 6G provides a comprehensive survey of these threats and the emerging techniques for safeguarding against them. It includes mechanisms for prediction, detection, mitigation, and prevention, such that threats to privacy and security can be forestalled at any stage. Fully engaged with proposed 6G architectures, it is an essential resource for mobile communications professionals looking for a head start on the technology of the future. Security and Privacy Vision in 6G readers will also find: * Detailed coverage of topics including edge intelligence and cloudification, industrial automation, collaborative robots, and more * Treatment balancing the practical and the theoretical * An editorial team with decades of international network technology experience in both industry and academia Security and Privacy Vision in 6G is a vital reference for network security professionals and for postgraduate and advanced undergraduate students in mobile communications and network security-related fields.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Acronyms
About the Authors
Foreword
Preface
1. Book Organization
Acknowledgments
Part I: Introduction
1 Evolution of Mobile Networks
1.1 Introduction
1.2 6G Mobile Communication Networks
1.3 Key Driving Trends Toward 6G
1.4 6G Requirements/Vision
References
2 Key 6G Technologies
2.1 Radio Network Technologies
2.2 AI/ML/FL
2.3 DLT/Blockchain
2.4 Edge Computing
2.5 Quantum Communication
2.6 Other New Technologies
References
3 6G Security Vision
3.1 Overview of 6G Security Vision
3.2 6G Security Vision and KPIs
References
Part II: Security in 6G Architecture
4 6G Device Security
4.1 Overview of 6G Devices
4.2 6G Device Security Challenges
4.3 Addressing Device Security in 6G
References
5 Open RAN and RAN‐Core Convergence
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Open RAN Architecture
5.3 Threat Vectors and Security Risks Associated with Open RAN
5.4 Security Benefits of Open RAN
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Edge Intelligence
6.1 Overview of Edge Intelligence
6.2 State‐of‐the‐Art Related to 5G
6.3 State‐of‐the‐Art Related to 6G
6.4 Edge Computing Security in Autonomous Driving
6.5 Future and Challenges
References
7 Specialized 6G Networks and Network Slicing
7.1 Overview of 6G Specialized Networks
7.2 Network Slicing in 6G
References
8 Industry 5.0
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Motivations Behind the Evolution of Industry 5.0
8.3 Key Features of Industry 5.0
8.4 Security of Industry 5.0
8.5 Privacy of Industry 5.0
References
Part III: Security in 6G Use Cases
9 Metaverse Security in 6G
9.1 Overview of Metaverse
9.2 What Is Metaverse?
9.3 Security Threats in Metaverse
9.4 Countermeasures for Metaverse Security Threats
9.5 New Trends in Metaverse Security
10 Society 5.0 and Security
10.1 Industry and Society Evolution
10.2 Technical Enablers and Challenges
10.3 Security in Society 5.0
References
Notes
11 6G‐Enabled Internet of Vehicles
11.1 Overview of V2X Communication and IoV
11.2 IoV Use Cases
11.3 Connected Autonomous Vehicles (CAV)
11.4 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Future IoV
11.5 Security Landscape for IoV
References
12 Smart Grid 2.0 Security
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Evolution of SG 2.0
12.3 Smart Grid 2.0
12.4 Role of 6G in SG 2.0
12.5 Security Challenges of SG 2.0
12.6 Privacy Issues of SG2.0
12.7 Trust Management
12.8 Security and Privacy Standardization on SG 2.0
References
Part IV: Privacy in 6G Vision
13 6G Privacy
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Privacy Taxonomy
13.3 Privacy in Actions on Data
13.4 Privacy Types for 6G
13.5 6G Privacy Goals
References
14 6G Privacy Challenges and Possible Solution
14.1 Introduction
14.2 6G Privacy Challenges and Issues
14.3 Privacy Solutions for 6G
References
15 Legal Aspects and Security Standardization
15.1 Legal
15.2 Security Standardization
References
Part V: Security in 6G Technologies
16 Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLTs) and Blockchain
16.1 Introduction
16.2 What Is Blockchain
16.3 What Is Smart Contracts
16.4 Salient Features of Blockchain
16.5 Key Security Challenges Which Blockchain Can Solve
16.6 Key Privacy Challenges Which Blockchain Can Solve
16.7 Threat Landscape of Blockchain
16.8 Possible Solutions to Secure 6G Blockchains
References
17 AI/ML for 6G Security
17.1 Overview of 6G Intelligence
17.2 AI for 6G Security
17.3 Use of AI to Identify/Mitigate Pre‐6G Security Issues
17.4 AI to Mitigate Security Issues of 6G Architecture
17.5 AI to Mitigate Security Issues of 6G Technologies
17.6 Security Issues in AI
17.7 Using AI to Attack 6G
References
18 Role of Explainable AI in 6G Security
18.1 What Is Explainable AI (XAI)
18.2 Use of XAI for 6G
18.3 XAI for 6G Security
18.4 New Security Issues of XAI
References
19 Zero Touch Network and Service Management (ZSM) Security
19.1 Introduction
19.2 ZSM Reference Architecture
19.3 Security Aspects
References
20 Physical Layer Security
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Physical Layer Security Background
20.3 The Prospect of PLS in 6G
References
21 Quantum Security and Postquantum Cryptography
21.1 Overview of 6G and Quantum Computing
21.2 Quantum Computing
21.3 Quantum Security
21.4 Postquantum Cryptography
References
Note
Part VI: Concluding Remarks
22 Concluding Remarks
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Enablers of front‐end technologies in Industry 4.0.
Table 10.2 Benefits of Industry 4.0 in terms of sustainable development.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 The third round candidates of the NIST standardization competiti...
Table 21.2 Standardized digital signature schemes from the NIST PQC competi...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Evolution of mobile networks from 0G to 6G.
Figure 1.2 6G driving trends.
Figure 1.3 6G requirements.
Figure 1.4 Expected timeline of 6G development, standardization, and launch ...
Figure 1.5 Global 6G development initiatives.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Promising scenarios in 6G enabled by THz communication: (a) high‐...
Figure 2.2 Three categories of FL: (a) horizontal FL, (b) vertical FL, and (...
Figure 2.3 Illustration of the general transaction process of blockchain: (1...
Figure 2.4 A general architecture of MEC.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 6G applications, requirements, and security. UAV, unmanned aerial...
Figure 3.2 6G security vision.
Figure 3.3 6G security threat landscape.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Evolution of devices and components from wired telephones to 5G w...
Figure 4.2 Some device security‐related challenges that may encounter in 6G ...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 High‐level comparison of Open RAN with traditional RAN.
Figure 5.2 The high‐level architecture of Open RAN proposed by the O‐RAN all...
Figure 5.3 The Open RAN threat taxonomy.
Figure 5.4 Open RAN technology‐related attacks.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Edge computing in edge networks architectures.
Figure 6.2 Security threats in edge‐centric IoV systems.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 6G specialized networks.
Figure 7.2 Privacy taxonomy in network slicing.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Illustration of industrial evolution.
Figure 8.2 The core elements of Industry 5.0.
Figure 8.3 Privacy focus on Industry 5.0.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 The convergence of digital, physical, and human worlds toward a M...
Figure 9.2 The seven segments of a Metaverse platform.
Figure 9.3 A proposal for Metaverse architecture.
Figure 9.4 Key Characteristics of Metaverse.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Evolution of society and industry.
Figure 10.2 Theoretical framework of Industry 4.0 driving digital transforma...
Figure 10.3 UN's SDGs for a sustainable (green, profitable, and fair) societ...
Figure 10.4 CPS: structural representation and function levels and correspon...
Figure 10.5 Selected technological enablers for realizing high‐performance w...
Figure 10.6 Illustration of integrated communication, control, computation, ...
Figure 10.7 Typical use cases of EH and WPT technologies.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Overview of IoV with the intelligent transport systems of 6G.
Figure 11.2 IoV security threat taxonomy.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Layers of Smart Grid 2.0.
Figure 12.2 Classification of cyber–physical threats.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 A taxonomy of privacy for interactions of the data subject with ...
Figure 13.2 Big data system and privacy considerations on different stages o...
Figure 13.3 Overview of data transfer project: (a) without data model, adapt...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Summary of 6G privacy.
Figure 14.2 Classification of privacy issues based on architectural layers o...
Figure 14.3 Categories of machine learning attacks in training and testing p...
Figure 14.4 Edge computing overview and attack scenarios on sensor devices a...
Figure 14.5 Major corporate fines from GDPR for privacy issues and breaches....
Figure 14.6 Application of XAI for privacy in B5G/6G AI models and questions...
Figure 14.7 Process flow of homomorphic encryption.
Figure 14.8 Privacy by design strategies implementation for privacy enhancem...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Standardization landscape relevant for prospective 6G security s...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Types of blockchain
Figure 16.2 Possible security attacks and challenges in 6G networks along wi...
Figure 16.3 Key security vulnerabilities of blockchainized 6G services.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Intelligent 6G architecture and role of AI in different layers....
Figure 17.2 AI for 6G.
Figure 17.3 AI in 6G architecture.
Figure 17.4 Role of AI to mitigate security issues of 6G technologies.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 XAI taxonomy. Premodel XAI explains the training data used for b...
Figure 18.2 Various XAI methods are currently popular among the research and...
Figure 18.3 XAI is expected to create waves in the implementation of AI/ML m...
Figure 18.4 6W analysis for explainable security in 6G. The procedure shown ...
Figure 18.5 Explainability reveals new information that “white‐box” and blac...
Figure 18.6 New trade‐off required between performance, security, and explai...
Figure 18.7 The XAI component becomes a new target and a new attack vector t...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 The ZSM framework reference architecture.
Figure 19.2 Possible threats and attacks on ZSM.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 The classic wiretap channel.
Figure 20.2 Application scenarios of PLS in 6G.
Figure 20.3 Basic IRS‐aided wiretap wireless communication system.
Figure 20.4 PLS in UAV‐assisted wireless communications.
Figure 20.5 Basic cell‐free massive MIMO wiretap network.
Figure 20.6 Hybrid RF/VLC network.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Role of quantum computing in 6G.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright
Dedicaiton
Acronyms
About the Authors
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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IEEE Press
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Jón Atli Benediktsson
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James Duncan
Amin Moeness
Desineni Subbaram Naidu
Behzad Razavi
Jim Lyke
Hai Li
Brian Johnson
Jeffrey Reed
Diomidis Spinellis
Adam Drobot
Tom Robertazzi
Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Security and Privacy Vision in 6G
A Comprehensive Guide
Pawani Porambage
VTT Technical Research Centre of FinlandUniversity of Oulu
Madhusanka Liyanage
University College DublinUniversity of Oulu
Copyright © 2023 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Porambage, Pawani, author. | Liyanage, Madhusanka, author.
Title: Security and privacy vision in 6G : a comprehensive guide / Pawani
Porambage, Madhusanka Liyanage.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley‐IEEE Press, [2023] | Includes
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023013357 (print) | LCCN 2023013358 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119875406 (cloth) | ISBN
9781119875413 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119875420 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: 6G mobile communication systems–Security measures. | Data
privacy.
Classification: LCC TK5103.252 .P67 2023 (print) | LCC TK5103.252 (ebook)
| DDC 621.3845/6–dc23/eng/20230417
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023013357
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023013358
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © KanawatTH/Shutterstock
To 6G Seekers
Acronyms
5G
fifth generation
6G
sixth generation of wireless networks
3D
three‐dimensional
ABS
aerial base station
AES
advanced encryption standard
AF
amplify‐and‐forward
AI
artificial intelligence
AN
artificial noise
APs
access points
BS
base station
CFR
channel frequency response
CIR
channel impulse response
CJ
cooperative jamming
CSI
channel state information
CPU
central processing unit
DF
decode‐and‐forward
EMI
electro‐magnetic interference
FEC
forward error correction
FD
full‐duplex
FSO
free space optics
HDBN
hierarchical dynamic Bayesian network
IRS
intelligent reflecting surface
IoT
Internet of Things
IoV
Internet of Vehicles
KPIs
key performance indicators
JCS
joint communications and sensing
LoS
line of sight
MEC
mobile‐edge computing
MIMO
multiple‐input multiple‐output
MISO
multiple‐input single‐output
MC
molecular communications
ML
machine learning
mMIMO
massive MIMO
mmWave
millimeter‐wave
mMTC
massive machine‐type communications
PLS
physical layer security
PLA
physical layer authentication
PSD
power spectral density
QoS
quality‐of‐service
RF
radio‐frequency
RIS
reconfigurable intelligent surfaces
RSS
received signal strength
SKG
secret key generation
SNR
signal‐to‐noise ratio
SOP
secrecy outage probability
TDD
time‐division duplexing
THz
Terahertz
UAVs
unmanned aerial vehicles
UEs
user equipment
URLLC
ultrareliable low‐latency communications
VLC
visible‐light communication
V2X
vehicular‐to‐everything
WBAN
wireless body‐area networks
About the Authors
Pawani Porambage, D.Sc., is Senior Scientist at the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland and a Docent at University of Oulu. She has over eleven years experience in network security research and has authored or co‐authored more than 70 publications.
Madhusanka Liyanage is an Assistant Professor/Ad Astra Fellow and Director of Graduate Research at the School of Computer Science, University College Dublin, Ireland. He is also an Adjunct Professor at the University of Oulu, Finland, the University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka, and the University of Sri Jarawardhenepura, Sri Lanka. He is also an expert consultant at the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) and a Funded Investigator of the Science Foundation Ireland CONNECT Research Centre, Ireland. He has over a decade of research experience in telecommunication network security. He has co‐authored over 150 publications, including three authored books, four edited books with Wiley, and two patents.
Foreword
With each generation of communication networks, digital technologies progress such that they transform the way we live and work. Improvements in network speed and latency make new applications possible and change what we are able to do with existing applications. As we look toward 6th‐generation (6G) networks, we see potential for new classes of real‐time, immersive, and tactile applications. The Internet will not only be a source of information but also a tool to actuate the world around us. Edge clouds will make the power of cloud computing local, an integral and activating part of the built environment of our homes, communities, and personal spaces. Higher performance edge connectivity is expected to usher in a new generation of connected vehicles, drones, and robotic devices, overcoming many of the limitations we are seeing in fully autonomous constructs. As part of this, networks will increasingly become distributed sensors and distributed artificial intelligence (AI) platforms, collecting and processing data relating to virtually everything that affects our lives.
While the power of data and AI that 6G will bring promises many benefits, it also carries significant risks that cannot be ignored. Security and privacy truly become paramount in a 6G‐empowered world. Historically, these issues have been treated as add‐on features or afterthought technologies in communication networks. If we want to properly center security and privacy for 6G, as we must, then a good starting point is a vision for security and privacy in 6G, which is exactly what this book accomplishes. For those who want to contribute to or understand the formation of 6G and 6G applications, this book is an essential first stop on their journey. Indeed, it provides a comprehensive overview of the technologies, architectures, and applications that will underpin and form 6G. Here the reader will gain a full picture of what is emerging for 6G from a pair of authors who are well situated within the maelstrom of the 6G technology R&D community. The reader is guided through the evolution of mobile technologies and the key enabling technologies of 6G that are vital to achieving the desired performance and functional enhancements. However, it is all done from the vantage point of security and privacy. The deployment‐focused perspectives of device security, Open‐RAN security (i.e. access networks), edge intelligence security (i.e. the mobile edge expanding to the core), and network slicing security (i.e. network management) cover all the architectural requirements of the 6G vision. In addition, the reader is introduced to major application trends including Industry 5.0, Metaverse, Society 5.0, Internet‐of‐Vehicles, and Smart Grid 2.0, and learns about the corresponding security implications. Importantly, the security requirements are aligned with the privacy obligations associated with the use of these systems and applications. Furthermore, the assimilated requisites for each are presented against the prevailing security standardization and legal frameworks for better clarity on their global compliance.
The latter half of the book delves more deeply into specific expert topics. Blockchain is one of the developing pillars for 6G due to its adaptability as a scalable and distributed security and privacy solution. It is widely discussed throughout, and a chapter is dedicated specifically to distributed ledger technologies and blockchain. Similar treatment is given to AI and machine learning (ML), explainable artificial intelligence (XAI), zero‐touch network and service management (ZSM), physical layer security (PLS), and quantum security. These chapters serve as succinct introductions and reference material for the respective topics and further examine the security and privacy aspects.
Whether seeking a first introduction to 6G or searching for specific details on emerging 6G technologies and applications, this book will prove an essential resource and one that properly brings focus to the critical issues of security and privacy. From this perspective, readers will find this a reliable reference for information across the entire breadth of what we refer to as 6G – one that will get heavy wear whether on the digital or physical bookshelf.
Dan KilperDirector and Principal Investigator
SFI CONNECT Center
Ireland
Preface
The evolution of wireless telecommunication networks started with the first‐generation cellular networks in the 1980s. Since then, many advancements have been introduced in 2G, 3G, and 4G cellular networks. Currently, we are experiencing the fifth‐generation (5G) wireless networks which are yet to evolve mostly on software‐based till the 2025 providing the full coverage. Even though 5G coverage is not yet being fully implemented, the vision for sixth generation (6G) mobile communication is already projected. It is envisioned that the 6G standardization will start somewhere in 2026 with a great touch of intelligent network orchestration and management. The most significant driving force of 6G vision is the added intelligence in the telecommunication networks. Similar to the network softwarization and cloudification which pave the way to 5G, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) techniques will lead the journey of 6G toward the intelligent telecommunication networks. 6G vision may include many novelties and advancements in terms of applications, architecture, technologies, policies, and standardizations. These novelties and added intelligence may also have a close fusion with the security and privacy aspects of 6G. On the other hand, the adversaries also become more powerful and intelligent and capable of creating new forms of security threats. As an example, detecting zero‐day attacks is always challenging, whereas prevention from their propagation is the most achievable mechanism. Therefore, 6G security needs to be architected to not only protect from the threats in the foreseen 6G networks but also to address the increased and evolving threat landscape. Adequate security should include prediction, detection, mitigation, and prevention mechanisms, and the ability to limit the propagation of such vulnerabilities, with greater intelligence, visibility, and real‐time protection. It is also equally significant to ensure privacy and trust in the respective domains and among the stakeholders. Security and privacy are two closely coupled topics where security relates to the safeguarding of the actual data and privacy ensures the covering up of the identities related to that data.
The security and privacy considerations in the envisioned 6G networks need to be addressed with respect to many areas. There are specific security issues that may arise with the novel 6G architectural framework as stated above. In addition to that, there are many hypes on blending novel technologies such as blockchain, visible light communication (VLC), TeraHertz (THz), and quantum computing features in 6G intelligent networking paradigms in such a way to tackle the security and privacy issues. Therefore, 6G security considerations need to be also discussed with respect to the physical layer security (PLS), network information security, application security, and deep learning related security. This leads to a need to strengthen certain security functional areas. Attack resistance needs to be a design consideration when defining new 6G protocols and key performance indicators. Security and privacy are cornerstones for 6G to become a platform for the Networked Society. Cellular systems pioneered the creation of security solutions for public communication, providing a vast, trustworthy ecosystem – 6G will drive new requirements due to new business and trust models, new service delivery models, an evolved threat landscape and an increased concern for privacy.
Primary market: This book will be of key interest for the following:
Telecommunication researchers
: 6G security and privacy are two key areas of interest for telecommunications researchers as security challenges outpaces the traditional tools available to market and to introduce ground‐breaking solutions. This book will offer a single source of all the security‐related topics for 6G researchers and provide leads for basics of 6G security and privacy vision.
Academics
: Mobile network security has already been an area of research and study for major educational institutions across the world. At the very initial stage of 6G evolution as the future of mobile networks, there is no such reference and book available that academics can use for teaching this critical area of interest.
Mobile network operator
s
(
MNO
s)
will be looking to embrace 6G technology to offer new and state‐of‐the‐art secure services to their customers. This book will offer the required guidelines, methods, tools, and mechanisms to secure their network while getting ready to reach the next generation of 6G.
Mobile network virtual operator
s
(
MVNO
s)
would like to equally reach the extremely large customer base who is going to switch to 6G networks. Security is key requirement while connecting MVNOs with the core networks of large operators.
Technology architects
: 6G is going to surpass the traditional mobility borders and is going to have an equal impact to enterprises and organizations who are planning to transform into digital businesses. It would be critical for architects to start aligning their technology and security architectures to the anticipated future needs of 6G standards. This book offers a roadmap and the tentative resources to design and build a security architecture and maintain it.
IoT service providers
: The trend toward 6G is moving from
Internet of Things
(
IoT
) to
Internet of Everything
(
IoE
). Most of the daily consumable devices are becoming more advanced with a greater connectivity and performance levels. The devices may encounter new security threats and users will be more privacy aware. Therefore, the IoT service providers in this domain should be well aware of the novel technological advancements and 6G trends together with the security and privacy considerations to provide consistent services.
1. Book Organization
This book provides a comprehensive overview about the security and privacy aspects related to 6G vision and it is composed of six parts. The first part of the book is the introduction with three chapters that describe evolution of mobile networks, high‐level overview about key 6G technologies, and 6G security vision. Part II of the book includes the security and privacy considerations with respect to the architectural phases of 6G mobile network. The chapters are allocated for 6G device security, open‐RAN and RAN‐Core convergence, edge intelligence and specialized 6G networks, and network slicing. Part III of the book describes the most compelling 6G application areas and their security concerns. The applications are discussed in three main areas such as Society 5.0, Internet of Vehicles, smart grid 2.0. Part IV is devoted for the privacy considerations of 6G including detailed analysis on challenges, issues, and potential solutions. Moreover, Part IV includes one chapter for legal aspects and security standardization. In Part V, the chapters are aligned with the security considerations in 6G technologies in terms of Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLTs) and Blockchain, AI/ML, Explainable AI, Zero Touch Network and Service Management, Physical Layer Security, and quantum security. Finally, we end the book with the concluding remarks in Part VI.
6 April 2023
Pawani Porambage
Oulu Finland
Acknowledgments
The book is focused on security and privacy vision of 6G and formed with the valuable inputs received from many people. We would like to thank all those who contributed to selected chapters of the book. In particular we very much appreciate the help of Dr. Onel Alcaraz Lopez, Dr. Diana Moya Osorio, Proff. Kimmo Halunen, Sara Nikula, Jose Vega Sanchez, Edgar Olivo, Dr. Andre N. Barreto, Saeid Sheikhi, Chamara Sandeepa, Yushan Senavirathne, Charithri Yapa, Thulitha Senavirathna, Tharaka Hewa, Dr. Pasika Ranaweera, Dr. Anshuman Kalla and Dr. Chamitha de Alwis for additional contribution to some chapters.
The initial idea for this book originated during our joint research work in 6G Flagship and the research articles about 6G security and privacy published in IEEE Open Journal of Communications and EuCNC (European Conference on Networks and Communications) and 6G Summit. The concept of publishing this book to facilitate 6G Security related studies, research, development, and standardization came into light during our research work in projects such as the European Union funded SPATIAL project, Academy of Finland funded 6Genesis project, and Science Foundation Ireland funded CONNECT phase 2 project. We would also like to acknowledge all the partners of those projects. Moreover, we thank the anonymous reviewers who evaluated the proposal and gave plenty of useful suggestions for improving it. We also thank Sandra Grayson, Juliet Booker and Becky Cowan from John Wiley and Sons for help and support in getting the book published.
Also, the Authors are grateful to VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, School of Computer Science at University College Dublin, Centre for Wireless Communication (CWC) at University of Oulu, for hosting the 6G Security related research projects which helped us to gain the fundamental knowledge for this book. Last but not least, we would like to thank our core and extended families and our friends for their love and support in getting the book completed.
Pawani Porambage
Madhusanka Liyanage
Part IIntroduction
1Evolution of Mobile Networks
This chapter has focused on the evolution, driving trends, and key requirements of future 6G wireless systems. After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand the evolution of mobile networks from 0G to 6G.
Understand the present context of 6G development.
1.1 Introduction
While 5G mobile communication networks are deployed worldwide, multitude of new applications and use‐cases driven by current trends are already being conceived, which challenges the capabilities of 5G. This has motivated researchers to rethink and work toward the next‐generation mobile communication networks “hereafter 6G” [1, 2]. The 6G mobile communication networks are expected to mark a disruptive transformation to the mobile networking paradigm by reaching extreme network capabilities to cater to the demands of the future data‐driven society.
So far, mobile networks have evolved through five generations during the last four decades. A new generation of mobile networks emerges every 10 years, packing more technologies and capabilities to empower humans to enhance their work and lifestyle. The precellphone era before the 1980s is marked as the zeroth‐generation (0G) of mobile communication networks that provided simple radio communication functionality with devices such as walkie‐talkies [3]. The first‐generation (1G) introduced publicly and commercially available cellular networks in the 1980s. These networks provided voice communication using analog mobile technology [4]. The second generation (2G) of mobile communication networks marked the transition of mobile networks from analog to digital. It supported basic data services such as short message services in addition to voice communication [5]. The third‐generation (3G) introduced improved mobile broadband services and enabled new applications such as multimedia message services, video calls, and mobile TV [6]. Further improved mobile broadband services, all‐IP communication, Voice Over IP (VoIP), ultrahigh definition video streaming, and online gaming were introduced in the fourth‐generation (4G) [7].
5G mobile communication networks are already being deployed worldwide. 5G supports enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) to deliver peak data rates up to 10 Gbps. Furthermore, ultra Reliable Low Latency Communication (uRLLC) minimizes the delays up to 1 ms, while massive Machine‐Type Communication (mMTC) supports over 100 more devices per unit area compared to 4G. The expected network reliability and availability are over 99.999% [8]. Network softwarization is a prominent 5G technology that enables dynamicity, programmability, and abstraction of networks [9]. Capabilities of 5G have enabled novel applications such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), mixed reality (MR), autonomous vehicles, Internet of Things (IoT), and Industry 4.0 [10, 11].
Recent developments in communications have introduced many new concepts such as edge intelligence (EI), beyond sub 6 GHz to THz communication, non‐orthogonal multiple access (NOMA), large intelligent surfaces (LIS), swarm networks, and self‐sustaining networks (SSN) [12, 13]. These concepts are evolving to become full‐fledged technologies that can power future generations of communication networks. On the other hand, applications such as holographic telepresence (HT), unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), extended reality (XR), smart grid 2.0, Industry 5.0, space, and deep‐sea tourism are expected to emerge as mainstream applications of future communication networks. However, requirements of these applications such as ultra‐high data rates, real‐time access to powerful computing resources, extremely low‐latency, precision localization and sensing, and extremely high reliability and availability surpass the network capabilities promised by 5G [14, 15]. IoT, which is enabled by 5G, is even growing to become Internet of Everything (IoE) that intends to connect massive numbers of sensors, devices, and cyber‐physical systems (CPS) beyond the capabilities of 5G. This has inspired the research community to envision 6G mobile communication networks. 6G is expected to harness the developments of new communication technologies, fully support emerging applications, connect a massive number of devices, and provide real‐time access to powerful computational and storage resources.
1.2 6G Mobile Communication Networks
6G networks are expected to be more capable, intelligent, reliable, scalable, and power‐efficient to satisfy all the expectations that cannot be realized with 5G. 6G is also required to meet any new requirements, such as support for new technologies, applications, and regulations, raised in the coming decade. Figure 1.1 illustrates the evolution of mobile networks, elaborating key features of each mobile network generation. Envisaged 6G requirements, vision, enablers, and applications are also highlighted to formulate an overview of the present understanding of 6G.
Figure 1.1 Evolution of mobile networks from 0G to 6G.
Source: vectorplus/Adobe Stock; hakule/Adobe Stock; ostapenko/123RF; lim̲pix/Shutterstock.
Summary: THz communications are expected to pave the way for Tbps data rate to meet the demands of future applications and have the potential to strengthen backhaul networks. Nevertheless, it suffers from high propagation losses and demands Line of Sight (LoS) for communications. More efforts are required to understand the behavior of THz signals and better channel models are required.
1.2.1 6G as Envisioned Today
6G mobile communication networks, as envisioned today, are expected to provide extreme peak data rates over 1 Tbps. The end‐to‐end delays will be imperceptible and lie even beneath 0.1 ms. 6G networks will provide access to powerful edge intelligence that has processing delays falling below 10 ns. Network availability and reliability are expected to go beyond 99.99999%. An extremely high connection density of over devices/ is expected to be supported to facilitate IoE. The spectrum efficiency of 6G will be over 5 than 5G, while support for extreme mobility up to 1000 kmph is expected [12].
It is envisioned that the evolution of 6G will focus around a myriad of new requirements such as Further enhanced Mobile Broadband (FeMBB), ultra‐massive Machine‐Type Communication (umMTC), Mobile BroadBand and Low‐Latency (MBBLL), and massive Low‐Latency Machine Type communication (mLLMT). These requirements will be enabled through emerging technologies such as THz spectrum, federated learning (FL), edge artificial intelligence (AI), compressive sensing (CS), blockchain/distributed ledger technologies (DLT), and 3D networking. Moreover, 6G will facilitate emerging applications such as UAVs, HT, IoE, Industry 5.0, and collaborative autonomous driving. In light of this vision, many new research work and projects are themed toward developing 6G vision, technologies, use cases, applications, and standards [1, 2].
1.3 Key Driving Trends Toward 6G
A new generation of mobile communication has emerged every 10 years over the last four decades to cater to society's growing technological and societal needs. This trend is expected to continue, and 6G is seen on the horizon to meet the requirements of the 2030 society [16, 17]. The technologies, trends, requirements, and expectations that force the shift from 5G toward the next generation of networks are identified as 6G driving trends. These driving trends will shape 6G into the key enabler of a more connected and capable 2030 society.
This chapter discusses the key 6G driving trends elaborating why and how each trend demands a new generation of communication networks. Figure 1.2 illustrates the 6G driving trends that are discussed in this section.
Expansion of IoTs
: It is expected that the number of IoT devices in the world will grow up to 24 billion by 2030. Moreover, the revenue related to IoT will hit the market capitalization of US$ 1.5 trillion by 2030
[20]
.
Massive availability of small data
: Due to the anticipated popularity of 6G‐based IoT devices and new 6G‐IoT services, 6G networks will trend to generate an increasingly high volume of data. Most of such data will be small, dynamic, and heterogeneous in nature [
12
,
21
].
Availability of self‐sustained networks
: 6G mobile systems need to be energy self‐sustainable, both at the infrastructure side and at the device side, to provide uninterrupted connectivity in every corner of the world. The development of energy harvesting capabilities will extend the life cycle of both network infrastructure devices and end devices such as IoE devices [
22
,
23
].
Convergence of communication, sensing, control, localization, and computing
: Development of sensor technologies and direct integration of them with mobile networks accompanied by low‐energy communication capabilities will lead to advanced 6G networks [
12
,
24
]. Such a network will be able to provide sensing and localization services in addition to the exciting communication and computing features [
12
,
24
,
25
].
Zero energy IoT
: Generally, IoT devices will consume significantly more energy for communication than sensing and processing
[26]
. The development of ultra‐low‐power communication mechanisms and efficient energy harvesting mechanisms will lead to self‐energy sustainable or zero energy IoT devices
[26]
.
More bits, spectrum, and reliability
: The advancement of wireless communication technologies, including coding schemes and antenna technologies, will allow to utilize new spectrum as well as reliably send more information bits over existing wireless channels [
12
,
16
].
Gadget‐free communication
: The integration of an increasing number of smart and intelligent devices and digital interfaces in the environment will lead to a change from gadget‐centric to user‐centric or gadget‐free communication model. The hyperconnected digital surroundings will form an “omnipotential” atmosphere around the user, providing all the information, tools, and services that a user needs in his or her everyday life [
27
–
29
].
Increasing elderly population
: Due to factors such as advanced healthcare facilities and the development of new medicines, the world's older population continues to grow at an unprecedented rate. According to the “An Aging World: 2015” report, nearly 17% (1.6 billion) of the world's population will be aged 65 and over by 2050
[19]
.
Emergence of new technologies
: By 2030, the world will experience new technological advancements such as stand‐alone cars, AI‐powered automated devices, smart clothes, printed bodies in 3D, humanoid robots, smart grid 2.0, industry 5.0, and space travel [
12
,
16
]. 6G will be the main underline communication infrastructure to realize these technologies.
Figure 1.2 6G driving trends.
Source: [18, 19]/IEEE.
1.4 6G Requirements/Vision
To realize new applications, 6G networks have to provide extended network capabilities beyond 5G networks. Figure 1.3 depicts such requirements which need to be satisfied by 6G networks to enable future applications.
Figure 1.3 6G requirements.
As adopted from various studies [30–34], 6G networking requirements can be divided into different categories as follows:
Further enhanced Mobile Broadband (FeMBB)
: The mobile broadband speed has to be further improved beyond the limits of 5G and provide the peak data rate at Terabits per second (Tbps) level. Moreover, the user‐experienced data rate should also be improved up to Gigabits per second (Gbps) level
[35]
.
Ultra‐massive Machine‐Type Communication (umMTC)
: Connection density will further increase in 6G due to the popularity of IoT devices and the novel concept of IoE. These devices communicate with each other and offer collaborative services in an autonomous manner [
36
,
37
].
Enhanced Ultra‐Reliable, Low‐Latency Communication (ERLLC/eURLLC)
: The E2E latency in 6G should be further reduced up to s level to enable new high‐end real‐time 6G applications
[17]
.
Extremely Low‐Power Communications
(
ELPC
)
: The network energy efficiency of 6G will be improved by 10 than 5G and 100 than 4G. It will enable extremely low‐power communication channels for resource constrained IoT devices [
17
,
38
].
Long‐Distance High‐Mobility Communications
(
LDHMC
)
: With the support of fully integrated satellite technologies, 6G will provide communication for extreme places such as space and the deep sea. Moreover, AI‐based automated mobility management systems and proactive migration systems will be able to support seamless mobility at speed beyond 1000 kmph
[35]
.
High‐Spectrum Efficiency
: The spectrum efficiency will be further improved in 6G up to 5 times as in 4G and nearly two times as in 5G networks
[17]
.
High‐Area Traffic Capacity
: The exponential growth of IoT will demand the improvement of the area traffic capacity by 100 times than 5G networks. It will lead up to 1 Gbps traffic per square meter in 6G networks.
Massive Low‐Latency Machine Type (mLLMT)
: In 6G, URLLC and mMTC services should be linked, and novel unified solutions are needed to meet the challenge of offering efficient and fast massive connectivity.
Mobile broad bandwidth and low‐latency (MBBLL), massive broad bandwidth machine type (mBBMT), massive, low‐latency machine type (mLLMT)
1.4.1 6G Development Timeline
6G developments are expected to progress along with the deployment and commercialization of 5G networks, and the final developments of 4G long‐term evolution (LTE), being LTE‐C, which followed LTE‐Advanced and LTE‐B [39]. The vision for 6G is envisaged to be framed by 2022–2023 to set forth the 6G requirements and evaluate the 6G development, technologies, standards, etc. Standardization bodies such as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) are expected to develop the specifications to develop 6G by 2026–2027 [39]. Network operators will start 6G research and development (R&D) work by this time to do 6G network trials by 2028–2029, to launch 6G communication networks by 2030 [14, 39–41]. Global 6G development initiatives are illustrated in Figure 1.5, while the expected timeline for 6G development, standardization, and launch is presented in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 Expected timeline of 6G development, standardization, and launch [14, 39–41].
Figure 1.5 Global 6G development initiatives.
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2Key 6G Technologies
The Chapter 1 has focused on the evolution, driving trends, and key requirements of future 6G wireless systems. Several key technologies have been proposed to realize 6G, and these technologies will be discussed in this chapter. After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Gain an overview of key technologies in future 6G wireless systems.
Explore each of the key technologies with a preliminary, the role in 6G, and a review of representative studies.
2.1 Radio Network Technologies
In this section, we present important 6G radio network technologies, including THz communications and nonterrestrial networks toward 3D Networking.
2.1.1 Beyond Sub 6 GHz Toward THz Communication
The rapid increase in wireless data traffic is estimated to have a sevenfold increase in mobile data traffic from 2016 to 2021 [1]. Wide radio bands such as millimeter‐waves (up to 300 GHz) are expected to fulfill the demand for data in 5G networks. However, applications such as holographic telepresence (HT), brain–computer interfaces (BCIs), and extended reality (XR) are expected to require data rates in the range of Tbps, which would be difficult with mmWave systems [2]. This requires exploring the Terahertz (THz) frequency band (0.1–10 THz). This type of communication will especially be useful for ultrahigh data rate communication with zero error rates within short distances.
6G is expected to deliver over a 1000 increase in the data rates compared to 5G to meet the target requirement of 1 Tbps. More spectrum resources beyond sub 6 GHz are explored by researchers to cater to this significant increase in data rates. Early 6G systems are expected to bank on sub 6 GHz mmWave wireless networks. However, 6G is expected to progress by exploiting frequencies beyond mmWave, at the THz band [3]. The size of 6G cells is expected to shrink further from small cells in 5G toward tiny cells that will have a radius of only a few tens of meters. Thus, 6G networks will require to have a new architectural design and mobility management techniques that can meet denser network deployments than 5G [4]. 6G transceivers will also be required to support integrated frequency bands ranging from microwave to THz spectra. The applications of THz for 6G networks are illustrated in Figure 2.1, where THz communication is used for high‐speed transmissions between radio towers and mobile devices, integrated access and backhaul networks, and high‐speed satellite communication links.
Figure 2.1 Promising scenarios in 6G enabled by THz communication: (a) high‐speed transmission, (b) integrated access and backhaul networks, and (c) high‐speed satellite communication links.
THz waves are located between mmWave and optical frequency bands. This allows the usage of electronics‐based and photonics‐based technologies in future communication networks. As for electronic devices, nanofabrication technologies can facilitate the progress of semiconductor devices that operates in the THz frequency band. The electronics in these devices are made from indium, gallium, arsenide, phosphide, and various silicon‐based technologies [5]. A scalable silicon architecture allows synthesis and shaping of THz wave signals in a single microchip [6]. The feeding mechanism of optical fibers to THz circuits is prominent to achieve higher data rates in terms of photonics devices. Conventional materials used at lower frequencies in the microwave and mmWave ranges are not efficient enough for high‐frequency wireless communication. Devices made from such materials exhibit large losses at the THz frequency range. THz waves require electromagnetically reconfigurable materials. In this context, graphene is identified as a suitable candidate to reform THz electromagnetic waves by using thin graphene layers . Graphene‐based THz wireless communication components have exhibited promising results in terms of generating, modulating, and detecting THz waves [9]. THz wireless communication allows small antenna sizes to achieve both diversity gain and antenna directivity gain using multiple‐input multiple‐output (MIMO). For example, ultra‐Massive MIMO was introduced in [10] as an approach to increase the communication distance in THz wireless communication systems.
THz band channel is considered highly frequency‐selective [11]. These channels suffer from high atmospheric absorption, atmospheric attenuation, and free‐space path loss. This requires the development of new channel models to mimic the behavior of THz communication channels [1]. The work in [12] proposed the first statistical model for THz channels. This model depends on performing extensive ray‐tracing simulations to obtain statistical parameters of the channel. Recent studies in provided more accurate channel models. Various research works have also focused on applications of THz communication. A hybrid radio frequency and free‐space optical system is presented in [17], where a THz/optical link is envisaged as a suitable method for future wireless communication. In addition, Mollahasani and Onur [18] present using THz links in data centers to improve performance while achieving massive savings in minimizing the cable usage.
Summary: THz communications are expected to pave the way for Tbps data rate to meet the demands of future applications and have the potential to strengthen backhaul networks. Nevertheless, it suffers from high propagation losses and demands Line of Sight (LoS) for communications. More efforts are required to understand the behavior of THz signals, and better channel models are required.
2.1.2 Nonterrestrial Networks Toward 3D Networking
In conventional ground‐centric mobile networks, the functioning of base stations is optimized to primarily cater to the needs of ground uses. Moreover, the elevation angle provided to the antennas at ground base stations focuses on the ground user for better directivity and hence cannot support aerial users [19]. Such a mobile network allows marginal vertical movement (i.e. above and below the ground surface), thus predominantly offering two‐dimensional (2D) connectivity. Nonterrestrial networks expand the 2D connectivity by adding altitude as the third dimension [20–22
