Selenium Contamination in Water E-Book
167,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The contamination of environment and water resources by Selenium (Se) and its oxyanions from various sources are emerging contaminants of significant health and environmental concern. The primary sources include agricultural drainage water, mine drainage, residues from fossil fuels, thermoelectric power plants, oil refineries, and metal ores. Various methods and technologies have been developed which focus on the treatment of selenium-containing waters and wastewater. High concentrations of selenium in water cause various adverse impact to human health, such as carcinogenic, genotoxic, and cytotoxic effects. But in the lower concentrations, it is a useful constituent of the biological system. The range between toxicity and deficiency of selenium is minimal (40 to 400 mug per day), due to its dual nature. Selenium Contamination in Watercontains the latest status and information on selenium's origin, its chemistry and its toxicity to humans. The book represents a comprehensive and advanced reference book for students, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in working in the field of metalloids, in particular selenium. A special emphasis is given on its geological distribution, monitoring techniques, and remedial technologies. As such, the authors critically analyze the various techniques used for the monitoring and removal of selenium from water. Featuring chapters arranged according to the major themes of the latest research, with specific case-studies from industrial experiences of selenium detection and removal, Selenium Contamination in Waterwill be particularly valued by researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in working in the field of metalloids including selenium.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 926
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Contributors
1 Mapping of Selenium Toxicity and TechnologicalAdvances for its Removal
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Selenium Reduction Technologies Used in India
1.3 Selenium Reduction Technologies Used in China
1.4 Selenium Research Dynamics Using AI Techniques
1.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Conflict of Interest
References
2 Selenium Distribution and Chemistry in Water and Soil
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Environmental Distribution and Forms
2.3 Species of Selenium
2.4 Interaction of Selenium with Organic Matters and Microorganisms
2.5 Interaction of Selenium with Clay Mineral
2.6 Conclusion
References
3 Occurrence and Sources of Selenium Contaminationin Soil and Water and its Impacts on Environment
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sources and Occurrence of Se in the Environment
3.3 Drinking Water Standards and Criteria
3.4 Effect of Se in Human, Terrestrial, and Aquatic Life
3.5 Industrial Applications
3.6 Conclusions
References
4 Selenium Toxicity in Domestic Animals
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sources of Selenium to Domestic Animals
4.3 Toxicopathology of Selenium in Different Domestic Animals
4.4 Control Measures of Selenium Toxicity
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 Positive and Negative Impacts of Seleniumon Human Health and Phytotoxicity
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Exposure of Selenium in the Environment
5.3 Effect of Selenium on Human Health
5.4 Selenium Phytotoxicity
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Various Analytical Techniques for Se Determination in Different Matrices
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Spectroscopic Techniques
6.3 Chromatographic Methods
6.4 Electroanalytical Methods
6.5 Electrochemical Methods
6.6 Other Analytical Methods
6.7 X‐Ray Techniques
6.8 Conclusions
References
7 Voltammetric Sensors and Materials for Selenium Detection in Water
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Voltammetric Method: Basic Principles and Mechanism
7.3 Type of Voltammetric Methods for Selenium Detection in Water
7.4 Electrodes and Electrode Materials/Modifiers for Voltammetric Detection of Selenium in Water: Designing and Sensing Performance
7.5 Realization of Voltammetric Sensors for Selenium Detection in Water: Concluding Remarks and Future Scope
References
8 Optical Sensors and Materials for Selenium Determination in Water
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Health Effects and Sources of Selenium Toxicity
8.3 Sensing Principles and Design of Optical Sensory Probes
8.4 Advances in Optical Sensory Probes: A Meta‐Analysis on Optical Materials
8.5 Commercial Optical Sensors for Selenium Analysis
8.6 Summary and Future Outlook
References
9 Biosensors for the Detection of Selenium in Environment
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biosensors and Their Types
9.3 Biosensors for Selenium Detection
9.4 Conclusion
References
10 Physical and Chemical Methods for Selenium Removal
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Methods Available for Se Removal
10.3 Physical Methods for Se Removal
10.4 Chemical Methods for Se Removal
10.5 Combination of Physical and Chemical Methods
10.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
11 Chemical Methods for Removal and Treatment of Selenium from Water
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Selenium Removal Methods
11.3 Chemical Treatment
11.4 Adsorption
11.5 Combination of Adsorption and Ion Exchange
11.6 Combination of Adsorption and Reduction
11.7 Precipitation and Reduction
11.8 Bioreactor (Reduction)
11.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
12 Biological Treatment Advancements for the Remediation of Selenium from Wastewater
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Bacteria‐Mediated Selenium Removal
12.3 Algae‐Mediated Se Removal
12.4 Phytoremediation
12.5 Remediation of Selenium by Fungi
12.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
13 Nanomaterials for the Remediation of Selenium in Water
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Various Selenium Remediation Techniques
13.3 Selenium Removal Using Adsorption
13.4 Nano Materials for Remediation of Selenium in Water
13.5 Conclusions and Future Trends
References
14 Harnessing Biogeochemical Principals for Remediation of Selenium‐Contaminated Soils
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Selenium as a Nutrient for Humans and Animals
14.3 Selenium Toxicity to Humans
14.4 Selenium Toxicity in Plants
14.5 Selenium Toxicity in Animals
14.6 Sources of Selenium: Natural and Anthropogenic
14.7 Concentrations of Selenium in Terrestrial, Aquatic, and Atmospheric Environments
14.8 Selenium Chemistry and Movement in the Environment
14.9 Conventional Remediation Techniques
14.10 Nanomaterial‐Based and Innovative Remediation Techniques
14.11 Conclusions
References
15 Membrane Separation Technologies for Selenium
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Se Resources
15.3 Health Hazards
15.4 Membrane Applications
15.5 Commercial Aspect
15.6 Conclusion
References
16 Intensifying Approaches for Removal of Selenium
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Selenium
16.3 Selenium and Wastewater
16.4 Process Intensification
16.5 Process Intensification in Wastewater Treatment
16.6 Conventional and Intensified Ways for Selenium Removal
16.7 Discussion
References
17 The Emerging Threat of Selenium Pollution
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Understanding of Selenium
17.3 Toxicity of Selenium
17.4 Selenium Pollution
17.5 Identification of Vulnerable Areas
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Selenium contamination status in Indian States.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Recommended daily nutrient requirement of selenium (μg/d) as per WH...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Drinking water and surface water limits of different countries (EPA...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Presence of Se (mg/kg) in different foods of different countries.
Table 4.2 RDI of selenium ingestion for different animals.
Table 4.3 Se toxicity in poultry birds.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 List of health‐associated selenoproteins with known functions.
Table 5.2 Case histories of selenium toxicity.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Excessive selenium concentrations in the environment (He et al. 201...
Table 6.2 Selenium monitoring parameters for drinking water and effluent disc...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 The summarized different type of electrodes with correspondence the...
Table 7.2 The summarized different type of electrodes including their corresp...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Selenium species and their occurrence in the environment.
Table 8.2 Selenium species and their occurrence in the environment.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Different biosensors for selenium detection and their properties.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Various physical and chemical methods used for the removal of Se.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Different selenium species existing in the environment.
Table 11.2 Methods/media for treatment/reduction of selenium from water/waste...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Treatment technologies utilizing bacterial species for the treatme...
Table 12.2 Transgenic plants for the phytoremediation of Se.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Nanomaterials reported for selenium removal.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Summary of conventional and innovative remediation methods.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Main selenium resources and its average concentration.
Table 15.2 All membrane types used by Chabane et al.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Various uses of selenium.
Table 17.2 Significance of different sources for selenium pollution.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Emerging research field for selenium removal technologies publish...
Figure 1.2 Selenium research publication trends.
Figure 1.3 Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and Deep Learning mech...
Figure 1.4 Representative most influential publications for selenium removal...
Figure 1.5 Upper panel: word dynamics for India. Lower panel: word dynamics ...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 E‐pH diagram of selenium in soils
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Global refinery production for 2018 and 2019 (USGS 2020).
Figure 3.2 Global consumption of Se (USGS 2020).
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 (a and b) Symptoms of selenosis in pigs (unthriftiness (a) and se...
Figure 4.2 (a) The liver section of poultry birds that had ingested selenium...
Figure 4.3 (a) Alopecia; (b) pad lesions; (c) sternal position; (d) hypertro...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic representation of selenium cycle in the environment.
Figure 5.2 Beneficial effect of selenium in humans.
Figure 5.3 Classification based on Se accumulation.
Figure 5.4 Beneficial effect of Se in plants.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Major selenium source discharges, biomagnification, and environme...
Figure 6.2 Schematic diagram of advanced analytical practices available to s...
Figure 6.3 Series of selenium concentrations in different aquatic mining eff...
Figure 6.4 Different methods for elimination of selenium from contaminated w...
Figure 6.5 Schematic diagram displaying process outlines and addition techno...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Sources of selenium pollution in aquatic systems.
Figure 7.2 Schematic illustration of the working principle of a voltammetric...
Figure 7.3 Effect of various sensing factors at 50 ppb selenium (IV) concent...
Figure 7.4 Electrochemical response of bare GCE and GCE‐in 5 mM [Fe(CN)
6
]
3−/
...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 (a) International scenario of selenium toxicity (Lemly 2004) and ...
Figure 8.2 Health effects of selenium toxicity based on concentration.
Figure 8.3 UV/Vis Spectral and color change due to change in morphology of s...
Figure 8.4 (a) Change in PL spectra of CQDs with respect to increasing selen...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Classification of biosensors on the basis of recognition/biologic...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Schematic description of different forms of selenium.
Figure 10.2 Graphical illustration of different techniques available for the...
Figure 10.3 Osmotic pressure in a reverse osmosis (RO) system.
Figure 10.4 (a) Percentage Se removal and adsorption capacity (mg/g) with be...
Figure 10.5 (a) Conversion of Se (VI) as a function of time over different t...
Figure 10.6 (a) Graphical illustration of electrochemical removal of selenat...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Selenium cycle in the environment.
Figure 11.2 (a) Adsorption of Se(IV), selenite ions with co‐existing competi...
Figure 11.3 Effect of competing ions on Se(IV) adsorption (a) V(V), vanadium...
Figure 11.4 Response surface method (RSM) analysis concerning Se(VI) abateme...
Figure 11.5 Abatement of different contaminants including Se from FGD using ...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Simplified representation of the biochemical cycle of selenium a...
Figure 12.2 Schematic representation of Se uptake by algal cells and their m...
Figure 12.3 Selenium uptake, accumulation, translocation, assimilation, and ...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Natural and anthropogenic sources of selenium in soil.
Figure 14.2 Speciation and mobility of selenium in the environment.
Figure 14.3 Eh‐pH diagram for selenium and main speciation found under varyi...
Figure 14.4 Varieties of phytoremediation possible for soil metal contaminan...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Schematic view of a hybrid electrocoagulation/microfiltration (M...
Figure 15.2 The structure of a TFC FO membrane made of polyethersulfone (as ...
Figure 15.3 Schematic view of the Na‐CQD modified TFN membrane.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Major sources of selenium.
Figure 16.2 Forms of selenium.
Figure 16.3 Major applications of selenium.
Figure 16.4 Major sources of selenium wastewater.
Figure 16.5 Glimpses of defining process intensification.
Figure 16.6 Classification of process intensification.
Figure 16.7 Various methods for treatment of selenium wastewater.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Flowchart showing mechanism of selenium toxicity.
Figure 17.2 Map showing distribution of Seleniferous soil in India.
Figure 17.3 Map showing selenium‐polluted districts in India with their sour...
Figure 17.4 Map of potential vulnerable areas to selenium pollution based on...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Contributors
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
Pages
iii
iv
v
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
Selenium Contamination in Water
Edited by
Pooja Devi
CSIR‐ CSIO, India
Pardeep Singh
PGDAV College, University of Delhi, India
Arindam Malakar
Nebraska Water Center, University of Nebraska, USA
Daniel Snow
Nebraska Water Center, University of Nebraska, USA
This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Pooja Devi, Pardeep Singh, Arindam Malakar, and Daniel Snow to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered OfficesJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial Office9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyThe contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting scientific method, diagnosis, or treatment by physicians for any particular patient. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Devi, Pooja, 1988– editor. | Singh, Pardeep, editor. | Malakar, Arindam, editor. | Snow, Daniel (Daniel D.), editor. | John Wiley & Sons, Inc., publisher.Title: Selenium contamination in water / edited by Pooja Devi, Pardeep Singh, Arindam Malakar, Daniel Snow.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2021. | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020047563 (print) | LCCN 2020047564 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119693451 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119693536 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119693543 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Water–Pollution. | Selenium. | Drinking water–Contamination. | Soils–Selenium content.Classification: LCC TD427.S38 S44 2021 (print) | LCC TD427.S38 (ebook) | DDC 628.1/68–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020047563LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020047564
Cover Design: WileyCover Images: Reproduced from Y.V. Nancharaiah, P.N.L. Lens, Ecology and biotechnology of selenium‐respiring bacteria, MMBR 79: 61–80. doi: 10.1128/MMBR.00037‐14/ with permission of the publisher.
To My Beloved, Disciplined, Courteous, and Devoted Student,Late Mr. Rishabh Jain,May your Soul Rest in Peace Wherever You Are
LATE MR. RISHABH JAIN30.03.1991 – 10.01.2021
List of Contributors
Pinki Rani AgrawalCSIR-National Physical LaboratoryNew DelhiIndia
Academy of Scientific and InnovativeResearch (AcSIR)GhaziabadIndia
Abolfazl ArjmandiDepartment of Chemical EngineeringBabol Noshirvani University ofTechnologyBabolIran
Amit BansiwalSophisticated Environmental AnalyticalFacility (SEAF)CSIR-National Environmental EngineeringResearch Institute (CSIR-NEERI)NagpurMaharashtraIndia
Lavisha BashambuDr. S. S. Bhatnagar University Instituteof Chemical Engineeringand TechnologyPanjab UniversityChandigarhIndia
Vijay K. BhartiDRDO-Defence Institute of High AltitudeResearchLehLadakhIndia
Madhulika BhatiPrincipal Scientist CSIR – NationalInstitute of ScienceTechnology and Development Studies(CSIR-NISTADS)New DelhiIndia
Jennifer CooperDepartment of Agronomy and HorticultureUniversity of NebraskaLincolnNebraskaUSA
Rashmi DahakeCSIR-National Environmental EngineeringResearch InstituteNagpurMaharashtraIndia
Academy of Scientific and InnovativeResearch (AcSIR)GhaziabadIndia
Arup GiriDRDO-Defence Institute of High AltitudeResearchLehLadakhIndia
Rahul HarshwardhanOffice of Registrar General of IndiaMinistry of Home AffairsNew DelhiIndia
Asmita JadhavCSIR-National Environmental EngineeringResearch InstituteNagpurMaharashtraIndia
Rishabh JainAcademy of Scientific and InnovativeResearch (AcSIR)GhaziabadIndia
Central Scientific Instruments OrganisationChandigarhIndia
Rupali JhaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringHBTUKanpurUttar PradeshIndia
Charu JhamariaEnvironmental ScienceIIS (deemed to be University)JaipurRajasthanIndia
Sushil Kumar KansalDr. S.S. Bhatnagar University Institute ofChemical Engineering and TechnologyPanjab UniversityChandigarhIndia
Paramdeep KaurDepartment of BiotechnologyPanjab UniversityChandigarhIndia
S. KaviyaDepartment of Applied ChemistryCochin University of Science andTechnology (CUST)KeralaIndia
Ketki KulkarniSophisticated Environmental AnalyticalFacility (SEAF)CSIR-National Environmental EngineeringResearch Institute (CSIR-NEERI)NagpurMaharashtraIndia
Pradeep KumarDepartment of Chemical Engineering &TechnologyIIT (BHU)VaranasiUttar PradeshIndia
Praveen KumarSchool of Materials SciencesIndian Association for the Cultivationof ScienceKolkataIndia
Anuradha KumariSchool of Environmental ScienceJawaharlal Nehru UniversityNew DelhiIndia
Nitin LabhsetwarSophisticated Environmental AnalyticalFacility (SEAF)CSIR-National Environmental EngineeringResearch Institute (CSIR-NEERI)NagpurMaharashtraIndia
Dipa MahatoJunior Research Fellow and SeniorResearch FellowCSIR – National Institute of ScienceTechnology and Development studies(CSIR-NISTADS)New DelhiIndia
Vishal MishraSchool of Biochemical EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology (BHU)VaranasiUttar PradeshIndia
Neerja MittalAcademy of Scientific and InnovativeResearch (AcSIR)GhaziabadIndiaCentral Scientific InstrumentsOrganisationChandigarhIndia
Deepanshu MongaDepartment of BiotechnologyPanjab UniversityChandigarhIndia
Ketki NagpureSophisticated Environmental AnalyticalFacility (SEAF)CSIR-National Environmental EngineeringResearch Institute (CSIR-NEERI)NagpurMaharashtraIndia
Ipsita NandiInstitute of Environmental ScienceBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasiUttar PradeshIndia
Sakshi NarulaCSIR – National Institute of ScienceTechnology and Development studies(CSIR-NISTADS)New DelhiIndia
Majid PeyraviDepartment of Chemical EngineeringBabol Noshirvani University of TechnologyBabolIran
Jayashree Rajesh PrasadDepartment of Computer ScienceSinghad College of EngineeringPuneMaharashtraIndia
Pooja DeviAcademy of Scientific and InnovativeResearch (AcSIR)GhaziabadIndia
Central Scientific InstrumentsOrganisationChandigarhIndia
Puneet RanjanDRDO-Defence Institute of High AltitudeResearchLehLadakhIndia
Awanish Kumar SharmaDepartment of PhysicsGEUDehradunUttarakhandIndia
Rahul SharmaCSIR- National Physical LaboratoryNew DelhiIndia
Academy of Scientific and innovativeResearch (AcSIR)GhaziabadIndia
Sulaxna SharmaTHDC, IHETTehriUttarakhandIndia
Baljinder SinghDepartment of BiotechnologyPanjab UniversityChandigarhIndia
Pardeep SinghDepartment of Environment SciencesUniversity of DelhiNew DelhiIndia
Surinder SinghDr. S.S. Bhatnagar University Institute ofChemical Engineering and TechnologyPanjab UniversityChandigarhIndia
Vishal SinghSchool of Biochemical EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology (BHU)VaranasiUttar PradeshIndia
Dhirendra Kumar SrivastavaCouncil of Science and TechnologyLucknowUttar PradeshIndia
Anupma ThakurAcademy of Scientific and InnovativeResearch (AcSIR)GhaziabadIndia
Central Scientific Instruments OrganisationChandigarhIndia
Gyanendra TripathiDepartment of BioengineeringIntegral UniversityLucknowUttar PradeshIndia
Kailas L. WasewarAdvance Separation and AnalyticalLaboratory (ASAL)Department of Chemical EngineeringVisvesvaraya National Institute ofTechnology (VNIT)NagpurMaharashtraIndia
Deepak YadavDepartment of Chemical EngineeringHBTUKanpurUttar PradeshIndia
1Mapping of Selenium Toxicity and TechnologicalAdvances for its Removal: A Scentiometric Approach
Madhulika Bhati1, Jayashree Rajesh Prasad2, Charu Jhamaria3, Sakshi Narula1, and Dipa Mahato1
1 CSIR – National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies (CSIR‐NISTADS), New Delhi, India
2 Department of Computer Science, Singhad College of Engineering, Pune, Maharashtra, India
3 Environmental Science, IIS (deemed to be University), Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
1.1 Introduction
Selenium contamination is worldwide phenomenon. Contamination of selenium in surface and ground water in river basins is one of the critical problems nowadays.
As selenium shows a narrow tolerance limit (40–400 mg/day), the problem of both deficiency and toxicity of Se have being identified in many parts of India and the world (WHO 2009). Different countries are making efforts to remove selenium from water using different technologies. Some specific processing technologies include reduction, bioremediation, phytoremediation coagulation, electro‐coagulation, co‐precipitation, electric kinetics, adsorption, chemical precipitation, and membrane technology.
In periodic table, selenium (Se) lies between sulfur and tellurium in Group VIA and between arsenic and bromine in Period 4. Selenium originated from the Greek word “Selene,” which means “moon.” It was discovered in 1817 by Jo¨ns Jacob Berzelius, “Father of Swedish Chemistry,” during the manufacturing of sulfuric acid, when he observed and analyzed a red deposit on the wall of lead chambers (Tinggi 2003). Selenium, mostly in combination with minerals that contain sulfur, is found in the Earth's crust. It generally exists in four oxidation stages, i.e. elemental selenium, selenites, and selenates. The oxidation states of the selenium found in nature are −2, 0, +4, or +6. Selenium is an essential micronutrient for its development and reproduction for humans, insects, fish, and many other species, but is known often to be toxic in amounts beyond the acceptable limits (Stadtman and TC 1978). Selenium's Acceptable Limit (AL) for groundwater is fixed at 0.01 mg/l (ppm) by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). The spectrum of selenium consumption for optimum human and animal safety is very narrow, meaning that low selenium consumption is correlated with developmental defects and disease and a high amount of selenium contribute to toxicity (Reilly 2006; Kurokawa and Berry 2013). It is required for healthy joints, heart, and eyes. Its role in DNA synthesis, the immune system, and the reproductive system is of critical value. A well‐known example of selenium toxicity is Keshan disease in Hubei Province, China, where several deaths have been reported (Yang and Xia 1995; Kipp 2015). Selenium is primarily found in water as selenate (SeO42−) and selenite (SeO32−). Among the two compounds, selenate is the more stable and thus comparatively difficult to remove from water solutions. Different physiochemical qualities, including oxidation reduction, pH, their chemical types, and sorbing surfaces, regulate selenium in soils or irrigation waters (Mondal et al. 2004). While being widely used in the production of photocells, rectifiers, photocopy machines, paints, crystal glass, and pesticides, it is extremely hazardous if found in drinking water exceeding 10 μg/l where the extent of selenium use for industrial applications comprising electronics, photocopying machinery, glass, rubber, etc. varies from 1 to 7000 μg/l. Proclamation of selenium adulteration to the surroundings is frequently connected with copper casting accomplishments. Selenium can enter water supplies through interaction with selenium carrying minerals or through contact with polluted soil or from emancipation from excavations, earthen deposits, discharge from factories, or from agricultural overflow escaping natural selenium amalgams from desiccated, undeveloped terrestrial areas. Selenium (Se) compounds in groundwater have attracted the attention of scientists due to the increased contamination as result of increasing industrialization and activities like mining, combustion of coal, and use of selenium‐contaminated water for irrigation (Luoma and Presser 2009; Gibson et al. 2012). Selenium generally enters the food chain through both surface and underground waters which are used for irrigation and drinking purposes (Dhillon and Dhillon 2003; Zhang et al. 2014).
The objective of this chapter is to discover the noteworthy research going on in this domain using a scientometric approach and visualization tools. This study explores the most‐cited investigations, authors, institutions, and countries since 2000. It also presents insights about the leading technological developments in the removal of selenium.
This chapter systematically reviews high‐impact literature to identify, evaluate, and interpret the work of researchers, scholars, and practitioners so as to develop insights into various removal methods, such as sedimentation, filtration, activated carbon adsorption, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and biological techniques for removing selenium from water and wastewater.
1.1.1 Contamination Status of Selenium
The authors have searched relevant literature related to the contamination status of selenium. Results indicate that selenium contamination is a global problem that affects a wide variety of human actions, from the most traditional farming methods to the most modern production processes. The USA, Canada, Republic of China, India, Japan, and Brazil are continuously making efforts to find out the technological solutions to remove the selenium.
In India, many areas are contaminated with selenium (Table 1.1). Punjab is the most affected region in Northwest India, with over 1000 ha of polluted fields. The main factors for the mobilization of Se and its bioavailability are alkaline soil pH, production of Se bioaccumulators, and inadequate industrial effluents/emissions treatment (Paikaray 2016). In the Majha belt of Punjab, which includes the Amritsar, Gurdaspur, and Tarn Taran districts, underground water is mainly contaminated with selenium and many other heavy metals (Virk 2018). Another belt which has groundwater quality‐affected habitations is the Doaba belt of Punjab, which includes the Jalandhar, Kapurthala, and Hoshiarpur districts (Virk 2019). As per Punjab Water Supply and Sanitation Department (PWSSD) data, selenium contamination of groundwater is greatest in the Jalandhar district in this belt. Selenium was detected in 105 habitations in Jalandhar, 30 in Kapurthala, and 19 in Nawanshahar. High‐level contamination of selenium was reported in the Malwa region of Ludhiana, with 90 habitations having higher than permissible limit of the metal with up to 0.140 mg/l content of selenium against the permissible limit of 0.01 mg/l. Another belt in Punjab, the “Malwa belt” of Ludhiana, Ferozepur, Roop Nagar, and Fatehgarh Sahib districts, also has selenium content in water sampled from tube wells (Virk 2019). The Doaba belt is the most selenium‐contaminated belt of Punjab. Also, in Punjab, surface soils are three to five times richer in selenium content compared to sub‐surface soils (Dhillon and Dhillon 1991).
Table 1.1 Selenium contamination status in Indian States.
Author
Year
State
Districts
Contamination level
Virk
2018
Punjab (
Majha Belt)
Tarn Taran
0.010–0.076
Gurdaspur
0.010–0.094
Amritsar
0.010–0.039
Virk
2019
Punjab
(Doaba belt)
Jalandhar (Most contaminated)
0.016–0.022
Kapurthala
0.01–0.082
Hoshiarpur
0.011–0.029
Virk
2019
Punjab
(Malwa belt)
Ludhiana
0.016–0.14
Roop Nagar
0.01–0.20
Ferozpur
0.011–0.025
Fatehgarh Sahib
0.011–0.028
Yadav et al.
2005
Rajasthan
Jaipur
Lower selenium level in Soil
Alwar
Ghosh et al.
2008
Maharashtra
Mumbai
0.08–1.10 mg/l
K. Chandrasekaran*, Manjusha Ranjit, and J. Arunachalam
2009
Punjab
0.012–0.093
Sharma and Kumar
2006
Bihar
Bihar
Kumar and Riyazuddin
2011
Tamilnadu
Chennai
0.15–0.43 μg/l and 0.16–4.73 μg/l
Singh and Kumar
1976
Uttar Pradesh
Muzaffarnagar
Vediya and Shrivastava
2008
Gujarat
Ahmadabad
84.7–503.7 μg/l
Overall, some areas are contaminated with selenium, others suffer from a deficiency of selenium. It has been inferred that deficiency‐related problems are common in arsenic (As)‐polluted sites like West Bengal (Das et al. 1995; Roychowdhury et al. 2003; Spallholz et al. 2004). In Western India, elevated soil selenium levels can be seen in Jaipur and Alwar, Rajasthan and selenium enrichment in brassica plants sown there has been shown (Yadav et al. 2005). In Maharashtra, up to 3 mg/kg and more than 1100 mg/l Se has been reported in soil and water, respectively, around Thane creek, Mumbai (Ghosh et al. 2008). In Central India, Jharkhand shows elevated levels of Se as it is a coal‐fired region (Finkelman and Stracher 2011) and Bihar shows elevated levels because of industrial effluents and emissions from the Barauni industrial area (Sharma and Kumar 2006). Lowlands and ponds have been contaminated with a high level (>10 mg/l) of Se due to disposal of untreated industrial wastes degrading the quality of underlying groundwater around Chennai City, Tami Nadu' (Kumar and Riyazuddin 2011). In Northern and North‐western India, Se content shows high variability. In Uttar Pradesh, in the Western part of Muzaffarnagar, there is a high selenium content in ground water, and different parts of Haryana show Se content ranging from 1 to 10.5 mg/kg (Singh and Kumar 1976). In Haryana, surface soils are mostly enriched with selenium other than areas receiving high rainfall like Ambala, Kurukshetra, Rohtak, and Sonipat.
1.1.2 Mapping Selenium Research Dynamics Advances
Keeping in view the main objective of the chapter – to identify, evaluate, and interpret the work of researchers, scholars, and practitioners for developing insights into the technologies used for the removal of selenium from water – the following methodologies have been implemented:
To begin with, some free searches were done on Google Scholar to find “remediation, treatment technologies for selenium‐contaminated waters,” and by studying suitable references, a string was developed. The Web of Science database was used for extraction of data. The string applied was “selenium” with further search in “treatment OR remediation OR contamination OR removal” AND “Water.” The number of publications which appeared was 3840, which were analyzed. Extraction of data based on countries revealed that the USA leads in publishing papers in this domain, followed by China and Canada, India and Japan.
The authors selected papers with significant influence on technologies for selenium removal in the form of published articles, research papers, white papers and review reports on the said domain. The literature comprises material, notions, data, and evidence inscribed from a precise perspective to accomplish confident objectives or express convinced interpretations on the landscape of the technologies to be developed and the way they are to be investigated. The authors further wish to evaluate effectively this literature in the context of the research being proposed.
Thereafter, authors began by mapping a number of key strategies for selenium removal from waste and drinking waters. This research suggests mapping of the concepts, opinions, and thoughts from a volume of quality literature. The authors followed a reputable technique for expressing facts and intelligent processes. The mapping presented in this chapter is a description as a “visual outline,” a “pictorial depiction,” and a “topographical allegory” of the research in the domain of water purification. Mapping in this research presents a “perceptible indication” of a researcher's thoughts and clarification of the research domain which can be delivered to both policy makers and scientists.
The present study evaluates the performance of selenium treatment technologies based on several parameters such as, country, city of publication, and Web of Science Core Collection Times Cited Count (which measures the technological impact of literature). The most influential literature is studied for the Multidisciplinary Sciences research. The authorship outline, cooperative catalogue, joint factor, adapted collaborative quantity and research profile. The study also examines international publications output and impact in terms of citations per paper and usage counts in various journals.
This study analyzes the evolution outline of literature related to selenium removal in water and soil in India during 1987–2020 (33 years). The Web of Science is a multidisciplinary international bibliographic archive. The Web of Science international multidisciplinary bibliographical database was used in order to classify the publications reported internationally on the basis of specific scientific field.
1.1.3 Bibliometric Analysis
The Web of Science (WoS) international multidisciplinary bibliographical database used to identify the contributions published worldwide in the field of various technological domains suggested the contribution of various fields of science, as shown in Figure 1.1.
As is evident from Figure 1.1, the research is dominated by the Environmental Sciences, Metrology and Atmospheric Sciences, and the Water Resources domain collectively, which makes up 20% of the total research. This one fifth share of the contribution is followed by Chemistry/Multidisciplinary with 10%, Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology with 10%, and Soil Science with another share of 10% contribution. Adding on these three chunks of domains forms 50% of the total contribution, which is further strengthened by research from: Medicine/Immunology/Pathology; Biochemistry and Molecular Biology/Plant Sciences; Nanoscience and Nanotechnology/Material Science; Ecology/Marine and Fresh Water Biology; Geochemistry and Geophysics; and Agronomy and Plant Sciences.
Figure 1.1 Emerging research field for selenium removal technologies published worldwide.
Figure 1.2 Selenium research publication trends.
The most influential research that spans over the domains is from Chemistry, Multidisciplinary Sciences, Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, and Material Science. Salt et al. (1995), Matoba et al. (2002), Grätzel (2009), and Elmolla and Chaudhuri (2010) have made significant contributions with the following components:
judiciously eradicating problematic contaminants from water discharge
investigating tarn size restrictions
sewage flow management
complying with nitrate, sulfate, chloride discharge constraints
recuperating heavy metal content
freshwater scarcity/confines
groundwater treatment technologies
mine dewatering
acid mine waste water.
Quantitative assessment of the research has been presented in these publications considering year‐wise research outcome, geographical distribution, and type of collaboration, characteristics of highly productive institutions and the method of communication used by the scientists. In a similar manner, the authors explored the second category of domain shown in Figure 1.1 denoted by Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Plant Sciences (Mandal et al. 2001; Zhu et al. 2009). The representative research outcomes highlight issues related to polluted soils and waters with key environmental and human‐related health issues, which may be moderately resolved by the emergent phytoremediation expertise. In situ phyto‐extraction and phyto‐stabilization have proved to be significantly effective in the removal of toxic metals from the soil (Khan et al. 2020a). This lucrative plant‐based tactic for remediation benefits from the amazing capability of plants to essence rudiments and mixtures from the atmosphere and to metabolize various molecules in their materials. Toxic heavy metals and organic contaminants are the chief goals for phytoremediation. Lately, facts of the biological and molecular apparatuses of phytoremediation commenced to arise collectively with organic and technological approaches intended to heighten and expand phytoremediation. Organic amendments and hydrologic regimes have also been found to be effective for Se removal by using constructed wetlands microcosms (Zhao et al. 2020) Furthermore, numerous arena prosecutions confirm the possibility of ecological cleaning by means of plants. This survey quintessence on the utmost established subsections of phytoremediation expertise and on the biotic apparatuses that brands phytoremediation exertion. Although plants alone show the ability to remove the toxic agricultural pollutants using different strategies, integrated approaches such as microbes and plant associations (rhizoremediation) are also proving to be effective options for metal removal (Khan et al. 2020b).
Figure 1.3 Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and Deep Learning mechanisms in modeling and prediction of water treatment parameters.
The authors' attention was captured by eminent research in the field of Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology (Reeves 1997; Salt et al. 1998; Vara and de Oliveira Freitas 2003; Eapen and D'Souza 2005; Tang et al. 2015). Significantly, active selenium occurs in oxic and anoxic environments, and this presence plays an important role in carbon and nitrogen mineralization by bacteriological anaerobic breathing. Selenium‐breathing bacteria (SeRB) come from a geologically isolated, primeval or filthy world and play a significant role in the selenium process. The chalcogen selenium and its microbial cycle have aroused few concerns, with comparable operational similarity to oxygen and sulfur. Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), a high‐molecular‐weight biopolymer originated from microbial metabolism, have been found to reduce selenite into non‐soluble and low‐toxicity elemental selenium, which would prevent the sequence of environmental degradation (Zhang et al. 2020). This collection of publications appears to inspire prospective work on microbes that use selenate and selenite as terminal electron receptors, analogous to well‐researched sulfate‐reducing bacteria. Summaries have been completed lately on the noteworthy developments in the role of SeRB in the biotic selenium cycle and their environmental role, phylogenetic classification, and metabolism, in addition to selenium biomineralization tools and eco‐friendly biotechnological claims.
While the presence of selenium and its role in the domains discussed above is important, there is a remarkable experimental research area in Medicine, Cardiac and Cardiovascular Systems, Immunology and Pathology that shows the significance of selenium in cardiovascular health (Weschenfelder et al. 2020). This group of researchers made a praiseworthy linkage of selenium metabolism and its role in cardiac pathology. It is remarkable to note that the consumption of selenium in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular ailments remains an indefinable area. From an alternative perspective, the chief purpose of selenium here is antioxidant defense through its amalgamation as selenocysteine into enzyme groups, for example glutathione peroxidases and thioredoxinreductases. Moreover, selenium compounds are various and have multifaceted metabolic effects, and thus there is partial dependence on selenoprotein expression. However, apart from the valuable properties of selenium, proved in clinical observations, selenium certainly may be destructive. It is thought‐provoking that the biological activities of selenium concurrently have consequences that may influence gene expression, the causing negative sequelae typically seen. Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) could substantially reduce hyperlipidemia and vascular damage in mice, most likely by controlling the metabolism of cholesterol and reducing oxidative stress by antioxidant selenoenzymes/selenoproteins (Guo et al. 2020). Removal of unsafe inorganic species of selenium, including selenite and selanate, has recently been tested by drinking water researchers for efficacy (Meher et al. 2020).
This review now comes to the most impacted domain: Environmental Sciences, Metrology, Atmospheric Sciences, and Water Resources (Zayed et al. 1998a, 1998b; Amthor 2001; Jiang et al. 2013). Selenium (Se) is one of the vital essentials in food harvests as an outcome of rigorous plant production in several nations. Next, Se has emerged as the focus of research into various parts of the biosphere. This domain presents the contemporary understanding of Se in the agroecosystem. The existence of selenium in the atmosphere from soil to food systems is considered. The most hopeful and pressing potential nanotechnology developments (Yang et al. 2005; Liu et al. 2015) are in agriculture; and the manufacture nano‐selenium elements, and agronomic nanotechnology and its practice and justifiable expansion are also emphasized.
In other research (Smedley et al. 2002), the bioconcentration factor for plants, which plays a significant role in geochemical prospecting and animal nutrition, is studied for a detailed plant/soil system. This paper reveals in‐depth geochemical annotations for an improved understanding of the ecological qualities of Se, such as its resemblance to sulfur and tellurium.
Approximately 20% of the most influential research under discussion comes under the domain of Chemistry, Medicine Science, Multidisciplinary Sciences and Toxicology (Brown et al. 1999; Elmolla and Chaudhuri 2010). The extracts of this research domain consider the average selenium absorptions in forms of water from approximately 0.4 to 16 μg/l. In marine creatures there is a robust association between the Se deposits in the water and those in the body tissues. Many creatures bioaccumulate Se by factors as high as 1000 to 4000, making selenium poisonous to humans and other creatures. Yang et al. (2005) and Lenz and Lens (2009) claim existence of micronutrient for several creatures in trivial quantities; and they claim further that occupational selenium exterminating is frequently unintentional and occasional.
During the publication analysis, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Deep Learning (DL) have emerged as a powerful tool to actuate water treatment processes. The most important role of AI, ML, and DL is that it enables efficient prediction and modeling in the conventional water treatment, distribution, and selenium removal processes.
AI methods, comprising Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Genetic Algorithm (GA), and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), are deployed (Gupta and Gupta 1998) for the assessment of Se (IV) deletion from aqueous solutions.
Combination of GA and PSO optimizes the specifications of ANN. The authors claimed to reduce the error to less than 3% with this arrangement of AI tools. It is found that ANN‐PSO and ANN‐GA models have proven to be a perfect choice for demonstrating and enhancing Se (IV) removal by the adsorption and reduction apparatuses.
The authors also studied the Publication Agencies mapping for all the most influential research papers discussed here. Figure 1.4 shows Representative Highest Influential Publications for selenium removal technological published worldwide. It can be clearly seen that the highest number of highly cited research is published by Springer, making up 25% of all publications. The next 20% of contributions comes from Elsevier Science BV in Amsterdam. The other well‐regarded publications range from 1 to 10% of total contributions.
The major objective of this section is to present a modality that helps researchers to visualize “outlines” in the said research field to “perceive effects” that may then be unexplored, by recognizing “gaps” in the research field and “limitations” to issues under examination. The authors emphasize that the fundamental outcome of this study is identifying probable innovative areas of study and the constraints.
To add to the discussion discussed so far, some technologies indicating comprehensive treatments, such as desalination and brine management solutions, are observed. A robust ultra‐high recovery reverse osmosis system has been proposed by several researchers for distant commercial set‐ups enabling reverse osmosis to confiscate scaling ions and thereby causing maximum recovery and smooth operations. There are suggestions that low‐slung temperature evaporator‐crystallizers be used. Analysis results indicate that countries are using different treatment technologies, including reduction techniques, phytoremediation, bioremediation, coagulation‐flocculation, electro‐coagulation (EC), electrochemical methods, adsorption, co‐precipitation, electro kinetics, membrane technology, and chemical precipitation. However, the order of use of particular methods varies from country to country.
Figure 1.4 Representative most influential publications for selenium removal technology published worldwide.
Word dynamics analysis was carried out by key words, title, and abstract on the papers published by Asian countries. India and China emerged as the top five Asian countries. The pattern of word dynamics indicated that Se removal using phytoremediation is emerging as main technology, followed by bioremediation and UASB reactor. Adsorption, reduction, and sorption emerge as the dominant methods for Se removal technology in China.
1.2 Selenium Reduction Technologies Used in India
Phytoremediation is a technology in which selenium get accumulated in plant parts and then plants can be harvested and incinerated. Phytovolatilization, which is also a type of phytoremediation, is more effective, in which a few plant species which can tolerate selenium can be grown on selenium‐contaminated sites and then can volatilize less toxic forms or non‐toxic forms of it in the environment (Dhillon and Dhillon 2003). This technique efficiently remediates soils contaminated with selenium as well as being an eco‐friendly technology and using fewer resources.
In Punjab, mustard is found to be the best accumulator of selenium. It is may be because of the high concentration of sulfur in mustard and the resemblance of selenium to sulfur. In addition to mustard, other plants, including onion, garlic, broccoli, Brazilian nuts, and mushroom, also show a strong affinity to Se (Sharma et al. 2015). In soil systems, many remediation methods can be applied for selenium management, such as gypsum application in selenium‐contaminated farms, which has been found to be efficient in its reduction levels (Dhillon and Dhillon 2000). Application of organic matter such as press mud and poultry manure has shown to reduce Se levels in rice, wheat, and maize up to 97% in Se‐contaminated farms (Dhillon et al. 2010). In situ bioremediation can be achieved by bacterial cultures belonging to b‐Proteobacteria and Bacilli class, which are fairly selenium‐tolerant microorganisms (Ghosh et al. 2008; Prakash et al. 2010).
Figure 1.5 Upper panel: word dynamics for India. Lower panel: word dynamics for China.
Biofortification, in which harvested plant parts are decomposed in agricultural soil which can be used further for the enrichment of food products with Se (Bañuelos et al. 2015), is another method.
Among the other technologies being used for the remediation of selenium‐contaminated waters are: ion exchange, reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, solar ponds, chemical reduction with iron, microalgal–bacterial treatment, alumina adsorption, Fe+3 coagulation/filtration, lime softening, and ferrihydrite adsorption (El‐Shafey 2007; Luo et al. 2008). Use of waste wheat bran can be an eco‐friendly technology in a continuous up‐flow fixed‐bed column system for biosorption of selenium species in aqueous solution (Hasan et al. 2010). One of the efficient methods of selenium removal from waste water can be use of double‐layered synthetic hydroxide materials (Zn/Al, Mg/Al, and Zn/Fe) as an adsorbent (Mandal et al. 2009).
Another technology demonstrates photoreductive removal of selenium (IV) using spherical binary oxide photo catalysts under visible light. As a range of scavengers, EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) and formic acid are found to be the most suitable for the reduction reaction, and of these two, formic acid is found best for reduction of selenium – the catalyst used for the process is TiO2, which is non‐corrosive, non‐toxic, and has high photoactivity, high photostability, and an economical nature. It has been reported that catalyst can be used repeatedly at least five times with marginal change in the activity (Aman et al. 2011).
1.3 Selenium Reduction Technologies Used in China
Nanoscale zero‐valent iron (nZVI) is the most widely applied nanomaterial as an adsorbent for groundwater and hazardous waste treatment. It is also effective for selenium treatment and removal. Batch experiments have been conducted and show that nano‐ZVI has approximately a removal rate three times or higher than those of micro‐scale iron, nanoscale iron oxides, Fe(OH)3, nanoscale TiO2, and activated alumina for selenium removal (Ling et al. 2015). ZVI or nano‐ZVI is effective for SeVI removal from wastewater by reducing to more adsorptive SeIV and/or to insoluble Se species (i.e. Se0, SeI, and SeII). A key role is known to be played by dissolved Fe2+ in the reductive removal of selenate by ZVI. There are two major roles for Fe2+: (i) it participates in selenate reduction directly as partial electron donor with a Fe2+:Se stoichiometry of ~1:1, and (ii) helping in the transformation of the passive layer on iron grain and corrosion products to magnetite, favoring electron transfer and thus enhancing selenate removal. ZVI was the main electron donor. In a ZVI‐SeVI‐Fe2+ system, sequential reduction of selenate is reported where elemental Se was the dominant reductive product. Selenate reduction by ZVI assisted by Fe2+ has been identified as a sustainable treatment method for wastewater contaminated with selenate (Tang et al. 2014).
It was observed in the trials that the removal efficiency of Se (VI) by ZVI was only 4.8% within 120 minutes, although a much higher removal efficiency (62.1%) was obtained by nZVI. Owing to its smaller particle size (approximately 100 nm), nZVI has a higher capacity for removal of Se (VI) than ZVI (approximately 150 m). The smaller size of the iron particles suggests a greater surface area that gives more stable Se (VI) reaction sites. In comparison, the removal efficiency of Se (VI) by nZVI/Al‐bent was 95.7%, which was far higher than that of nZVI (62.1%). It suggests that there is a synergistic impact on the elimination of Se (VI) in the nZVI/Al‐bent composite method (Li et al. 2015). A study demonstrated that iron oxides and aluminum oxide are effective adsorbents for Se removal (Kuan et al. 1998; Sheha and El‐Shazly 2010; Sharrad et al. 2012). Coagulation was found to be an effective process for removal of metal from water (Hu et al. 2015). They found that the Fe‐based coagulant was much more efficient than the Al‐based coagulants. It was further suggested that researchers’ pre‐reduction of Se (VI) to Se (IV) seems to be necessary to achieve effective Se removal. A synergistic effect of using ZVI was demonstrated by Liang et al. (2015) with magnetic effect and it was found that removal efficiency increased, with a reduction in removal time at a pH of 6.0. Graphene nano sheets, as a novel nano adsorbent, can also be used for removing various pollutants from water by certain modifications. To overcome the structural limits of graphene (aggregation) and graphene oxide (hydrophilic surface) in water, sulfonated graphene (GS) is prepared by diazotization reaction using sulfanilic acid (Shen and Chen 2015). Another technology demonstrated for removal of selenium from water is by sequestration by Cationic Layered Rare Earth Hydroxide Y2(OH)5Cl·1.5H2O. One study confirmed that Se (IV) and Se (VI) are successfully sorbed onto Y2(OH)5Cl·1.5H2O, which is also further supported by Raman and EDS measurements (Zhu et al. 2017). Another study demonstrated a promotional effect of the use of Mn2+ and Co2+ selenate removal by ZVI. It was found that Selenite (SeIV) was the predominant reductive product in the presence of Co2+; however, selenite and elemental Se (Se0) were the main reductive products in the presence of Mn2+. But this process shows promotional effect in anaerobic conditions (Tang et al. 2014).
Taking the role of AI further, there is another powerful area of predictive modeling which is a method used in predictive analytics to generate a statistical visualization of future behavior. Predictive analytics is the domain of data mining related to anticipating likelihoods and inclinations. Alternatively, AI deals with intelligent acts, i.e. the activities that describe them as intelligent. Subsequent to the thought process, the sole purpose is to evaluate the influence of AI algorithms for the implementation of intelligent predictive models. On piece of promising research (Pinto et al. 2009) answers many crucial issues by construction predictive models. These models stimulate prediction of manganese and turbidity echelons in treated water, to guarantee that the water supply does not distress community healthiness in a undesirable mode and observes the existing regulation. Additionally, popular supervised classification algorithms such as decision trees and the unsupervised k‐means algorithm build clustering models.
Recently, it has been interesting to note that the presence of selenium in plants has been modeled to show a tight borderline limit between nutritious prerequisite and toxic supplement in plants (Soil Science Society of America 2008). The AI algorithms beautifully model how the steep dose response curve caused by bioaccumulation properties have led to the description of selenium as a “tinderbox” modeled through anthropogenic events.
1.4 Selenium Research Dynamics Using AI Techniques
AI and Deep learning methods have spread their capabilities in depicting contests for water‐sanitation amenities and research forums. Deep learning presents an outstanding substitute to countless studies in optimization (Dentel 1995). Compared to out‐of‐date machine learning algorithms, deep learning has a robust learning capability to efficiently utilize data sets for data mining and knowledge mining. The objective of this investigation is to assess the prevailing unconventional methods. This paper further explores the boundaries and predictions of deep learning.
Furthermore, a novel placement of a machine learning ensemble in the field of water distribution networks was studied by Camarinha‐Matos and Martinelli (1998). This was an innovative application to govern and implement water distribution networks by a supervision classification, a distributed information management framework for water quality monitoring and recreation.
An alternate implementation of ANN along with SVM (Haghiabi et al. 2018) investigates water quality prediction. These authors reach a valuable outcome from their research, that “tansig” and “RBF”, which are transfer and kernel functions, demonstrate significant performance compared to other functions. SVM proves to be the most accurate model compared to other machine learning algorithms.
Finally, it is time to end up the discussion by looking at the most important issue of all, i.e. cost. It is extremely important to give a keen thought to the cost issue for wastewater treatment. Machine learning has been uniquely deployed (Torregrossa et al. 2018) for efficient energy cost modeling for wastewater treatment plants. The researchers have innovatively proposed cost as a parameter to evaluate the performance of the system.
Thus, these technologies ensure that performance is accurately predicted and assists in ensuring that efforts are made to deal with issues in advance. Machine learning generates innovative visions that can be used as evidence for future research on scheduling the distribution of the water resources
1.5 Conclusion
The presence of selenium in plants has been modeled to show a tight borderline limit between nutritious prerequisite and toxic supplement. The steep dose response curve caused by the bioaccumulation properties of selenium have led to the description of this element as a “tinderbox.” Water treatment for selenium removal is a component of successful selenium management strategy. Several technologies have been used by countries for selenium removal. There is a noticeable evolutionary role played by machine learning and artificial intelligence techniques in modeling and estimating the parameters contributing to efficient performance of systems.
At this stage, benchmarking plays a significant role in assessing the performance of technologies in terms of their value proposition, environmental impacts (following the principle of clean technology with proper treatment of sludge as product obtained) or, in other words, satisfying all the components of ASSURED analysis: A (Affordable), S (Scalable), S (Sustainable), U (Universal), R (Rapid), E (Excellent), D (Distinctive). A credible benchmarking by assessing the technologies based on the ASSURED parameters will help to screen technology which is more capable of being replicable, non‐disruptive, and scalable.
Acknowledgment
The authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR‐NISTADS, Management of Sinhgad Technical Education Society, Pune, and Management of IIS (deemed to be University), Jaipur for their continuous support and guidance in carrying out this research work.
Conflict of Interest
The authors do not have a conflict of interest.
References
Aman, N., Mishra, T., Hait, J., and Jana, R. (2011). Simultaneous photoreductive removal of copper (II) and selenium (IV) under visible light over spherical binary oxide photocatalyst.
Journal of Hazardous Materials
186 (1): 360–366.
Amthor, J. (2001). Effects of atmospheric CO2 concentration on wheat yield: review of results from experiments using various approaches to control CO2 concentration.
Field Crops Research
73 (1): 1–34.
Bañuelos, G., Arroyo, I., Pickering, I. et al. (2015). Selenium biofortification of broccoli and carrots grown in soil amended with Se‐enriched hyperaccumulator Stanleyapinnata.
Food Chemistry
166: 603–608.
Brown, G.E., Foster, A.L., and Ostergren, J.D. (1999). Mineral surfaces and bioavailability of heavy metals: a molecular‐scale perspective.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
96 (7): 3388–3395.
Camarinha‐Matos, L. and Martinelli, F. (1998). Application of machine learning in water distribution networks.
Intelligent Data Analysis
2 (4): 311–332.
Das, D., Chatterjee, A., Mandal, B. et al. (1995). Arsenic in ground water in six districts of West Bengal, India: the biggest arsenic calamity in the world. Part 2. Arsenic concentration in drinking water, hair, nails, urine, skin‐scale and liver tissue (biopsy) of the affected people.
The Analyst
120 (3): 917.
Dentel, S.K. (1995). Use of the streaming current detector in coagulation monitoring and control.
Aqua‐Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology
44 (2): 70–79.
Dhillon, K. and Dhillon, S. (1991). Selenium toxicity in soils, plants and animals in some parts of Punjab, India.
International Journal of Environmental Studies
37 (1–2): 15–24.
Dhillon, K. and Dhillon, S. (2000). Selenium accumulation by sequentially grown wheat and rice as influenced by gypsum application in a seleniferous soil.
Plant and Soil
227 (1–2): 243–248.
Dhillon, S. and Dhillon, K. (2003). Quality of underground water and its contribution towards selenium enrichment of the soil – plant system for a Seleniferous region of Northwest India.
Journal of Hydrology
272 (1–4): 120–130.
Dhillon, K., Dhillon, S., and Dogra, R. (2010). Selenium accumulation by forage and grain crops and volatilization from seleniferous soils amended with different organic materials.
Chemosphere
78 (5): 548–556.
Eapen, S. and D'Souza, S.F. (2005). Prospects of genetic engineering of plants for phytoremediation of toxic metals.
Biotechnology Advances
23 (2): 97–114.
Elmolla, E. and Chaudhuri, M. (2010). Photocatalytic degradation of amoxicillin, ampicillin and cloxacillin antibiotics in aqueous solution using UV/TiO
2
and UV/H
2
O
2
/TiO
2
photocatalysis.
Desalination
252 (1–3): 46–52.
El‐Shafey, E. (2007). Removal of Se(IV) from aqueous solution using sulphuric acid‐treated peanut shell.
Journal of Environmental Management
84 (4): 620–627.
Finkelman, R.B. and Stracher, G.B. (2011). Environmental and health impacts of coal fires.
Coal and Peat Fires: A Global Perspective: Coal – Geology and Combustion
1: 115–125.
