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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
If you're a small business owner, managing the financial affairs of your business can seem like a daunting task--and it's one that far too many people muddle through rather than seek help. Now, there's a tool-packed guide designed to help you manage your finances and run your business successfully! Small Business Financial Management Kit For Dummies explains step by step how to handle all your financial affairs, from preparing financial statements and managing cash flow to streamlining the accounting process, requesting bank loans, increasing profits, and much more. The bonus CD-ROM features handy reproducible forms, checklists, and templates--from a monthly expense summary to a cash flow statement--and provides how-to guidance that removes the guesswork in using each tool. You'll discover how to: * Plan a budget and forecast * Streamline the accounting process * Improve your profit and cash flow * Make better decisions with a profit model * Raise capital and request loans * Invest company money wisely * Keep your business solvent * Choose your legal entity for income tax * Avoid common management pitfalls * Put a market value on your business Complete with ten rules for small business survival and a financial glossary, Small Business Financial Management Kit For Dummies is the fun and easy way® to get your finances in order, perk up your profits, and thrive long term! Note: CD-ROM/DVD and other supplementary materials are not included as part of eBook file.
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Seitenzahl: 587
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011
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Small Business Financial Management Kit For Dummies®
by Tage C. Tracy, CPA and John A. Tracy, CPA
Small Business Financial Management Kit For Dummies®
Published byWiley Publishing, Inc.111 River St.Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774www.wiley.com
Copyright © 2007 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2007926399
ISBN: 978-0-470-12508-3
Manufactured in the United States of America
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About the Authors
Tage C. Tracy (Poway, California) is the principal owner of TMK & Associates, an accounting, financial, and strategic business planning consulting firm focused on supporting small- to medium-sized businesses since 1993. Tage received his baccalaureate in accounting in 1985 from the University of Colorado at Boulder with honors. Tage began his career with Coopers & Lybrand (now merged into PricewaterhouseCoopers). More recently, Tage coauthored with his father, John Tracy, How to Manage Profit and Cash Flow.
John A. Tracy (Boulder, Colorado) is Professor of Accounting, Emeritus, at the University of Colorado in Boulder. Before his 35-year tenure at Boulder, he was on the business faculty 4 years at the University of California at Berkeley. He served as staff accountant at Ernst & Young and is the author of several books on accounting and finance, including Accounting For Dummies, Accounting Workbook For Dummies, The Fast Forward MBA in Finance, How to Read a Financial Report, and coauthor with his son, Tage, of How to Manage Profit and Cash Flow. Dr. Tracy received his B.S.C. degree from Creighton University and earned his MBA and PhD degrees from the University of Wisconsin. He is a CPA (inactive) in Colorado.
Dedication
We dedicate this book to Edgar F. Jeffries, presently 96 years of age. Edgar is John’s father-in-law and Tage’s grandfather. In the midst of the Great Depression, Edgar and his father opened a small grocery store in Fort Dodge, Iowa. From scratch, they built Jeffries Grocery into a successful and respected institution. We quote Edgar more than once in this book.
Authors’ Acknowledgments
We are deeply grateful to everyone at Wiley Publishing, Inc. who helped produce this book. Their professionalism and courtesy were much appreciated. First, we thank Mike Lewis, the acquisition editor. He stayed with us on developing the concept for the book. We appreciate his encouragement. Our editor, Kelly Ewing, was exceptional. It was a pleasure working with her. We owe Kelly a debt that we cannot repay. So, a simple but heartfelt “thank you” will have to do. We sincerely thank Wade Harb who reviewed our manuscript. He offered many helpful suggestions that made the book much better.
Publisher’s Acknowledgments
We’re proud of this book; please send us your comments through our Dummies online registration form located at www.dummies.com/register/.
Some of the people who helped bring this book to market include the following:
Acquisitions, Editorial, and Media Development
Project Editor: Kelly Ewing
Acquisitions Editor: Michael Lewis
General Reviewer: Wade Harb
Editorial Manager: Michelle Hacker
Editorial Assistants: Erin Calligan Mooney, Joe Niesen, Leeann Harney
Cartoons: Rich Tennant (www.the5thwave.com)
Composition Services
Project Coordinator: Patrick Redmond
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Anniversary Logo Design: Richard Pacifico
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Indexer: Aptara
Publishing and Editorial for Consumer Dummies
Diane Graves Steele, Vice President and Publisher, Consumer Dummies
Joyce Pepple, Acquisitions Director, Consumer Dummies
Kristin A. Cocks, Product Development Director, Consumer Dummies
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Publishing for Technology Dummies
Andy Cummings, Vice President and Publisher, Dummies Technology/General User
Composition Services
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Debbie Stailey, Director of Composition Services
Contents
Title
Introduction
About This Book
Conventions Used in This Book
What You’re Not to Read
Foolish Assumptions
How This Book Is Organized
About the CD
Icons Used in This Book
Where to Go from Here
Part I : Improving Your Profit, Cash Flow, and Solvency
Chapter 1: Managing Your Small Business Finances
Identifying Financial Management Functions
Tuning In to the Communication Styles of Financial Statements
Previewing What’s Ahead
Chapter 2: Understanding Your P&L and Profit Performance
Getting Intimate with Your P&L (Profit and Loss) Report
Measuring and Reporting Profit and Loss
Presenting the P&L Report for Your Business
Breaking Through the Breakeven Barrier
Improving Profit
Chapter 3: Getting Up to Speed on Cash Flow from Profit
Sorting Out Your Sources of Cash
Avoiding Confusion Between Profit and Its Cash Flow
Deciding How to Have Cash Flow Information Reported to You
Introducing the Statement of Cash Flows
Summing Up the Critical Importance of Cash Flow from Profit
Chapter 4: Keeping Your Business Solvent
Liquidity and Business Solvency
Business Solvency Measurements Tools
Liquidity Measurement Tools
Liquidity Traps
Untapped Sources of Liquidity
Financial Leverage — the Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
Part II : Using Tools of the Trade
Chapter 5: Protecting the Family Jewels
Recognizing the Need for Controls
Clarifying Terminology
Reporting on Internal Controls
Distinguishing Security and Safety Procedures from Internal Controls
Policing Internal Controls
Surveying Internal Controls for Small Businesses
Presenting Internal Control Guideposts for Small Business Managers
Chapter 6: Scrutinizing Your Costs
Getting in the Right Frame of Mind
Getting Down to Business
Looking into Cost of Goods Sold Expense
Focusing on Profit Centers
Reducing Your Costs
Chapter 7: Practical Budgeting Techniques for Your Business
Deciding Where the Budgeting Process Starts
Honing in on Budgeting Tools
Budgeting Resources
Preparing an Actual Budget or Forecast
Understanding Internal Versus External Budgets
Creating a Living Budget
Using the Budget as a Business Management Tool
Using Budgets in Other Ways
Chapter 8: Making Decisions with a Profit Model
Introducing the Profit Model
Stopping at Profit Before Income Tax
Improving Margin
Using the Profit Model for Trade-off Analysis
Pushing Cost Increases Through to Prices
Getting Behind the Reasons for Cost Changes
Distinguishing Cost Decreases: Productivity Gains Versus Cutting Quality
Part III : Dealing with Small Business Financial Issues
Chapter 9: Jumping Through Tax Hoops
Thinking about Business Taxes
Coming to Terms with Income Taxation and the Business Legal Structure
Filing Annual Income Tax Returns
Understanding How Taxable Income Is Calculated
Managing Payroll Taxes
Remembering Other Types of Business Taxes (The Fun Is Just Starting)
Discovering Hidden Taxes
Chapter 10: Raising Capital for Your Business
Getting the Scoop on Capital
Developing a Business Plan
Finding Sources of Capital
Understanding Business Legal Structures and Raising Capital
Putting Your Capital to Good Use
Chapter 11: Diagnosing Your Financial Condition
Connecting the P&L and Balance Sheet
Spotting Financial Condition Problems
Part IV : Looking at Service and Manufacturing Businesses
Chapter 12: When You Sell Services
Comparing the Financial Statements of Service and Product Businesses
Looking at the Expense Structures of Product and Service Businesses
Contrasting Sales Volume and Sales Price Changes Impact on Profit
Selling Some Products with Services
Chapter 13: When You Make the Products You Sell
Setting the Stage
Introducing a Manufacturing Example
Computing Product Cost (Per Unit)
Tweaking the Basic Product Cost
Looking at Cost Accounting Beyond Manufacturing
Part V : Reaching the End of the Line
Chapter 14: Putting a Market Value on Your Business and Selling
Why You Need Business Valuations
How Businesses are Valued
The Keys to a Successful Business Valuation
Types of Business Acquisitions
Structuring the Sale of Your Business
The Business Acquisition Process
Chapter 15: Hanging Up the Spikes and Terminating Your Business
Looking into Business Terminations
Delving into Bankruptcy Protection
Planning the Burial
Managing Assets to Maximize Value
Satisfying Liabilities
Thinking about Employees, Insurance, and Taxes
Managing Logistics
Part VI : The Part of Tens
Chapter 16: Ten Management Rules for Small Business Survival
Remember That Planning Counts
Secure Capital
Don’t Overlook Management Resources
Understand the Selling Cycle
Don’t Fail to Communicate
Practice CART
Remember to KISS
Comply, Comply, Comply
Execute Your Exit Strategy
Know When to Say When
Chapter 17: Ten Hard-Core Financial Tools and Tactics
Understand Profit Mechanics
Understand Cash Flow
Know Your Sources of Profit
Analyze Year-to-Year Profit Change
Keep Sizes of Assets Under Control
Budget Profit and Cash
Audit Your Controls
Choose the Right Legal Entity
Stabilize Your Sources of Capital
Don’t Massage Your Financial Numbers
Appendix: About the CD
System Requirements
Using the CD
What You’ll Find on the CD
Troubleshooting
Customer Care
: Further Reading
Introduction
A lot of small business owners/managers muddle through rather than knowingly manage the financial affairs of their business. They have a good overall business model and they manage other aspects of their business fairly well. But when you start talking about financial topics, they get sweaty palms. They do little more than keep tabs on their cash balance. That’s no way to run a railroad!
This book, quite simply, explains the fundamentals of small business financial management. We explain the accounting reports — which are called financial statements or just financials — you need to understand in running your business. We discuss many other critical financial management topics, including raising capital, making smart profit decisions, and choosing the best form of legal entity for income tax.
About This Book
Business managers are busy people, and they have to carefully budget their time. Small business owners/managers are especially busy people; they have no time to waste. We promise not to waste your time in reading this book. In every chapter, we cut to the chase. We contain our discussions to fundamentals — topics you must know to handle the financial affairs of your business.
This book is not like a mystery novel; you can read the chapters in any order. Each chapter stands on its own feet. You may have more interest in one chapter than others, so you can begin with the chapters that have highest priority to you. Where a topic overlaps with a topic in another chapter, we provide a cross-reference.
By all means, use the book as a reference manual. Put the book on your desk and refer to it as the need arises. It’s your book, so you can mark topics with comments in the margins or place sticky notes on pages you refer to often. This book isn’t a college textbook. You don’t have to memorize things for exams. The only test is whether you improve your skills for managing the financial affairs of your business.
Conventions Used in This Book
Throughout the book, we use financial statement examples. Many chapters use figures to demonstrate the financial statements that you work with in managing the financial affairs of your business. We explain what these financial statements mean and how to interpret the information.
The examples are as realistic as we can make them without getting bogged down in too many details. When, for example, we present an example of a P&L (profit and loss) statement, we make sure that its numbers make sense for actual businesses. The examples are not theoretical; the examples are from the real world.
In preparing financial statements, your accountant conforms to the standardized formats and terminology adopted by the accounting profession. In other words, your accountant adheres to the established protocols for presenting financial statements. These rules are the grammar for communicating information in financial statements. However, accounting comes across as a foreign language to many business managers, and we keep this point in mind on every page of the book. In Chapter 1, we begin by explaining the communication conventions of financial statements.
Speaking of accountants, we should distinguish between the internal accountant, who is an employee of your business, and the outside, independentaccounting professional who advises you from time to time. A small business employs an accountant who is in charge of its accounting system. The employee’s job title may be Controller, In-Charge Accountant, or Office Manager. In this book, the term accountant refers to the person on your payroll. We refer to your independent professional accountant as a CPA (certified public accountant).
What You’re Not to Read
Not every topic may have you sitting on the edge of your seat. For example, if you’re not a manufacturer, you may not be terribly interested in Chapter 13, and if you’re not a service business, you may glance over Chapter 12 in a hurry. You can skip over topics that aren’t immediately relevant or urgent. You won’t hurt our feelings if you tread lightly on some topics.
We suspect that a few topics in the book are more detailed than you’re interested in. You should refer the more technical aspects to your accountant and make sure that the accountant follows through on the assignment. A good example is Chapter 5 on internal controls, which refer to the procedures put in place to minimize errors and fraud. You should definitely understand the critical need for establishing and enforcing effective controls. But the implementation of internal controls is a job for your accountant.
Foolish Assumptions
In writing this book, we’ve done our best to put ourselves in your shoes as a small business manager. Of course, we don’t know you personally. But we have a good composite profile of you based on our experience in consulting with small business managers and explaining financial issues to business managers who have a limited background in financial matters.
Perhaps you’ve attended a short course in finance for the nonfinance manager, which would give you a leg up for reading this book. We should mention that many of these short courses focus mainly on financial statement analysis and do not explore the broader range of financial management issues that small business owners/managers have to deal with.
We take nothing for granted and start our discussions at ground zero. We present the material from the ground level up. The more you already know about the topics, the quicker you can move through the discussion. Whether you’re a neophyte or veteran, you can discover useful insights and knowledge in this book. If nothing else, the book is a checklist of the things you ought to know for managing the finances of a small business.
How This Book Is Organized
This book is divided into parts, and each part is divided into chapters. The following sections describe what you find in each part.
Part I: Improving Your Profit, Cash Flow, and Solvency
In keeping your small business thriving and growing you encounter three financial imperatives: (1) making adequate profit consistently; (2) generating cash flow from profit for the needs of the business and its owners; and (3) controlling the financial condition of your business by keeping it healthy and avoiding insolvency. You receive a financial statement for each imperative. Part I explains these three financial statements and how to use this information for making a profit and controlling the cash flow and financial condition of your business.
Part II: Using Tools of the Trade
Part II explains basic small business financial management tools. It explores internal controls that minimize accounting errors and threats of fraud from within and without your business, as well as cost control, which goes beyond the simplistic notion of just minimizing costs. This part also covers practical budgeting and planning techniques for the small business and how to develop and use a profit model for decision-making analysis.
Part III: Dealing with Small Business Financial Issues
In starting a business, the founders have to decide which type of legal entity to use. This part explains the alternative legal entities for carrying on business activities and what you should consider from the income tax point of view when you structure your business. This part also offers practical advice on how to raise the capital you need for your business.
Part IV: Looking at Service and Manufacturing Businesses
Part IV describes services businesses and how they differ from businesses that sell products, as well as how manufacturing businesses determine their product cost. Although you may not be a service business or a manufacturer, you can gain insights from this part.
Part V: Reaching the End of the Line
This part of the book has a special place in our hearts — not because we want you to go out of business, of course. But there may come a time when a successful business wants to cash in its chips and leave the game. You probably know of several entrepreneurs who decided to sell out and move on to new challenges. This part presents a concise explanation of small business valuation methods. It also walks you through the steps of liquidating assets, paying liabilities, and making final distributions to owners (assuming that some money is left after paying liabilities and the lawyers).
Part VI: The Part of Tens
The Part of Tens is a staple in every For Dummies book. These chapters offer pithy lists of advice that sum up the main points explained in the chapters. One chapter offers general management rules for the small business. First and foremost, you must be a good manager to make your small business venture a success. The second chapter focuses on ten important financial management rules and techniques.
About the CD
Every financial statement example in the book is on the CD that accompanies the book. We prepared all examples using the Excel spreadsheet program from Microsoft. Of course, you need to have Excel on your computer to open and use each example’s worksheet.
You can use each example on the CD as a template, or pattern for your business situation or to explore alternative scenarios. For example, you can quickly analyze what would happen to profit if sales volume had been 10 percent higher or lower than in the example. To use the template for your business you need to replace the data in the example with the data for your business situation. You would probably assign this data entry process to your accountant, who should find the templates very useful. Your accountant can easily expand or modify the template to fit the particular circumstances of your business.
John, a coauthor of this book, has written How To Read A Financial Report,The Fast Forward MBA in Finance, and How To Manage Profit and Cash Flow with Tage, a coauthor of this book. (John Wiley & Sons is the publisher of all three books.) The books use financial statement examples that were prepared using Excel. John offers to e-mail the Excel worksheets to the reader. Literally hundreds and hundreds of readers have asked for the Excel worksheets. We thought it would be more convenient to provide the worksheets on the CD for this book. This book and its CD constitute an integrated kit.
Icons Used in This Book
Throughout this book, you see some little pictures in the margin. These icons highlight the following types of information:
This icon serves to remind you that the financial statement example is on the CD for the book. Each worksheet example is prepared as a template. You can open the figure with the Excel spreadsheet program and follow along on your computer screen each step in the explanation. This makes the explanation more live and real time. You can also change the data in the example to simulate outcomes for alternative scenarios, which is an effective learning method.
This icon asks you to keep in mind an important point that is central in the explanation of the topic at hand.
This icon highlights, well, tips for applying financial management techniques. These pointers and advisories are worth highlighting with a yellow marker so that you don’t forget them. On second thought, this icon saves you the cost of buying a highlighter pen.
This sign warns you about speed bumps and potholes on the financial highway. Taking special note of this material can steer you around a financial road hazard and keep you from blowing a fiscal tire. You can save yourself a lot of trouble by paying attention to these warning signs.
Where to Go from Here
You may want to start with Chapter 1 and proceed through the chapters in order. If you’re fairly familiar with the design of financial statements, start with Chapter 2, which explains how to read your P&L statement. If you already have a good handle on the P&L statement, you could start with Chapter 3 if you have questions about cash flow – and in our experience, small business managers have many questions on cash flow!
If your highest priority concerns are about income tax issues, you can jump into Chapter 9 right away. If you’re having problems in raising capital for your business, you may want to start with Chapter 10. If you worry about fraud threats against your business, Chapter 5 is a good place to start.
Starting and managing a small business is a tremendously challenging undertaking, and we applaud you. You have a lot of guts. And you also need a lot of financial management savvy. We hope our book helps you succeed.
Part I
Improving Your Profit, Cash Flow, and Solvency
In this part . . .
W e begin with a general overview of what’s involved in managing the financial affairs of the small business. Financial statements are the main source of information for carrying out your financial management functions. So, we carefully explain the conventions and customs accountants use in preparing financial statements.
The three primary financial imperatives of every business are to make profit, generate cash flow from making profit (which is not the same as making profit), and control financial condition and solvency. Accordingly, a separate financial statement is prepared for each purpose. We explain these three primary financial statements. Quite simply, you don’t know what you’re doing without a solid understanding of these financial statements.
Chapter 1
Managing Your Small Business Finances
In This Chapter
Defining the bailiwick of financial management
Tuning into the styles of financial statements
Using the CD that comes with book
Previewing what’s ahead
The small business manager has to be a jack-of-all-trades. You have to be good at sales and marketing. You have to be knowledgeable about hiring, training, and motivating employees. You have to understand production systems if you are in the manufacturing business. You have to be smart at purchasing. You should be aware of business law and government regulations. You have to figure out where you have an edge on your competitors. Equally important, you need good skills for managing the financial affairs of your business.
Identifying Financial Management Functions
Managing the finances of a small business is not just doing one or two things. Financial management is broader than you might think — it involves a palette of functions:
Raising sufficient capital for the assets needed by your business
Earning adequate profit consistently and predictably
Managing cash flow from profit
Minimizing threats of fraud and other losses
Minimizing the income tax burden on your business and its owners
Forecasting the cash needs of your business
Keeping your financial condition in good shape and out of trouble
Putting a value on your business when the time comes
When you grow your business to 50 or 100 million dollars annual sales — and we know you will someday — you can hire a chief financial officer (CFO) to manage the financial functions of your business. In the meantime these responsibilities fall in your lap, so you better know how to manage the financial affairs of your business.
The failure rate of new businesses is high. Many entrepreneurs would like to think that if they have a good business model, boundless enthusiasm, and work tirelessly they are sure to succeed. The evidence speaks otherwise. Many embryonic businesses hit financial roadblocks because the owner/ manager does not understand how to manage the financial affairs of his or her business.
To press home our point we ask an embarrassing question: do you really have the basic skills and knowledge for managing the financial affairs of your business? Are you really on top of the financial functions that keep your business on course and out of trouble for achieving your financial objectives? Our book helps you to answer yes to these questions.
Tuning In to the Communication Styles of Financial Statements
We should be upfront about one thing: as a small business manager you must have a solid understanding of your financial statements. You can’t really manage the financial affairs of your business without having a good grip on your financial statements. There’s no getting around this requirement.
We could beat around the bush and suggest that you might be able to get along with only a minimal grasp on your financial statements. This would be a risky strategy, however. Most likely you’d end up wasting time and money. You’d have to spend too much time asking your Controller or your CPA to explain things. A CPA doesn’t come cheap. (Check with Tage, the coauthor of this book, regarding his hourly rate for advising small business clients.)
Financial statements are prepared according to established, or one could say entrenched conventions. Uniform styles and formats for reporting financial statements have evolved over the years and become generally accepted. The conventions for financial statement reporting can be compared to the design rules for highway signs and traffic signals. Without standardization there would be a lot of accidents.
It would be confusing if each business made up its own practices for presenting its financial statements. If your financial statements did not abide by these rules they would look suspect to your lenders, owners, and anyone else who sees the financials. They might question whether your accountant is competent. They may wonder what you are up to if your financial statements don’t conform to the established rules of the game.
We present many financial statements and accounting reports throughout the book. Therefore, at this early point in the book we explain the communication styles and conventions of financial statements. To illustrate these customary formats of presentation we use the P&L (profit and loss) statement shown in Table 1-1 for a business. Note: This business example is organized as a pass-through entity for income tax purposes and, therefore, does not itself pay income tax. (We discuss pass-through entities in Chapter 9.)
The following financial statement conventions may seem evident, but then again you might not be aware of all of them:
You read a financial statement from the top down. Sales revenue is listed first, which is the gross (total) income from the sale of products and services before any expenses are deducted. If the main revenue stream of the business is from selling products the first expense deducted from sales revenue is cost of goods sold, as in this example.
Deducting cost of goods sold expense from sales revenue gives gross margin (also called gross profit). The number of other expense lines in a P&L statement varies from business to business. Before interest expense is deducted the standard practice is to show operating profit (also called operating earnings), which is profit before interest expense.
The sample P&L statement includes two columns of numbers. Note that the $1,484,000 total of the two operating expenses (that is, sales and marketing expenses plus administrative and general expenses) in the left column is entered in the right column. Some financial statements display all figures in a single column.
An amount that is deducted from another amount — such as the cost of goods sold expense — may be placed in parentheses to indicate that it is being subtracted from the amount above it. Or, the accountant who prepared the financial statement may assume that you know that expenses are deducted from sales revenue, so no parentheses are put around the number.You see expenses presented both ways in financial reports, but you hardly ever see a minus (negative) sign in front of expenses — it’s just not done.
Notice the use of dollar signs in the P&L statement example. In the illustration all amounts are have a dollar sign prefix. However, financial reporting practices vary quite a bit on this matter. The first number in a column always has a dollar sign but from here down it’s a matter of personal preference.
To indicate that a calculation is being done, a single underline is drawn under a number, as you see under the $3,267,000 cost of goods sold expense number in the P&L statement example. This means that the expense amount is being subtracted from sales revenue. The number below the underline, therefore, is a calculated amount.
Dollar amounts in a column are always aligned to the right, as your see in the P&L statement example. Trying to read down a column of numbers that are not right aligned would be asking too much; the reader might develop vertigo reading down a jagged column of numbers.
In the sample P&L statement dollar amounts are rounded to the nearest thousand for ease of reading, which is why you see all zeros in the last three places of each number. Really big businesses round off to the nearest million, and drop the last six digits. The accountant could have dropped off the last three digits in the P&L statement, but probably wouldn’t in most cases.
Many accountants don’t like rounding off amounts reported in a financial statement — so you see every dollar amount carried out to the last dollar, and sometimes even to the last penny. However, this gives a false sense of precision. Accounting for business transactions cannot be accurate down to the last dollar; this is nonsense. A well-known economist once quipped that accountants would rather be precisely wrong than approximately correct. Ouch! That stings because there’s a strong element of truth behind the comment.
The final number in a column usually is double underlined, as you see for the $281,000 bottom-line profit number in the P&L statement. This is about as carried away as accountants get in their work — a double underline. Instead of a double underline for a bottom-line number, it may appear in bold.
The accounting terminology in financial statements is mixed bag. Many terms are straightforward. If you have business experience you should understand most terms. But, like lawyers and doctors, accountants use esoteric terms that you don’t see outside of financial statements. Accounting is often called the language of business, but it’s a foreign language to many business managers.
Look once more at the terminology in the P&L statement example. You probably know what the terms mean, don’t you? Nevertheless, we must admit that accountants use jargon more than they should. In some situations accountants resort to arcane terminology to be technically correct, like language used by lawyers in filing lawsuits and drawing up contracts. Your accountant should prepare financial statements that are as jargon-free as possible. Where we have to use jargon in the book we pause and clarify what the terms mean in plain English.
Previewing What’s Ahead
To give you an idea of what’s coming down the pike in the book, we pose questions about small business financial management and tell you the chapters in which you can find the answers:
What are the key reasons why cash flow deviates from bottom-line profit for the year? See Chapter 3
How do you tell whether your business is dangerously close to insolvency? See Chapter 4
How do you protect your business against accounting errors and fraud? See Chapter 5
Which is better for profit an increase in sales volume or an equal percent increase in sales price? See Chapter 8
What information do you need for controlling costs? See Chapter 6
How large should your assets be relative to your sales revenue and expenses? See Chapter 11
What is the best legal organization form for your business from the income tax point of view? See Chapter 9
What are the sources of capital for your business? See Chapter 10
How do you put a value on your business if you’re thinking of selling? See Chapter 14
How do you terminate a business, financially and legally? See Chapter 15
Chapter 2
Understanding Your P&L and Profit Performance
In This Chapter
Getting better acquainted with your P&L
Matching up the P&L with your business model
Being clear on profit and loss issues
Analyzing profit performance
Exploring ways of improving your profit performance
Small business owners and managers must know whether they’re earning a profit. You need to make a steady profit to survive and thrive. So, you’d think that the large majority of small business owners/managers would be pretty good at understanding and analyzing their profit performance. The evidence suggests just the opposite. They generally know that profit information comes out of their accounting system. But accounting reports are in a foreign language to many small business owners/managers. They don’t do much more than glance at the bottom line. A quick peek at the bottom line is no way for keeping your business profitable and growing your business.
Profit is a financial measure for a period of time — one quarter (three months) and one year are the two most common periods for which profit is determined, At the end of the period, your accountant (Controller) prepares a financial statement, known as the P&L (profit and loss) statement that reports the amount of profit or loss you made and the components of your profit or loss. A good part of this chapter explains this profit performance financial statement. You should thoroughly understand this accounting report. You can’t afford to be fuzzy on this financial statement. Believe us, there’s no other way to know your profit performance and understand how to improve your profit.
You can’t look at your cash balance to track profit performance. Your cash balance may be going down even though you’re making a profit. Or, your cash balance may be going up even though you’re suffering a loss. You can’t smell profit in the air; you can’t feel it in your bones. You have to read the newspaper to learn the news. You have to read your P&L report to discover your profit news.
In this chapter, we concentrate on the fundamentals of profit accounting and the basic design of the financial statement that reports your profit performance.
Getting Intimate with Your P&L (Profit and Loss) Report
One main function of accounting is to measure your periodic profit or loss and to prepare a financial statement that reports information about how you made a profit or loss. Periodic means for a period of time, which can be one calendar quarter (three months), one year, or some other stretch of time.
Inside most businesses, this key financial statement is called the P&L report. In the formal financial statements released outside the business (to creditors and nonmanagement owners), it’s called the income statement,earnings statement, or operating statement. The P&L report is also called a statement, or sometimes a sheet. (We suppose because it’s presented on a sheet of paper.) These days, a business manager may want it displayed on his computer screen.
Your Controller is the profit and loss scorekeeper for your business, although managers generally have a lot to say regarding the methods and estimates used to measure profit and loss.
Your business sells products, which are also known as goods or merchandise. Your basic business model is to sell a volume of products at adequate markups over their costs to cover operating expenses so that you generate a satisfactory profit after your interest and income tax expenses. As a matter of fact, this basic business model fits a wide variety of businesses that sell products — from Wal-Mart to your local bookstore or shoe store.
The information content and layout of your P&L report should follow your business model. Figure 2-1 presents an illustrative P&L report that reflects your business model. The P&L statement is designed so that you can see the actual results of your business model for the period. Hypothetical dollar amounts are entered in this illustrative P&L report to make calculations easy to follow.
Figure 2-1: Presenting an illustra-tive small business P&L report.
On the CD accompanying this book, we provide P&L report templates for every figure in the chapter. You and your accountant can use these templates for your business situation. Basically, the spreadsheet template provides a quick means to simulate profit under different conditions. It’s a great way to analyze past profit performance and to plan profit improvements.
Here are important points to keep in mind when you read a P&L report, such as the one presented in Figure 2-1:
Where the information comes from: The Source column on the right side of Figure 2-1 isn’t really part of the P&L report; only what’s inside the box is in a P&L report. We include the source column in Figure 2-1 to call your attention to where the dollar amounts come from. Account(s) means that the dollar amount for this line of information comes from one or more accounts maintained in the business’s accounting system. For example, the business keeps several accounts for recording sales revenue. These several sales accounts are added together to get the $1,000,000 total sales revenue amount reported in the P&L.
Amounts from accounts versus amounts from calculations: Several dollar amounts in a P&L aren’t from accounts; rather, these figures are calculated amounts. For example, the P&L statement reports gross margin, which is equal to sales revenue less cost of goods sold expense. (This important number is also called gross profit.) In Figure 2-1, the $400,000 gross margin amount is calculated by deducting the $600,000 cost of goods sold expense amount from the $1,000,000 sales revenue amount. A business doesn’t keep an account for gross margin (or for any of the calculated amounts in the P&L report).
The business entity and income tax: Note the income tax expense line in the P&L (see Figure 2-1). In the source column, you see not applicable. What’s this all about? Figure 2-1 is for a business entity that doesn’t pay income tax itself as a separate entity. The business is organized legally as a so-called pass-through entity. Its annual taxable income is passed through to its owners, and they include their proportionate share of the business’s taxable income in their income tax returns for the year. (We explain different legal types of business entities in Chapter 9.)
GAAP assumption: GAAP stands for generally accepted accounting principles. GAAP refers to the body of authoritative accounting and financial reporting standards that has been established by the accounting profession over many years. Today, the main source of new pronouncements on GAAP is the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). The GAAP rulebook has become exceedingly complex, and some persons compare it with the Internal Revenue Code and Regulations. Presently, the FASB is looking into giving small businesses some relief from its more technical pronouncements, but don’t hold your breath.
In short, these accounting standards should be used by all businesses no matter their size. Unless a financial statement makes clear that different accounting methods are being used, the reader is entitled to assume that GAAP are used to measure profit and to present financial condition. You should assume that the business is using accrual-basis accounting, not a cash-basis method. See the sidebar “A quick primer on accrual-basis accounting” for more information.
Markup in the P&L: The first step in your business model is to sell a lot of products at adequate markups over their costs. The first three lines in the P&L provide feedback information on how well you did in this regard. In the example shown in Figure 2-1, sales generated $1,000,000 revenue, or total income, total inflow, or total increases of assets, during the year. Cost of goods (products) sold is $600,000, so the business’s total markup for the year is $400,000, which is reported on the third line in the P&L. This amount is called gross margin (or gross profit.)
In P&L reports, accountants don’t use the term markup. Gross margin equals profit before other expenses are taken into account. In accounting, the word gross simply means before other expenses are deducted. Indeed, your profit or loss depends on the size of the other expenses:
Reporting operating expenses: Practices aren’t uniform regarding how many operating expense lines are reported in P&L statements — except that interest and income tax expenses are almost always reported on separate lines. Even a fairly small business keeps more than 100 expense accounts. In filing its annual federal income tax return, a business has to disclose certain expenses (advertising, repairs and maintenance, salaries and wages, rents, and so on.) Of course, a business should keep these basic expense accounts. But this categorization isn’t necessarily ideal for reporting operating expenses to business managers. (By the way, it’s not a bad idea for the small business owner/manager to read the first page of the annual federal income tax return of the business, which is the P&L reported to the IRS.)
In Figure 2-1, we show four operating expense lines below the gross margin profit line. Operating expenses encompass the various costs of running a business. Typically salaries, wages, and commissions (plus benefits) make up the lion’s share of operating expenses. Many small businesses have substantial advertising and other sales promotion costs. The cost of using its long-term operating assets (building, machines, trucks, and equipment) is recorded as depreciation expense. This particular expense is usually reported in a P&L (though not always).
The various operating costs that aren’t included in the first three expenses just explained are collected in a catchall expense account. Total operating expenses are $285,000 in the example shown in Figure 2-1. This total is deducted from gross margin to arrive at the $115,000 operating profit amount. (This measure of profit is also called operating earnings or earnings before interest and income tax.)
Interest expense: This expense is separated from operating expenses because it’s a financial cost that depends on the amount of debt used by the business (and interest rates, of course). In the P&L statement shown in Figure 2-1, the business uses a fair amount of debt because its interest expense is $30,000 for the year. Assuming an annual interest rate of 8 percent, its interest expense amount indicates that the business used $375,000 interest-bearing debt during the year:
$375,000 debt × 8%= $30,000 interest
Income tax expense (maybe): A business may be organized as an entity that is subject to paying federal income tax. If so, the amount of its income tax is reported as the last expense in its P&L report, after interest expense. Interest is deductible to determine annual taxable income (just like other business expenses). Thus, it makes sense to put income tax expense below the interest expense line. In contrast, many small businesses are organized as a pass-through entity that doesn’t pay income tax itself. Instead, this type of business entity passes through its taxable income for the year to its owners. In the example shown in Figure 2-1, the business is a pass-through tax entity, so it has no income tax expense. Nevertheless, we show the income tax expense line in the illustrative P&L to show how it would be reported.
What’s the bottom line? This question refers to the last, or “bottom” line of the P&L report, which is called net income. It is also called net earnings, or just earnings. The term profit is generally avoided. The business earned $85,000 net income for the year. So, the business model was executed successfully: The business made sales that generated enough gross margin to cover its operating expenses and had $85,000 profit after interest expense (see Figure 2-1).
You may very well ask how successful was the business’s profit performance. This question crosses the border from the accounting function to the financial management function. Accountants provide information; managers interpret and judge the information and take action for the future. As the owner/manager, would you be satisfied with the profit performance for the business example presented in Figure 2-1?
A quick primer on accrual-basis accounting
Simple cash-basis service businesses may use cash-basis accounting, which means they don’t do much more bookkeeping than keeping a checkbook. If a business sells products, however, cash-basis accounting isn’t acceptable and, in fact, this method of accounting isn’t permitted for income tax purposes. A business that sells products must keep track of its inventory of products and can’t record the cost of products to expense until the products are actually sold to customers. Until sold, the cost of products is recorded in an asset account called inventory. This is one basic element of accrual-basis accounting.
Accrual-basis accounting can be viewed as economic reality accounting. Businesses that sell products (and hold an inventory of products awaiting sale), sell on credit, make purchases on credit, and own long-lived operating assets (buildings, trucks, tools, equipment, and so on) use accrual-basis accounting to measure their profit and to record their assets and liabilities. Basically, accrual-basis accounting recognizes the assets and liabilities of selling and buying on credit and spreads the cost of long-term operating assets over the years of their useful lives, which is called depreciation.
Measuring and Reporting Profit and Loss
In our experience, many small business owners/managers read their P&L reports at a superficial level. They don’t have a deep enough understanding of the information presented in this important financial statement. One result is that they make false and misleading interpretations of the information in the P&L report. For example, they think sales revenue equals cash inflow from customers during the period. However, if the business sells on credit (typical for business to business sales), actual cash collections from customers during the year can be significantly lower than the sales revenue amount reported in the P&L statement.
Furthermore, many small business managers tend to think that an expense equals cash outflow. But, in fact, the cash payment for an expense during the year can be significantly more (or less) than the amount of the expense in the P&L statement. The confusion of amounts reported in the P&L with cash flows is such a common blunder that we devote Chapter 3 to explaining differences between revenue and expenses and their cash flows.
In addition to the confusion over the cash flows of revenue and expenses, small business managers should be aware of several other issues, outlined in the following sections, in measuring and reporting profit.
Accounting for profit isn’t an exact science
Many estimates and predictions must be made in recording revenue and expenses. Most are arbitrary and subjective to some degree. For one example, a business has to estimate the useful lives of its fixed, or long-term, operating assets in order to record depreciation expense each year. Predicting useful lives of fixed assets is notoriously difficult and ends up being fairly arbitrary.
Here’s another example. At the end of the year, a business may have to record an expense caused by the loss in value of its inventory because some of its products will have to be sold at a price below cost, or the products may not be salable at all. Determining the loss in inventory value is notoriously difficult. Inventory write-down is subject to abuse by businesses that want to minimize their taxable income for the year.
Your accounting records may have errors
The financial statements prepared from the accounting records of a business, including the profit performance statement (P&L) of course, are no better than the accounting system that generates the information for the financial statements. The reliability of your accounting system depends first of all on hiring a competent accountant to put in charge of your accounting system. Bigger businesses have an advantage on this score. They hire more experienced and generally more qualified accountants.
We recommend that you hire a trained and competent accountant to put in charge of your accounting system. This person is typically given the title Controller, assuming that she has adequate accounting education and experience. To save money, many small businesses hire a bookkeeper who knows recordkeeping procedures but whose accounting knowledge is limited. If you employ a bookkeeper (instead of a better educated and more experienced accountant), you should consider using an independent CPA to periodically review your accounting system. We don’t mean a formal audit; we mean using the CPA to critically review the adequacy of your accounting system and appropriateness of your accounting methods.
Additionally, every business should enforce internal accounting controls to prevent or at least minimize errors and fraud. (We explain these important controls in Chapter 5.) As a practical matter, errors can and do sneak into accounting records, and employees or others may have committed fraud against the business. In order to conceal theft or embezzlement, they prevent the recording of the loss in your accounting records.
Ideally your accounting system should capture and record all your transactions completely, accurately, and in a timely manner. Furthermore, any losses from fraud and theft should be rooted out and recorded. You have to be vigilant about the integrity of your accounting records. Our advice is to avoid taking your accounting records for granted; use good internal accounting controls; and be ever alert for possible fraud. Trust, but verify.
Someone needs to select the accounting methods for recording revenue and expenses
Sales revenue can be recorded sooner or later, and likewise expenses can be recorded sooner or later. Some accounting methods record revenue and expenses as soon as possible; alternative methods record these profit transactions as late as possible. Remember that profit is a periodic measure. Expenses for the period are deducted from sales revenue for the period to measure profit for the period. This state of affairs is like having different speed limits for a highway. How fast do you want to drive?
In short, accounting standards permit different methods regarding when to record revenue and expenses. Take cost of goods sold expense, for example (one of the largest expenses of businesses that sell products). You can use three alternative, but equally acceptable, methods. Someone has to decide which method to use. You should take the time to discuss the selection of accounting methods with your Controller. As the owner/manager, you can call the shots. You shouldn’t get involved in all the technical details, but you should decide whether to use conservative (slow) or liberal (fast) methods for recording revenue and expenses.
Once the die is cast — in other words, after you have decided on which specific accounting methods to adopt — you have to stick with these methods year after year. For all practical purposes, accounting methods have to be used consistently and can’t be changed year to year. For one thing, the IRS insists on this consistency in filing your annual income tax returns. (A pass-through business tax entity must file an information return with the IRS.) For management purposes, a business should keep its accounting methods consistent. Otherwise, it would be next to impossible to compare profit performance one year to the next.
Recording unusual, nonrecurring gains and losses
The P&L report focuses on the regular, recurring sales revenue and expenses of your business. In addition to these ongoing profit-making activities, most businesses experience certain types of gains and losses now and then, which are incidental to their normal operations. For example, your business may sell a building you no longer need at a sizable gain (or loss). Or, you may lose a major lawsuit and have to pay substantial damages to the plaintiff. These special, nonrecurring events are called extraordinary gains and losses. They’re reported separately in the P&L. You don’t want to intermingle them with your regular revenue and expenses.
Keeping the number of lines in your P&L relatively short
For all practical purposes, you need to keep a P&L report on one page — perhaps on one computer screen. By its very nature, the P&L is a summary-level financial statement. Figure 2-1, for example, includes only one line for all sales. As the owner/manager, you’re very interested in the total sales revenue. You also want to know a lot more information about your sales — by customers, by products, by locations (if you have more than one), by size of order, and so on. The best approach is to put detailed information in separate schedules. Our advice: Use supporting schedules for further detail and don’t put too much information in the main body of your P&L.
The P&L is just the headline page of your profit story. You need to know more detailed information about your sales and expenses than you can cram into a one-page P&L report. For example, you need to know the makeup of the total $30,000 advertising and sales promotion expense (see Figure 2-1). How much was spent on each type of advertising? How much was spent on special rebates? You need to keep on top of many details about your expenses. The place to do so is not in the main body of the P&L but in supporting schedules. In short, the P&L gives you the big picture. Reading the P&L is like reading the lead paragraph in a newspaper article. For details, you have to read deeper.
Remembering that many business transactions are profit neutral (don’t affect revenue and expenses)
Many business transactions don’t affect revenue or expenses: you probably already know this fact, but it’s a good point to be very clear on. Only transactions that affect profit — in other words, that increase revenue or expense — are reported in the P&L. A business carries on many transactions over the course of the year that aren’t reported in its P&L.
For example, during the year, the business shown in Figure 2-1 borrowed a total of $450,000 from its bank and later in the year paid back $100,000 of the borrowings. These borrowings and repayments aren’t reported in the P&L — although the interest expense on the debt is included in the P&L. Likewise, the business invested $575,000 in long-term operating assets (land and building, forklift truck, delivery truck, computer, and so on). These capital expenditures aren’t reported in the P&L — although, the depreciation expense on these fixed assets is included in the P&L report.
The business shown in Figure 2-1 purchased $630,000 of products during the year. This cost was recorded in its inventory asset account at the time of purchase. When products are sold, their cost is removed from the inventory asset account and recorded in cost of goods sold expense. The business started the year with a stock of products (inventory) that cost $120,000. Therefore, the cost of products available for sale was $750,000. The total cost of goods sold during the year is $600,000 (see Figure 2-1). Therefore, the cost of unsold inventory at the end of the year is $150,000. This additional information about beginning inventory, purchases, and ending inventory is not presented in the P&L report (Figure 2-1), but it may be, as the next section explains.
Including more information on inventory and purchases
Traditionally, internal P&L reports and external income statements include for the following information (using the business example presented in Figure 2-1):
The P&L report presented in Figure 2-1 includes only the cost of goods sold expense line. You can ask your accountant to include all the preceding information, but do you really need this additional information in your P&L report?
You can easily find the beginning and ending inventory balances in your balance sheet. This financial statement is a summary of your assets and liabilities at the beginning and end of the period. The only real gain of information is your total purchases during the year. Do you want/need to know this amount? This question reveals the core issue in preparing the P&L and other financial statements. The question is this: What information should be included in the statement? What does the business manager need to know from each financial statement? Basically, this answer is your call; you should tell your Controller what you want in your financial statements.
For internal reporting, managers can ask for as much or as little information as they need and want. A business manager has only so much time to read and ponder the information in the financial statements he receives. So, the accountant should keep in mind how long the manager has available to digest information included in the P&L and other financial statements. The financial statements included in external financial reports that circulate outside the business are bound by standards of minimum disclosure. For example, in Chapter 3, we present a formal balance sheet that follows the rules of disclosure for external financial reporting.
Presenting the P&L Report for Your Business
Small business owners/managers have certain questions on their minds after the close of the year. How did I do during the year just ended? Did I do better or worse than last year? Did I make a profit or a loss? Sounds odd, doesn’t it, to say, “make a loss,” but that’s what happens. Figure 2-2 presents a comparative P&L for the year just ended (December 31, 2008) and the preceding year (December 31, 2007). We use the same format we used for Figure 2-1. However, we modified the P&L format slightly to omit the income tax expense line, and we added the Change
