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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
This book defines and elucidates the topic of smart "second skin" clothing, which must be flexible, washable, ironable, long-lasting and battery-free. We explore the possibilities for its use in fields such as health, well-being, sports and leisure. Smart Patches presents techniques that can be used within the limits established by regulations (EMC, normative, GDPR, ANSES, etc.) to help make smart clothing a marketable product at an affordable price. This book studies the creation and performance of various sensors and biosensors based on graphene materials and describes the functioning of Intra-Body Communications (IBC), as well as all the internal and external parameters involved in this type of technology. The performances and limits of these IBC and technologies are presented, together with concrete application examples.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
Acknowledgements
In the world of textiles
In the world of industry
In the world of education
Preface
To whom is this book addressed?
Preamble
Introduction
I.1. Aim of this book
I.2. How is this book constructed?
I.3. Content and plan of the book
I.4. Intended applications for “smart apparel” (SA): patches
1.5. Fields of application for patches in SA
1.6. Market scope
I.7. A few remarks
Part 1: Smart Apparel, Smart Patches and Biosensors
1 Smart Apparel, Smart Patches and the Related Constraints
1.1. Reminders and definitions
1.2. The smart textile market from a consumer's point of view
1.3. Constraints surrounding an SA project
2 Biosensors and Graphene Technology
2.1. Introduction to sensors in smart apparel
2.2. Sensors of “non-biological” physical properties
2.3. Graphene
1
2.4. Graphene and its secrets
2.5. “Bio” sensors
2.6. Applications of graphene in smart apparel
2.7. Conclusions on graphene in smart apparel
Part 2: Biocontroller
3 Bioprocessors
3.1. Overall structure: “AFE (Analog Front-End) + CPU (Central Processing Unit)”
3.2. The AFE
3.3. The CPU
4 Power to the Patch
4.1. Problems surrounding power supply to a patch
4.2. Energy harvesting
4.3. Example of energy harvesting for smart apparel
5 OBC (Out-of-Body Communications) and IBC (Intra-Body Communications) in Smart Apparel
5.1. Communications in smart apparel
2
5.2. Connectivity and viability of OBC in smart apparel
5.3. From the RF-connected world to OBC in smart apparel
5.4. Architecture of connected smart apparel chains
5.5. OBC and IBC patch networks in smart apparel
5.6. BAN
5.7. IBC
5.8. Capacitive IBC system
5.9. Modeling of an IBC system
5.10. Simulations
5.11. Examples of smart apparel solutions using IBC
Conclusion: Concrete Implementation of a Solution
C.1. Concrete realization of patches for smart apparel
C.2. Example of the manufacture of a patch
C.3. Industrial patch technologies
Epilogue
Glossary
Authors
Dominique Paret
Pierre Crégo
Pauline Solère
References
Index
Other titles frominScience, Society and New Technologies
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
f06
Figure I.1. Overview of a “patch”
Figure I.2.
Generic example of applications with a patch directly integrated
...
Figure I.3.
Example of a resistive pressure sensor
Figure I.4.
Paradigms for patch design and production
Figure I.5.
Examples of applications, from a simple sensor to a patch
Figure I.6.
Example of a PPE jacket/parka
Figure I.7.
Size of the market in printed electronics, organic and flexible
...
Figure I.8.
Value chain of a telesurveillance solution
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1.
Ordinary textiles and technical textiles. For a color version of
...
Figure 1.2.
Areas of confusion between ordinary textiles and technical texti
...
Figure 1.3.
Definition of “smart textile systems”
Figure 1.4.
Levels of integration of electronics in connected garments
Figure 1.5.
Examples of “active function textiles”. For a color version of t
...
Figure 1.6.
Predominant fields of use of e-textiles. For a color version of
...
Figure 1.7.
Fields of application of smart apparel. For a color version of t
...
Figure 1.8.
The standard chain of activity for clothing. For a color version
...
Figure 1.9.
Complexification in the case of e-textiles: introduction of elec
...
Figure 1.10.
Hype cycle for technologies
For a color version of this figu
...
Figure 1.11.
Hype cycle for healthcare technologies
For a color version o
...
Figure 1.12.
Evolution of medical interventions reimbursed by the Cnam betwe
...
Figure 1.13.
Status of normalization committees dealing with smart apparel
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1.
Biosensors are everywhere. We are surrounded! For a color versio
...
Figure 2.2.
Overview of functions common to certain sensors
Figure 2.3.
Examples of applications by category of stimulus
Figure 2.4.
Overview of commonly used sensors
Figure 2.5.
Overview by types of sensors commonly used
Figure 2.6.
Example of a graphene-based sensor. For a color version of this
...
Figure 2.7.
Generic block diagram of a pressure sensor
Figure 2.8.
Example of the circuit in an inertial orientation sensor (the Bo
...
Figure 2.9.
Two-dimensional layer of graphene
Figure 2.10.
Overview of the various properties of graphene
Figure 2.11.
Graphene aerogel. For a color version of this figure, see www.i
...
Figure 2.12.
Performances of industrial processes to produce graphene
Figure 2.13.
Some examples of graphene producers and suppliers
Figure 2.14.
Examples of the sale price of graphene and its main derivatives
...
Figure 2.15.
World centers of graphene research
Figure 2.16.
World centers of biosensor research involving graphene
Figure 2.17.
Patents filed and published between 2005 and 2014
Figure 2.18.
Geographic distribution of patents filed in relation to graphen
...
Figure 2.19.
Relative index of patent specialization by country. For a color
...
Figure 2.20.
Generic examples of biosensors. For a color version of this fig
...
Figure 2.21.
Biosensor with analyte. For a color version of this figure, see
...
Figure 2.22.
The principle employed in producing a graphene-based transistor
...
Figure 2.23.
a) Fundamental principle behind graphene-based sensors; b) meas
...
Figure 2.24.
Principe behind biosensors based on graphene FETs. For a color
...
Figure 2.25.
Representation of the different types of biosensors
For a co
...
Figure 2.26.
a) Examples of analytes and applications; b) examples of analyt
...
Figure 2.27.
a) A lone graphene-based sensor without an analyte; b) contribu
...
Figure 2.28.
Back-gate graphene transistor. For a color version of this figu
...
Figure 2.29.
Floating-gate transistor using graphene. For a color version of
...
Figure 2.30.
Technological example of a biosensor with a graphene FET. For a
...
Figure 2.31.
Response of a biosensor for pH detection, over time. For a colo
...
Figure 2.32.
Variations of the resistance as a function of pH
Figure 2.33A.
The patch and its connection to a smartphone
For a color ve
...
Figure 2.33B.
UV response and display
For a color version of this figure,
...
Figure 2.34.
Example of Covid-19 measurements using a graphene-based biosens
...
Figure 2.35.
Example of a “multisensory patch”
For a color
...
Figure 2.36.
Experimental results obtained using real biological fluids
F
...
Figure 2.37.
Example of denim garments. For a color version of this figure,
...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1.
a) Reminder of the block diagram of the patch; b) the bioprocess
...
Figure 3.2A.
Block diagram of the integrated circuit ADS1293 Texas Instrumen
...
Figure 3.2B.
Figure 3.3.
Block diagram of the Maxim Max 30003 integrated circuit. For a c
...
Figure 3.4.
Block diagram of the integrated circuit from an analog device
Figure 3.5.
Example of electrode positions for an EKG. For a color version o
...
Figure 3.6.
a) Electrical axis and b) 12 auxiliary axes of the heart. For a
...
Figure 3.7.
Examples of definitions of leads
Figure 3.8.
Examples of definitions of leads with the earth reference point.
...
Figure 3.9.
Examples of precordial derivations and their associated leads. F
...
Figure 3.10.
Relations between frontal derivations, precordial derivations a
...
Figure 3.11.
Number of leads which can be used
For a color version of thi
...
Figure 3.12A.
Application with four leads
Figure 3.12B.
Figure 3.13.
Biosensors and their respective bitrates
Figure 3.14.
Data fusion from different biosensors
Figure 3.15.
Example of data fusion process
Figure 3.16.
Example of a circuit for a contactless chip card (MIFARE DESFir
...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1.
Operational sequences. For a color version of this figure, see w
...
Figure 4.2.
Example of quantities of electricity consumed during the differe
...
Figure 4.3.
Operational sequences of an IoT system
For a color version o
...
Figure 4.4.
Relationships of resistance to capacity. For a color version of
...
Figure 4.5.
Examples of energy-harvesting technologies. For a color version
...
Figure 4.6.
Examples of energy harvesting technologies. For a color version
...
Figure 4.7.
Examples of technological principles of energy harvesting. For a
...
Figure 4.8.
Examples of power levels required by energy-harvesting technolog
...
Figure 4.9.
Examples of energy harvesting technologies. For a color version
...
Figure 4.10.
Examples of thermal energy harvesting technologies
For a col
...
Figure 4.11.
Examples of energy-harvesting technologies
For a color versi
...
Figure 4.12.
Examples of energy harvesting technologies. For a color version
...
Figure 4.13.
Examples of energy-harvesting technologies, AEM30940 circuit fr
...
Figure 4.14.
Examples of energy-harvesting technologies. For a color version
...
Figure 4.15.
Examples of NFC technologies in energy harvesting
Figure 4.16.
Examples of PLM and ALM
For a color version of this figure,
...
Figure 4.17.
Examples with and without ALM with the standards ISO 15693 or I
...
Figure 4.18.
Example of the construction of an NFC antenna for graphene patc
...
Figure 4.19.
Examples of energy harvesting technologies
For a color versi
...
Figure 4.20.
Example of a patch using energy harvesting technology. For a co
...
Figure 4.21.
Example of use of the NXP – NTA 5332 NTAG 5 boost circuit
Figure 4.22.
Example of the use of the NXP – NTA circuit
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1.
Paradigm trees for graphene-based patches. For a color version o
...
Figure 5.2.
Relations between “lone patch”/“patch network” and the functions
...
Figure 5.3.
“Baud rate v. range” plot for common connectivity technologies.
...
Figure 5.4.
The most common connectivity technologies. For a color version o
...
Figure 5.5.
The most common protocols used for SR (Short-Range) technologies
Figure 5.6.
Most common protocols for Medium-Range technologies
Figure 5.7.
Most common protocols for Long-Range technologies
Figure 5.8.
Overview of the architecture of the chain for a smart garment
...
Figure 5.9.
Possibilities and possible choices for solutions. These are not
...
Figure 5.10.
Architecture of a broker
Figure 5.11.
Main connection protocols used. For a color version of this fig
...
Figure 5.12.
Example of smart apparel with multiple patches and multiple sen
...
Figure 5.13.
Main types of x Area Networks. For a color version of this figu
...
Figure 5.14.
Definitions of the main types of x Area Networks. For a color v
...
Figure 5.15.
AN solutions in the field. For a color version of this figure,
...
Figure 5.16.
Standards in the IEEE 802.15 family. For a color version of thi
...
Figure 5.17.
Datarates, frequencies and ranges of the standards in the IEEE
...
Figure 5.18.
Ordinary topology of a BAN
Figure 5.19.
Position of a BAN in terms of datarate and power consumption. F
...
Figure 5.20.
PPDU structures for the three standards. For a color version of
...
Figure 5.21.
Frequency bands and bandwidths for the different physical layer
...
Figure 5.22.
Examples of a “virtual doctor”
Figure 5.23.
Example of applications in sport. For a color version of this f
...
Figure 5.24.
Principle of Intra-Body Communication
Figure 5.25.
Examples of graphene patches directly adhered to the human body
Figure 5.26.
Examples of graphene patches directly integrated into a garment
...
Figure 5.27.
Examples of paradigms for the applications of graphene patches.
...
Figure 5.28.
The structure of the surface of the skin. For a color version o
...
Figure 5.29.
IBC using galvanic coupling. For a color version of this figure
...
Figure 5.30.
IBC using capacitive coupling. For a color version of this figu
...
Figure 5.31.
Operational principle of a near-field IBC model. For a color ve
...
Figure 5.32.
IBC with capacitive coupling – simplified electrical diagram. F
...
Figure 5.33.
Distribution of electrical fields. For a color version of this
...
Figure 5.34.
Principle used to harvest voltage due to an electrical field. F
...
Figure 5.35.
Principle used to harvest voltage due to a magnetic field. For
...
Figure 5.36.
Communication between two network elements. For a color version
...
Figure 5.37.
Communication by means of contact between IBC elements. For a c
...
Figure 5.38.
Examples of industrial communications through contact between I
...
Figure 5.39.
Values of the main dielectrics
Figure 5.40.
Model of measurement of the communication channel. For a color
...
Figure 5.41.
Examples of a block diagram for an FSDT transmitter
Figure 5.42.
Communication channel filter. For a color version of this figur
...
Figure 5.43.
Approximate resistivity values of mammal tissues
Figure 5.44.
Electrical model of the channel
Figure 5.45.
Simplified electrical model of the human body connected to the
...
Figure 5.46.
Equivalent Wheatstone bridge of the electrical model
Figure 5.47.
Methods for measuring parameters
Figure 5.48.
Oscillating LC circuit of the transmitter at 330 kHz. For a col
...
Figure 5.49.
Output signals for an oscillating circuit and a microcontroller
...
Figure 5.50A.
Example of the stages in the receiver chain. For a color versi
...
Figure 5.50B.
Concrete example of the receiver chain
Figure 5.51.
Summary of solutions presented here
Figure 5.52.
Example of an IBC transceiver operating by adaptive FSK
Figure 5.53A.
Principle of an IBC transceiver functioning in digital transmi
...
Figure 5.53B.
Diagram of an IBC transceiver functioning in digital transmiss
...
1
Figure C.1.
Breakdown of technologies present in smart apparel. For a color
...
Figure C.2.
Overview of the base. For a color version of this figure, see ww
...
Figure C.3.
Capacitive IBC: applications included in a smart garment. For a
...
Figure C.4.
Diagrammatic overview of the patch. For a color version of this
...
Figure C.5.
Diagrammatic overview of a patch for smart apparel. For a color
...
Figure C.6.
Breakdown of the electronic technologies present in the patch. F
...
Figure C.7.
Breakdown of technologies present in patches. For a color versio
...
Figure C.8.
Breakdown of the layers of the patch (thickness of the stack of
...
Figure C.9.
Potential locations for probes. For a color version of this figu
...
Figure C.10.
Example of application: Chronolife gilet. For a color version o
...
Figure C.11.
Initial estimate of the serial manufacture cost price of a patc
...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Preface
Introduction
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
References
Index
Other titles from in Innovations in Learning Sciences
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Smart Patches
Biosensors, Graphene and Intra-Body Communications
Dominique ParetPierre CrégoPauline Solère
First published 2023 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George's RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA
www.iste.co.uk
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2023The rights of Claire Guille-Biel Winder and Teresa Assude to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022950715
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-840-5
Foreword
To begin with, we shall congratulate Dominique Paret, Pierre Crégo and Pauline Solère for taking the initiative to write a book describing, in detail, solutions relating to biosensors, graphene-based technology and Intra-Body Communications (IBC), or communications on the surface of the human body, and the numerous regulations, norms, applicative aspects, technical, technological and financial facets of the world of smart apparel.
There is relatively little technical literature on these subjects, despite how every day, we are seeing new applications emerge for health, wellbeing, sport, leisure, protection or security. In addition, France has an excellent position in the emerging markets for smart apparel, and by 2025–2030, there will be marvelous opportunities that are not to be missed. SMEs and intermediate-sized enterprises in textiles and apparel, and clients operating in application markets are gearing up to take advantage of such opportunities, as demonstrated by numerous recent initiatives (BPI, Techtera, Up-Tex, IFTH, etc.), predicting that “creative and productive fashion engineering in France will be awakened through innovation”.
This highly thorough book is designed for beginner readers wishing to gain a full understanding of the complex fields of smart apparel, graphene technologies relating to biosensors or the Intra-Body Communications of today and of the future (for all applications). It is also for anyone designing such technologies, from the fundamental principles to their applications, wishing for a precise, detailed overall view.
This book has numerous laudable qualities. It re-examines the fundamental building blocks of disciplines relating to function, hardware and software, with the technological fundaments to describe possible architectures. It addresses the various communication protocols, implemented to establish connectivity, and makes designers aware of the various regulations and norms which must be adhered to. Finally, it discusses the essential subject of security at every step, including the processing of sensitive data, all by means of an excellent technical and scientific base.
Other aspects are highlighted by numerous examples, which make this book much more concrete for the readers, and will offer an understanding of the overall design of the chain of IBC solutions that are connected and secured, and their technical-financial development.
In addition, Paret and Crégo have long been renowned technical experts in numerous technologies for RFID, contactless chip cards, NFC, IoT and software development. This means that they are able to inject a high level of technicality into this book, in contrast to journalistic publications. Solére provides a fresh perspective on these various technical solutions.
We are grateful to them for sharing their expertise in this rapidly developing field: smart textiles and apparel. In 2017, the Union des industries textiles (Textile Industry Union) published a white paper on the subject. In addition, we applaud them for providing readers with a very thorough guided tour through this nascent industry, which sees textiles, electronics and communications technology woven together, to serve the needs of society today, and sometimes, of society tomorrow.
Buckle up, and enjoy the ride!
Florence BostSmart Textiles DesignerCEO of Sable chaud
Gaëlle LissorguesProfessor and head of department of Santé, Énergieet Environnement (Health, Energy and the Environment)ESIEE ParisUniversité Gustave Eiffel
March 2023
Acknowledgements
There are many people to whom the authors owe a debt of gratitude – for their kindness, for lending their ears at great length, and for their constructive comments. Thus, to all of those people, who will indubitably know who they are, all three of us extend our heartfelt thanks!
In particular, we wish to thank the following people.
In the world of textiles
Florence Bost, CEO of
Sable Chaud,
for her advice, comments and invaluable assistance in presenting the vast world of textiles.
Laurent Houillon at the IFTH
(Institut français du textile et de l'habillement
– French Textile and Clothing Institute), who also serves as secretary to the BNITH (Bureau de normalisation des industries du textile et de l'habillement – Standardization Institute for Textile and Clothing Industries).
Yesim Oguz-Gouillard, also from the IFTH and Group Leader on Smart Textiles for Healthcare & Medicine, for her technical expertise and unfailing good humor.
In the world of industry
We also wish to thank the following for their valuable assistance:
Serge Gasnier and Elizabeth Patouillard, directors of the CRESITT in Orleans, France;
Éric Devoyon, Technical Director at 3 ZA, for the many years spent working shoulder to shoulder on technical matters;
Vincent Bouchiat, CEO and co-founder of Grapheal SAS, for his technical contributions and his friendship;
Alain Rhélimi, Independent Technical Advisor and consultant expert in microelectronics, former expert with Schlumberger and Gemalto, for contributing his ideas;
Emmanuelle Butaud-Stubbs, former Delegate General of the Union des industries textiles (UIT), for her undying friendship;
Gaëlle Kermorgant, lawyer, legal consultant and lobbyist for personal data protection.
In the world of education
Dr Gaëlle Lissorgues, Professor and thesis supervisor at the ESIEE (Université Gustave Eiffel, Marne-la-Vallée), and Head of Department for Santé, Énergie et Environnement, for her knowledge, advice and kindness.
Dr Lionel Rousseau and Dr Magdalena Couty – respectively, the head of cleanrooms at ESIEE Paris and cleanroom engineer – for the wealth of advice they have provided us.
Dr Ing. Delphine Bechevet, Associate Professor at HES-SO
(Haute école spécialisée de Suisse occidentale
– University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Western Switzerland), for her highly insightful reading of the draft manuscript, her advice, illuminating comments, time and friendship.
Our thanks go also to members of the panels of experts of “RGPD Associates” and “IBC Research” co-founded by the authors. In particular, we are grateful to Jean-Paul Huon, CEO of Z#BRE. He is a consultant in innovation and systems, a microelectronics engineer, a friend, and the co-author of Secure Connected Objects (published by ISTE in both French and English (Paret and Huon 2017)) – this book borrows a number of extracts from that one, in the interests of a complete and coherent picture. Jean-Paul is a specialist in the complete architecture of systems of communicating objects, numerous protocols and network technologies, high-level software applications and the cloud.
Finally, thanks to many, many friends, with whom we have shared good times.
Preface
To whom is this book addressed?
This book is written for anyone who, remotely or closely, needs to think about the design of fibers, cloths, textiles and apparel which come under the aegis of “smart apparel”. Of course, it is also aimed at professionals and the many students in all of these fields, and/or people who are simply curious about this (relatively) new discipline. The subject covers a huge area, including multiple aspects pertaining to physics, biochemistry, technology, technicality, industry, marketing, etc. Quite deliberately, there is a fairly heady mixture of these disciplines in this book, meaning it can be useful to members of each of these various “clans” in bridging some of the gaps dividing them.
Technical level
There is no specific level of technical knowledge required to take advantage of this book – indeed, all readers are welcome. However, throughout, we seek to satisfy readers' curiosity and, in the process, raise their level of technical knowledge rather quickly.
Teaching style
Besides years of activity in the purely professional and industrial spheres, Crego and Paret have long been teaching as well (at engineering schools) and training experts. Thus, the language and tone used are deliberately plain and accessible, but nevertheless highly precise and, in order to offer the complete picture, a very large number of examples of applications are presented. Throughout, the intention is to teach the reader because, in our minds, there is little point writing for our own sakes alone. In addition, we have provided numerous summary tables, secrets and anecdotes throughout the text. Simply put, this book is for you, for the pleasure of understanding and learning, for enjoyment. We remain both “technically” and “textile-ly” yours!
Note.– Of course, there are numerous points which have already been discussed at conferences or in our previous published works. With this in mind, certain repetitions are inevitable in this book, but unfortunately, this is the price to pay for this book to stand alone in this new domain. We therefore ask our faithful readers to forgive us for these repetitions, and to bear with us.
Preamble
To begin with, let us clarify a few points about this book:
The topics discussed herein are by no means new. Hundreds of articles have been published, looking at each subject area individually in detail. However, there is a renewed interest in the discipline, due to numerous new applications and advances in certain technologies (components with very low energy consumption, highly integrated components/systems, energy harvesting, etc.).
At the time of writing (in late 2021), there are still a few barriers to the concrete, industrial applications of these technologies. We describe these barriers in detail, and discuss how some of them could be overcome.
In addition, this book is not – and is not intended to be – an encyclopedic treatment of all biosensor systems, particularly those based on graphene and Intra-Body Communications (smart and connected textiles and apparel). There are already a plethora of articles available online, addressing these subjects in varying degrees of detail. They set out wondrous and futuristic theories, discussing various markets and presenting commercial figures. For our part here, by drawing upon some of this pre-existing material, we aim to present constructive overviews of the various subdisciplines.
Finally, to avoid needless and unproductive redundancy, we have focused solely on subjects about which there is a notable dearth of pre-existing literature – the day-to-day “nitty gritty” technical details of work in this field. Hence, this book is constructed to serve as a guide, helping readers to overlook nothing, and to avoid the pitfalls which may be encountered in designing and implementing patches, and smart, connected and secure apparel. It is all very well to speak eloquently about such matters, and to stage impressive demonstrations. However, it is another matter entirely – and a far greater achievement – to actually produce a smart, connected garment in real life for a sensible cost, and manage to sell it in large numbers at a sensible price. This is the ultimate goal, and the splash created by any project which cannot achieve it is, sadly, much ado about nothing.
March 2023
Introduction
Today's world – the world of the early 2020s – is characterized by major changes in all walks of life: our society, our environment, our way of living, the average age, the way in which we take care of our physical health, workplace legislation, the Covid-19 pandemic and all its repercussions, etc. Among the most common keywords encountered today are “Health”, “Wellbeing”, “Leisure”, “Sport”, “Working environment”, “Safety”, “Personal Protective Equipment” and a whole host of derivatives of these terms.
The authors have, for many years, been at the forefront of this evolution, and have published a number of books on the subject (among them, Paret and Huon (2017)). Through these earlier works, we began to observe a shift in the applications of wearables and smart textiles (Paret and Crego 2018). Now, we wish to focus on even greater integration of electronic systems of autonomous patches into the world of smart apparel (SA), for professional or general use, including sensors and biosensors which, of course, communicate with the outside world, but also communicate with one another to make the system as a whole work. In addition, if we want these “smart garments” to be produced in large quantities on an industrial scale, then we now need to start looking at real, day-to-day applications, and large-scale production (as opposed to the production and laboratory at the Proof of Concept – “POC”). As part of this process, we need to ensure that costs are reasonable and that the products meet a range of criteria concerning their application (types of uses, soft cloth, resistant fabric, high durability in terms of number of washes, temperature, etc.). It may be that the dream is some years away from becoming a reality, but as Jules Verne said, it needs to be expressed one day... and in this case, that day is today!
To return to the matter, in reviewing the literature in the domain, we have found only highly specialized books, doctoral theses, major articles and/or treatises in (bio)chemistry, simplistic treatments, and popularization articles published by startups on a particular, specific aspect of this domain. With the exception of certain documents and books cited in the bibliography, there is a real dearth of literature in this domain. In addition, after having operated in the field for a long time, we have realized that there is a lack of knowledge of the real-world potential of electronics, and of the details of radiofrequency connectivity on the basis of the applications of such technology in the world of smart textiles, fabrics and garments, which is entirely understandable – everyone must have their own areas of expertise!
Following these observations and numerous discussions with professional colleagues and friends, we have once again taken our courage in hand – in this instance, six hands – to explore these domains and, in the hope that it fills a small part of this void, decided to write this book, which is primarily technical, designed around “(multi)-biosensors and patches built on graphene and Intra-Body Communications for and in smart apparel” for applications in healthcare, wellbeing, sport, leisure, etc. These technologies are expected to break into the mainstream market before long.
I.1. Aim of this book
The core of the authors' work is on technical applied research, which is likely to have real-world implications within four to eight years. To some, this may seem a long way off, but it is coming up fast. In that context, every day, we conduct detailed preliminary technical feasibility studies, often drilling down to the true feasibility of a project. Some years ago, after various discussions with clients, a particular project re-emerged: to make a smart garment, quite deliberately not for specialist professional use, designed for applications in the areas of health or wellbeing – a garment designed to help the wearer, using measurements taken by sensors or biosensors integrated into the fabric. The crux of the project was, of course, not new, but when looking at the subject in detail, we found that a great many matters still had to be resolved before it could become a reality.
Note.– In order to help readers come up with their own solutions to the questions that arise, this book considers the use of a “normal” garment: flexible, lightweight, comfortable and washable, rather than a professional, clinical or hospital garment. In that context, we set out to:
examine the various techniques, technologies, materials, etc., which can be employed to produce patches with all sorts of biosensors and bioprocessors, which may or may not be able to be integrated into garments;
examine the types of communication protocols which allow the patches, if necessary, to communicate with one another in a mini-network, other than by using hardwired or RF connections, which are completely inappropriate for wearer comfort;
ensure that the whole system works, of course, without a power cell or battery which needs to be removed or replaced, etc.;
all for a reasonable cost.
That is the point at which things become rather less simple.
Having set out the general context in which this book is situated, throughout, we will take readers through the fine details of everything behind its very long title.
I.2. How is this book constructed?
Let us take a look at the way in which this book is structured, in order to best serve its purposes.
In this field, we must be able to talk, simultaneously, about textiles, apparel, sensors, chemistry, biochemistry, biosensor technologies, electronics, communications, networks, etc., and legal language as well. It is quite a challenge to be highly skilled in all these areas at the same time. Thus, in putting together this book, we have been grateful for the cooperation of a number of experts, all specializing in one of these fields, so the book as a whole offers a coherent treatment of all these aspects. It is important to be able to see the bigger picture before we can think about designing smart apparel, be it for general public or professional use, in the fields of healthcare, wellbeing and sport.
Thus, this book aims to provide a simple, technical and accessible overview, but one which is clear and precise. We look firstly at smart apparel as a whole discipline, ranging from patches to biosensors. Secondly, we look at Body-Area Networks (BANs) in the broadest sense, and in particular, Intra-Body Communications as they relate to textiles. In addition, so that this multidisciplinary journey through techniques, economics and ergonomics in relation to the smart apparel of tomorrow is coherent and enjoyable, and so readers can easily orientate themselves, the book is structured into two main parts, followed by a conclusion.
I.3. Content and plan of the book
Over the course of the introduction, we will indicate the position of the book in the future landscape of patches for applications in health, wellbeing, sport, etc., including the topics of connected objects, hardware and software security, conventional microsensors, smart fibers/textiles/fabrics, IBC and new technologies for these applications.
Part 1 – “Smart Apparel, Smart Patches and Biosensors”
1
– is split into two chapters. The first is dedicated to the specifics and boundaries of the field of apparel, and more specifically, so-called “smart apparel”, implying garments which have integrated or on-board electronics. It should be noted, even at this early stage, that this is a vast discipline: in addition to the garment itself, we will need to look, in detail, at the numerous limitations and constraints (regulatory, health-related, etc.) that the uses of such “smart apparel” are subject to. Thus, we will examine how these sensors and patches can be worked into the industrial design. The second chapter, “Biosensors and Graphene Technology”, takes an in-depth look at the most widely used techniques and biosensor technologies in healthcare, wellbeing, sport and similar applications. The technology needs to be able to withstand the strain of all sorts of clothes (being washed and ironed, etc.) that are worn on a daily basis (they need to be flexible and lightweight, etc.). This discussion will lead us down the paths of pure chemistry, biochemistry, biology, electronics, etc., and an examination of new high-performing materials such as
graphene,
which could serve as a possible generic platform for the design of numerous biosensors.
Part 2 – “Biocontroller”. At this stage, readers will know how to design and build a patch, including the bioprocessor (
Chapter 3
), its electronics, and a power supply through energy harvesting (of course, it must be batteryless) (
Chapter 4
). Then, there is one final step to be completed. The patch, the garment and the application may need to communicate with the outside world using their own communication resources, fully integrated into the garment. In addition, when multiple patches are located at different places in the garment, they may need to communicate with one another, locally, using a wireless network. At that point in the discussion, we will discover Intra-Body Communication (IBC) (
Chapter 5
), in which communications are sent through the human body itself, using the patches arranged in the garment.
Conclusion – This book concludes with a detailed example: “Concrete realization of patches for smart apparel”. The cost aspect will also be addressed, as will the performances and limits of IBC in such applications.
The journey of a thousand miles starts with a single step. so let us now step into the world of apparel, and get started!
I.4. Intended applications for “smart apparel” (SA): patches
Let us take a moment to remember the ultimate goal: to design a piece of smart apparel (abbreviated to SA throughout this book for reasons of space) for use in a wide range of applications such as healthcare, wellbeing and sport. Before proceeding any further, it is important to define how the apparel is to be made “smart” in relation to the intended applications. For this purpose, it needs to include a set of electronics, which, throughout this book, will be called a patch, which serves as a link between the individual's measured “bio” parameters, the garment and the services rendered or to be rendered.
1.4.1. Functional diagram of a patch
The functional overview of the technical content of such a patch is presented in Figure I.1. It is mainly made up of a biosensor (designed, for example, around graphene) and a (super)-biocontroller which has a range of sub-functions. Throughout this book, we will use this overview as the basis for the detailed description of the patch's functions and subfunctions.
Figure I.1. Overview of a “patch”
We have just mentioned patches, but what are they, and what applications do they serve?
In the grand scheme of things, we hope to use patches whose edges have sensors and/or biosensors to measure and track individuals' biometric data. The patches could be stuck to the skin directly, or incorporated/integrated into the actual structure of flexible and lightweight normal clothes for applications in sport, wellbeing, senior activities, etc. They must cause no discomfort to the wearers – and thus be non-intrusive – and give the impression that the garment in question is absolutely normal (see Figure I.2).
Figure I.2.Generic example of applications with a patch directly integrated into the garment
There are two main areas of work and applications in connection with biosensors.
I.4.2. “Physical/mechanical” biosensors
The production of biosensors (whether singly or as part of a network of multiple sensors) is termed "physical/mechanical". Today, it is possible to manufacture generic fabrics which are capable of measuring data about the human body, through capacitance, resistance and bio-impedance (such as those typically used to measure heart rate). These sensors may be stuck to the skin in a pad, or integrated into the fabric directly (e.g. a piezoelectric sensor). We can take a look at a few examples.
Electroconductive thread can be used to produce a range of sensors which are flexible and do not adversely affect current apparel production processes or the quality of the end product (in terms of comfort, washability, mechanical properties, etc.). With this approach, conventional electroconductive textile threads are costly. However, thanks to vaporization and dyeing processes, it is possible to create wires which are washable, foldable and flexible. When doing this, we need to know how to formulate the most suitable material (for example, graphene) for the process in question. These wire threads are then woven together, and configured to respond to data such as pressure, temperature or sweat content, which we wish to measure and concentrate in a bracelet or a watch.
Example I.1 –
Resistive pressure sensor: made from two layers of cloth and a frame of parallel conductive paths incorporating a semiconductive element. Much of the technique here lies in being able to formulate the semiconductive element using modified graphene. The force of pressure alters the resistance in a repetitive, easily predictable manner (see Figure I.3).
Figure I.3.Example of a resistive pressure sensor
(source: Sefar)
Example I.2.–
Woven temperature sensor: connected fabrics, and devices such as bracelets or bandanas yield measurements which may vary depending on the point on the body at which they are measured, and which are therefore medically contestable. In this case, epidermic “patch” sensors can respond to medical requirements analyzed in terms of the form, portability and signal quality. Such connected fabrics can easily be put to work in other sectors, such as automobiles, transport and industry.
Note.– Patches made from graphene have the advantage of being biocompatible with the human body.
I.4.3. “Biological/chemical” biosensors
It is possible to create biosensors (again, singly or in a network) which are “biological/chemical”, coated in an analyte (see Chapter 2), requiring direct contact (be it constant or intermittent) with a specific area of skin. They may or may not be connected to a piece of clothing (for example, a dressing). In both cases discussed above, the patch needs to be very small, very thin, lightweight (batteryless)... in short, purpose made.
In the interests of exhaustivity, these two areas of thinking about biosensors must be subdivided again, into so-called “isolated” patches and “local networks of patches”.
1.4.4. An “isolated” patch
In the simplest of cases, a single, “isolated” patch may be worn by the user. It may simply serve as a dressing, for example. It will have its own power supply, and communicate “on request” with a reader – for example, by an NFC or Bluetooth connection.
I.4.5. Patch networks
In the case of other applications, it may be necessary or even absolutely compulsory to have multiple patches within the same smart garment. Those patches may:
be completely isolated from one another, and each operate completely independently;
or, from time to time, need to communicate with one another and form a mini local connection known as a body-area network (BAN).
In the latter case, we need to choose the way in which the patches are to communicate with one another. The options are to use:
Wired connections: we can reject this solution out of hand, as it would make the garment uncomfortable to wear and the technology is now somewhat outdated.
Radiofrequency (RF) connections: in principle, this is a suitable solution. However, whether using Bluetooth or other technologies, it will mean that additional components need to be present, which will drive up costs and therefore run counter to the economical goal of our project.
Approaches based on:
“Galvanic” operation: in this case, the patch must be in direct contact with the skin. This requirement may be problematic for the user, so as a matter of preference, we shall rarely use this method in the projects discussed in this book.
“Capacitive” operation: in this case, the patch is not in direct contact with the skin, or only periodically comes into contact with the skin. The connection is made by capacitive coupling between the patch and the skin. In principle, this is far trickier to achieve, from a technical standpoint, but is much more advantageous in terms of the device being non-intrusive, and it opens up the possibility of integrating the electronics into the garment itself.
It is this latter type of operation which we shall primarily discuss in this book. The patch will be (able to be) applied directly to the skin, or integrated into the garment. Figure I.4 offers an overview of the possibilities and paradigms which can be chosen.
Figure I.4.Paradigms for patch design and production
1.5. Fields of application for patches in SA
Technical expertise is all very well, but unfortunately, we need concrete projects to live (read, generate turnover, etc.). Sooner or later, then, we have to look at the applications and commercial aspects. Thus, this book mainly focuses on areas of activity in which e-textiles and SA can be of help.
In order to define the technical and commercial context in which this book is situated, we will begin with a few general remarks about the industrial field of textiles and apparel, the related economy, market and policy. We will also discuss high-added-value “smart apparel” projects in domains such as medicine, healthcare, wellbeing, security, protection with professional protective wear, or traceability, theft prevention, etc. In addition, beyond these projects, the technology will be applied in sport, fashion, home decorating, creative arts, etc., within five years, industrially and commercially. The future is already here!
Let us briefly examine the main driving forces behind these markets.
I.5.1. Healthcare and medicine
There are vast ranges of possible applications for these patches in these markets, which are always growing, due to a range of factors:
In France, one of the consequences of the demographic transition is a reduction in fertility and an increase in life expectancy. This leads to an increase in the proportion of the population aged 65 or over, which rose from 13.9% in 1990 to 18.8% in 2016. Aging is expected to continue in the European population, and by 2050, the proportion of people aged 65 and over will be 28.5%.
Territories with a low population density have a high proportion of elderly people. Thus, the main issue facing these populations is the problem of isolation and access to services.
“Health patches” that can communicate externally, therefore, are one of the potential solutions to the isolation of the elderly, because they can be remotely connected to doctors, who can directly monitor various health parameters. In addition, for wellbeing and to address the problem of an aging population, these technologies could help lower the costs of the solutions put forward, allowing care to be provided and ensuring users/patients can stay in their own homes, in good conditions.
It is therefore important to:
define an architecture for remote supervision of dependent people by means of a connected garment, in order to facilitate interventions by caregivers and helpers when required;
interconnect a set of smart patches to supervise the wearer in either proximity or remote mode;
create applications for the temporary transfer of rights and/or physical access from person to person, for private or sensitive spaces (secure rooms in pharmacies, reserved areas, etc.);
take readings, locally and remotely, of the person's physiological data in an IAAS architecture (for example, monitoring of diabetes patients by a connected diabetic shoe);
provide a range of sensor patches, connected sensors and continuous surveillance of at-risk patients (Covid-19 brought about a high level of teleconsultation and lockdown in elderly care homes).
Figure I.5.Examples of applications, from a simple sensor to a patch
1.5.2. Sport, wellbeing and leisure
The market in the fields of sport, wellbeing and leisure is also highly dynamic, thanks to the rise in popularity of sports and health disciplines: running, aquabiking, fitness, yoga (especially for women), and the desire for the quantified self, which leads to the pursuit of improved personal performances. In these environments and in the context of wellbeing, it is a matter of providing reassurance and preventing risky situations: defining a range of connected “second skins” such as kneepads, bras and stretchy bands whose applications would be: remote supervision and measurement of physical efforts for training sessions and competitions.
I.5.3. Personal Protective Equipment and working conditions
On a professional level, the market in industrial/professional personal protective equipment (PPE) and monitoring of working conditions is regularly growing, leading to a high demand for lightweight, strong and interactive materials, in both civilian and military markets (we will come back to this point):
employees or people exposed to high-risk situations (noise, heat, high physical intensity, such as in sports);
vehicle access control (vehicle-driver pairing);
drive-time monitoring;
isolated workers;
augmented reality;
posturology;
measuring physical effort;
physical and logical access control;
control of access to sensitive areas (Seveso, operators of vital importance, major administrative bodies under the military programming law).
Figure I.6.Example of a PPE jacket/parka
(source: DuPont)
Note that in particular among the elements listed, which take part in or may have a role to play in the monitoring of parameters in these areas, there are two main branches of items which often include electronics: patches that are directly stuck to the skin or patches which are included in clothes, making them into “smart” apparel.
1.6. Market scope
The potential applications for such products, which have a commercial future in the fields of health, wellbeing, sport, leisure and industry are presented briefly in Figure I.7, which, for clarity's sake, gives a few numbers relating to the size of these markets.
Figure I.7.Size of the market in printed electronics, organic and flexible technologies
I.6.1. Defining a business model
In parallel to and in advance of all the above, in the patch and its immediate environment, before burying ourselves in a project that may easily last months on end, it is important to have a concrete idea of its financial viability. It is therefore important to focus on and define the types of business models that can be envisaged, and then on that basis, make an overall determination of where the economic interest of such a concept lies, at what level, and for whom. For this reason, we need to estimate the final price of the patch, the price of the system, types of uses, jobs, requirements, types of potential users, sellers and buyers etc.
Let us look, for example, at the business model in Figure I.8, relating to tele-surveillance or remote assistance of a person.
A fine-grained analysis of the economic model of this value chain reveals that the price is heavily linked to the level of purchasing of the sensor material (for example, quality graphene). Also, though, the purpose of the project is to collect health data so that the users can monitor the progress of some of their vital statistics in real time. In the business model for the project, the sale of health data represents one of the major financial benefits, and in addition, the exploitation/sale of the information harvested by all the applied patches seems to offer a stable, long-lasting channel for generating profit. In time, those who win from this business model will be those who are able to:
produce quality graphene (exfoliated, liquid, etc.) at reasonable prices;
produce integrated sensors (multisensors) on an industrial scale and at low cost;
produce IoT applications, including sensors that are widely connected and autonomous in terms of energy supply;
provide cloud architectures for data processing with a significant “artificial intelligence” element in order to predict human behavior, the evolution of human health, and that of plant health.
Figure I.8.Value chain of a telesurveillance solution
I.7. A few remarks
In view of the dearth of patch manufacturers working with graphene, there is a great deal of added value in the design and manufacture. There is also a lot of added value in patches with energy autonomy. At present, these sensors are more often at the laboratory development stage rather than mass production. However, there is a plethora of studies and prototypes on the market.
With respect to microelectronic components, the market does offer mature components to which improvements could be made in terms of power consumption and software handling, because there are not many API-type software applications in this sector.
In terms of processing Big Data and organizing the sale of such data, the studies to define the different business models for the possible applications must also take the issues of cybersecurity, and the constraints of the GDPR in each sector (medical, wellbeing, etc.), amongst other things, into account.
Having now thoroughly outlined the situation as it stands, let us begin by examining the constraints that a patch must meet in the apparel sector.
Notes
1
This part was written with the kind help of Florence Bost, CEO of the textile company Sable Chaud, and Maîtres Naima Alahyane Rogeon and Isabelle Pottier, of the law firm Alain Bensoussan – Lexing.
Part 1Smart Apparel, Smart Patches and Biosensors
1Smart Apparel, Smart Patches and the Related Constraints
1.1. Reminders and definitions
We have already detailed a large number of points relating to smart, communicating fibers, textiles, fabrics and apparel in an earlier work (Paret and Crego 2018). However, for those who are new to the field, let us begin here with a brief description of the main families of textiles1.
1.1.1. Main families of textiles
Generally speaking, the world of textiles can be subdivided into a variety of categories. Two very broad ones are “ordinary textiles” and “technical textiles” (TTs).
1.1.1.1. Ordinary textiles and technical textiles (TTs)
These two large families are generally defined as follows:
normal textiles cover “clothing and homeware”;
TTs are “textiles for technical and professional uses”.
