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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Smart power integration is at the crossroads of different fields of electronics such as high and low power, engine control and electrothermal studies of devices and circuits. These circuits are complex and are heavily influenced by substrate coupling, especially where 3D integration is concerned. This book provides an overview of smart power integration, including high voltage devices, dedicated and compatible processes, as well as isolation techniques. Two types of integration are highlighted: modular or hybrid integration, together with compatible devices such as the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT); and monolithic integration, specifically through the paradigm of functional integration. Smart Power Integration outlines the main MOS devices for high voltage integrated circuits, and explores into the fields of codesign, coupling hardware and software design, including applications to motor control. Studies focusing on heat pipes for electronics cooling are also outlined.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Overview of Smart Power Integration
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Smart PIC applications
1.3. Historical view of the MOS power devices
1.4. Smart PIC fabrication processes
1.5. Insulation techniques
1.6. Motivation of the book
2 Modular or Hybrid Integration
2.1. Introduction
2.2. IGBT technology evolution
2.3. Assembly technology
2.4. Thermal aspect
2.5. Applications fields
3 Monolithic Integration
3.1. Functional integration and smart power
3.2. Transition from low-voltage technology (CMOS) to high voltage
3.3. Combining analog and digital (mixed)
4 Technology for Simulating Power Integrated Systems
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Hardware and software design of engine control
4.3. Proposed design stream: related tools
4.4. Conclusion
5 3D Electrothermal Integration
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Electrothermal modeling of substrate
5.3. Heat analysis for 3D ICs
5.4. Conclusion
5.5. Heat pipe
5.6. Conclusion
6 Substrate Coupling in Smart Power Integration
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Part I: smart power integration using the DTI technique
6.3. Part II: smart power integration using stacked 3D technology
Conclusion
C.1. Conclusions
C.2. Future work
Appendix: Semiconductor Physical Models
A.1. Electron and hole densities
A.2. Intrinsic semiconductors
A.3. Extrinsic semiconductors
A.4. Incomplete ionization
A.5. Mobility
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1. Advantages and disadvantages of the MOSFET and bipolar transistor
Table 2.2. Internal bipolar transistor of an IGBT structure
Table 2.3. Technological changes and consequences on epitaxial IGBT
Table 2.4. Comparison of the effect of thermal expansion in various modules
Chapter 3
Table 3.1. The influence of the technological developments of CMOS processes
Table 3.2. Key technological steps in the CMOS process
Table 3.3. The influence of the technological developments of voltage and curren...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1. Design flow and associated tools
Chapter 5
Table 5.1. Parameters of eight-die model: IC 3D
Table 5.2. Geometry parameters for the one-via model
Table 5.3. Properties of the working fluid, copper and porous wick materials use...
Appendix: Semiconductor Physical Models
Table A.1. Constant parameters used to calculate the amount of incomplete ioniza...
Table A.2. Constant mobility model: default coefficients for silicon
Table A.3. Masetti model: default coefficients
Table A.4. Canali model parameters (default values for silicon)
Table A.5. Default velocity saturation parameters (for silicon)
Table A.6. Default parameters for the doping and temperature-dependent SRH lifet...
Table A.7. Default coefficients of the Auger recombination model
Table A.8. Band gap narrowing models: default parameters for silicon
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Overview of Smart Power Integration
Conclusion
Appendix: Semiconductor Physical Models
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Smart Power Integration
Mohamed Abouelatta
Ahmed Shaker
Christian Gontrand
First published 2022 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd
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London SW19 4EU
UK
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030
USA
www.iste.co.uk
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2022
The rights of Mohamed Abouelatta, Ahmed Shaker and Christian Gontrand to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022939122
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-837-5
Preface
Smart integration is a process in which an existing system infrastructure is upgraded through the integration of multiple technologies, for example, automated sensors, advanced automated controls and forecasting systems. A smart grid allows for interaction between the consumers and enables optimal use of energy and communication systems based on price preferences and system technical stresses, without forgetting the environmental aspect.
The continuous reduction in dimensions and the need for increasingly high power density have highlighted the need for ever more efficient structures. Smart power technology has been developed to meet this demand. This technology makes specific use of (L)DMOS devices, offering new solutions because of its unique high voltage and high current characteristics. The operation of these devices is accompanied by a number of phenomena. Good modeling makes it possible to account for these phenomena and predict the physical behavior of the transistor prior to production. To this, we add an axis that has become unavoidable: the entanglement between devices, circuits, connections and substrates.
(Micro)grid designs have evolved significantly in recent years with the incorporation of information and communication technology (ICT) solutions, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML). A smart microgrid, equipped with sensors and automation controls, can efficiently perform load profiling and forecasting, generation management, load prioritization, etc. A go-to example is the vehicles that are quickly becoming a center of communication, navigation and connectivity. Automotive solutions will integrate with smart city infrastructures, personal devices and in-vehicle services to become part of a connected whole.
This book introduces different domains and tools and allows the reader to develop their understanding of smart power systems through real studies. Knowledge of high school mathematics is sufficient to progress through these studies.
Mohamed Abdelhamid AbouelattaAhmed Shaker Ahmed Zaki GhazalaChristian GontrandJanuary 2021
1Overview of Smart Power Integration
1.1. Introduction
Since 1965, integrated circuit (IC) technology has followed Moore’s law which states that the number of integrated devices doubles every 18 months. This growth is partly due to an increase in the size of ICs that can be produced. However, the dominant effect is due to the reduction in feature size of component devices that are integrated. The reduction of feature size tends to bring advantages of increased speed and the possibility to operate at lower voltages, allowing reduced power consumption. These advantages make technology shrinkage very attractive for technical performance reasons, as well as cost.
However, there are many applications where voltage cannot be reduced for external reasons. There are three areas where this is the case: power electronics, automotive applications and wide dynamic range circuits. In such applications, system integration of high voltage, analog and digital circuitry on a single IC is attractive in order to gain advantage in terms of miniaturization, reliability, efficiency and cost. However, in order to make these gains, the conflict of reducing voltage due to technology feature size has to be resolved with the requirements for operation at continued relatively high voltage.
The different operation and interface requirements of high voltage, analog and digital require a technology development optimized for these system requirements. Different technologies have been developed to address these applications, such as smart power and various bipolar-CMOS-DMOS (BCD) processes.
Smart power integrated circuits (PICs) that monolithically integrate low-loss power devices and control circuitry have attracted much attention across a wide range of applications. These ICs improve system reliability, reduce volume and weight and increase overall efficiency. Considerable effort has been put into the development of smart power devices for automotive electronics, peripheral computer appliances and portable equipment, such as cell phones, video cameras, and so on.
Commonly used smart power devices are the lateral double diffused MOS Field Effect Transistor (LDMOSFETs) and lateral insulated gate bipolar transistors (LIGBTs) implemented in bulk silicon or silicon on insulator (SOI). The main challenges in the development of these devices are obtaining the best trade-off between specific ON-resistance RON,SP (RON × area) and breakdown voltage (BV), and shrinking feature size without degrading device characteristics.
1.2. Smart PIC applications
Figure 1.1.Applications of power devices
Smart PIC technology is expected to have an impact in all areas in which discrete power semiconductor devices are currently being used. It is anticipated that this technology will open up new applications based upon the added features of smart controls. In Figure 1.1, applications of power devices are shown as a function of operating frequency. Another classification approach of these applications involves current and voltage handling requirements, as shown in Figure 1.2. Some of these applications are listed in the following subsections.
Figure 1.2.System ratings of power devices
1.2.1. Flat panel displays
The popularity of portable electronic products such as cell phones and notebook computers has generated significant demand for flat panel displays. These displays are usually liquid crystal displays (LCD) or electro-luminescence (EL) panels arranged in a matrix with large number of column and row drivers (e.g. 640 × 480 for VGA resolution). Although the required voltage may be high, the current level is low (usually in the mA range). Smart PICs with as many as 80 output channels have been fabricated on a monolithic chip.
1.2.2. Computer power supplies and disk drivers
Computer systems are developing continuously in terms of speed and processing capabilities. This is made possible by using higher density Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. However, the increased power requirement has resulted in an increase in the physical size of the power supply. In 1976, the CPU board and power supply each represented one-third of the total physical volume of a computer system. By the 1990s, the power supply had grown to 50% of the physical volume while the CPU board had shrunk to about 20%. To reverse this trend, it is necessary to develop smart PIC technology to improve the density and hence the volume of the power supplies.
1.2.3. Variable speed motor drives
Variable-speed motor drives are being developed to reduce power loss in all applications. The improvement in performance requires smart power technology that can operate at relatively high frequencies with low power losses. This translates to a low ON-state voltage drop at high current levels, fast switching speed and rugged operation. For smart PIC implementation, additional consideration, such as level shifting to and from high voltages, over-temperature, over-current, over-voltage and short-circuit protection are more critical.
1.2.4. Factory automation
Advanced numerical control and robotic systems require efficient smart PIC technology to create a distributed power control network under the management of a central computer. The smart PICs for this application must be capable of providing AC or DC power to various loads, such as motors, solenoids, arc welders, and so on. They are also required to perform diagnostic, protection and feedback functions.
1.2.5. Telecommunications
One of the high-volume markets for smart power technology is in telecommunications. The technology required for these applications must be capable of integrating multiple high-voltage, high-current devices on a single chip. At present, this has been achieved using MOS devices fabricated using dielectric insulation. Improvements are required to reduce the cost of the dielectric insulation fabrication process. Ongoing development on direct wafer bonding has been promising in terms of providing a cost-effective process.
1.2.6. Appliance controls
The main benefit of using smart PICs in appliance control is to provide improvements in performance and efficiency. Onboard sensors can also provide more precise controls (e.g. temperature settings). Simple domestic appliances, such as toasters, washing machines and irons, are appearing with smart PICs for this reason.
1.2.7. Consumer electronics
Smart PICs are required for a large variety of entertainment systems such as CD players, tape recorders, VCRs, etc. For example, a monolithic motor control IC that regulates the speed of the motor, while minimizing power losses, is essential to all battery-operated consumer entertainment systems. Development of improved lateral power devices with greater power density is necessary to increase the efficiency of this technology.
1.2.8. Lighting controls
Traditional fluorescent lights use a mechanical ballast (transformer) for start-up. The electrical characteristics of fluorescent lights vary drastically from start-up to normal operation. In order to improve the efficiency and overall lifetime of a lighting system, more precise control is needed. The cost of electronic fluorescent light ballasts implemented using smart PICs can easily be justified by the resulting savings in energy and maintenance. In addition, incorporating smart PIC technology enables lighting to be controlled by a central computer, further enhancing energy savings in commercial buildings.
1.2.9. Smart homes
The concept of smart homes is attracting increased attention as a result of advances in smart power technology that are driving down the cost of the control module. A smart home system requires the development of a multiplexed network with smart power modules to control loads such as ovens, furnaces, air conditioners, lights and small appliances.
1.2.10. Aircraft electronics (Avionics)
The concept of fly-by-wire, where the hydraulic actuators in an aircraft are replaced by electromechanical actuators, is gaining acceptance among manufacturers. Success in development will depend on the availability of smart PIC technology to perform the control that is small in both size and weight. The power switches must be extremely reliable and capable of operating at high voltage and current levels with low ON-state voltage drop. In this regard, MOS-gated devices are essential for compact PICs.
1.2.11. Automotive electronics
One of the biggest anticipated markets for smart PICs is automotive electronics. Between the 1960s and 1970s, there was a slow uptake of discrete devices and analog ICs for automotive applications. In the 1980s, digital ICs and microprocessors were incorporated. In the 1990s, smart PICs were already being used to create a multiplexed control network in cars to reduce the size and weight of the wiring harness. The smart PIC modules control loads such as lights and motors, while providing protection functions. This has greatly enhanced fault management and diagnostic capability.
1.3. Historical view of the MOS power devices
The basic operation of the MOSFET involves the formation of a conductive channel at the surface of the semiconductor, below an insulator, by the application of a voltage to a gate electrode. The first MOSFET structure reported in 1960 was not designed to support high voltages or handle high-current levels and, furthermore, thin metal electrodes were used that had poor current-handling capability.
In the 1970s, it was recognized that the vertical architecture is required to handle high voltages and currents to produce a power device. The vertical structure enables the use of thick source and drain electrodes. The first power MOSFET structure was fabricated using a V-groove process, as shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3.V-groove MOSFET structure. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/abouelatta/smartpower.zip
The V-MOSFET structure fell out of favor because of manufacturing difficulties. In addition, the sharp corner at the bottom of the V-groove was found to degrade the breakdown voltage.
The first commercial power MOSFET was the vertical diffused (VD) MOSFET of the mid 1970s, which is illustrated in Figure 1.4.
The non-uniform current distribution enhances its resistance (JFET region), making the internal resistance of the VD-MOSFET structure larger than the ideal specific ON-resistance of the drift region. The large internal resistance of the VD-MOSFET structure provided motivation for the development of the trench-gate power structure in the 1990s.
Moreover, the U-MOSFET is shown in Figure 1.5. There is no JFET region in the structure, enabling a reduction in internal resistance when compared to the VD-MOSFET structure.
Figure 1.4.VD-MOSFET structure. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/abouelatta/smartpower.zip
Figure 1.5.U-MOSFET structure. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/abouelatta/smartpower.zip
One significant drawback of the vertical devices is the fact that it is difficult to include multiple power devices on the same monolithic chip. The lateral structure allows all terminals to be accessed from the top surface of the chip. The current flows laterally from the drain along the surface through the MOS channel and up into the source, hence the name LDMOSFET, as shown in Figure 1.6.
LDMOSFET generally suffers from a higher specific ON-resistance due to the longer current path. Furthermore, the blocking voltage of the LDMOSFET depends critically on the curvature of the P-body to the N-drift region junction. In order to obtain high blocking voltage, it is necessary to use a low doping concentration in the N-drift region. However, this directly contradicts the low specific ON-resistance requirement. Therefore, it must be optimized to achieve high breakdown voltage with low RON,SP.
Figure 1.6.LDMOSFET structure. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/abouelatta/smartpower.zip
1.4. Smart PIC fabrication processes
Smart PIC fabrication processes are classified into two categories: dedicated processes and compatible processes.
1.4.1. Dedicated processes
A dedicated smart PIC technology refers to a fabrication process with the optimization of the power devices as the highest priority. The performance of the low-voltage CMOS devices is usually compromised. S.G.S. Thomson is a long time advocate of such a trend with their family of BCD processes.
1.4.2. Compatible processes
The compatible approach is to integrate the power devices into an existing process. While this would invariably lead to a greater degree of compromise in the performance of the power devices, it is a significantly more cost-effective approach. The goal would be to minimize the number of additional steps that have to be introduced to the original process. This will ensure low production costs since most existing processes are already fine-tuned and are running at high volume.
The blocking voltage and specific ON-resistance ratings can be optimized by selecting the appropriate doping profiles. The compatible approach is currently being adopted by many manufacturers for their existing CMOS processes, especially for out-dated processes. Since most of the production volume is being migrated to more advanced processes (e.g. BiCMOS processes), in order to maintain the existing process lines, new applications have to be found. Smart PIC technology is the ideal way to inject new life into these soon to be obsolete processes.
1.5. Insulation techniques
In PIC technology, power transistors are controlled by low-voltage BiCMOS circuitry. Insulation between these two types of components – i.e. high power devices and control/logic circuitry – is necessary in order to avoid crosstalk and ensure systems operate as they should.
