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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Learn the fundamentals of smart photovoltaic (PV) inverter technology with this insightful one-stop resource Smart Solar PV Inverters with Advanced Grid Support Functionalities presents a comprehensive coverage of smart PV inverter technologies in alleviating grid integration challenges of solar PV systems and for additionally enhancing grid reliability. Accomplished author Rajiv Varma systematically integrates information from the wealth of knowledge on smart inverters available from EPRI, NREL, NERC, SIWG, EU-PVSEC, CIGRE, IEEE publications; and utility experiences worldwide. The book further presents a novel, author-developed and patented smart inverter technology for utilizing solar PV plants both in the night and day as a Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) Controller STATCOM, named PV-STATCOM. Replete with case studies, this book includes over 600 references and 280 illustrations. Smart Solar PV Inverters with Advanced Grid Support Functionalities' features include: * Concepts of active and reactive power control; description of different smart inverter functions, and modeling of smart PV inverter systems * Distribution system applications of PV-STATCOM for dynamic voltage control, enhancing connectivity of solar PV and wind farms, and stabilization of critical motors * Transmission system applications of PV-STATCOM for improving power transfer capacity, power oscillation damping (POD), suppression of subsynchronous oscillations, mitigation of fault induced delayed voltage recovery (FIDVR), and fast frequency response (FFR) with POD * Hosting capacity for solar PV systems, its enhancement through effective settings of different smart inverter functions; and control coordination of smart PV inverters * Emerging smart inverter grid support functions and their pioneering field demonstrations worldwide, including Canada, USA, UK, Chile, China, and India. Perfect for system planners and system operators, utility engineers, inverter manufacturers and solar farm developers, this book will prove to be an important resource for academics and graduate students involved in electrical power and renewable energy systems.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
COVER
SERIES PAGE
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT PAGE
DEDICATION PAGE
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
FOREWORD
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1 IMPACTS OF HIGH PENETRATION OF SOLAR PV SYSTEMS AND SMART INVERTERDEVELOPMENTS
1.1 Concepts of Reactive and Active Power Control
1.2 Challenges of High Penetration of Solar PV Systems
1.3 Development of Smart Inverters
1.4 Conclusions
References
2 SMART INVERTER FUNCTIONS
2.1 Capability Characteristics of Distributed Energy Resource (DER)
2.2 General Considerations in Implementation of Smart Inverter Functions
2.3 Smart Inverter Functions for Reactive Power and Voltage Control
2.4 Smart Inverter Function for Voltage and Active Power Control
2.5 Low/High Voltage Ride‐Through (L/H VRT) Function
2.6 Frequency–Watt Function
2.7 Low/High Frequency Ride‐Through (L/H FRT) Function
2.8 Ramp Rate
2.9 Fast Frequency Response
2.10 Smart Inverter Functions Related to DERs Based on Energy Storage Systems
2.11 Limit Maximum Active Power Function
2.12 Set Active Power Mode
2.13 Active Power Smoothing Mode
2.14 Active Power Following Function
2.15 Prioritization of Different Functions
2.16 Emerging Functions
2.17 Summary
References
3 MODELING AND CONTROL OF THREE‐PHASE SMART PV INVERTERS
3.1 Power Flow from a Smart Inverter System
3.2 Smart PV Inverter System
3.3 Power Circuit Constituents of Smart Inverter System
3.4 Control Circuit Constituents of Smart Inverter System
3.5 Smart Inverter Voltage Controllers
3.6 PV Plant Control
3.7 Modeling Guidelines
3.8 Summary
References
4 PV‐STATCOM: A NEW SMART PV INVERTER AND A NEW FACTS CONTRO
4.1 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)
4.2 Static Var Compensator (SVC)
4.3 Synchronous Condenser
4.4 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
4.5 Control Modes of SVC and STATCOM
4.6 Photovoltaic‐Static Synchronous Compensator (PV‐STATCOM)
4.7 Operating Modes of PV‐STATCOM
4.8 Functions of PV‐STATCOM
4.9 Cost of Transforming an Existing Solar PV System into PV‐STATCOM
4.10 Cost of Operating a PV‐STATCOM
4.11 Summary
References
5 PV‐STATCOM APPLICATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
5.1 Nighttime Application of PV Solar Farm as STATCOM to Regulate Grid Voltage
5.2 Increasing Wind Farm Connectivity with PV‐STATCOM
5.3 Dynamic Voltage Control by PV‐STATCOM
5.4 Enhancement of Solar Farm Connectivity by PV‐STATCOM
5.5 Reduction of Line Losses by PV‐STATCOM
5.6 Stabilization of a Remotely Located Critical Motor by PV‐STATCOM
5.7 Conclusions
References
6 PV‐STATCOM APPLICATIONS IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
6.1 Increasing Power Transmission Capacity by PV‐STATCOM
6.2 Power Oscillation Damping by PV‐STATCOM
6.3 Power Oscillation Damping with Combined Active and Reactive Power Modulation Control of PV‐STATCOM
6.4 Mitigation of Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) in Synchronous Generator by PV‐STATCOM
6.5 Alleviation of Subsynchronous Oscillations (SSOs) in Induction‐Generator‐Based Wind Farm by PV‐STATCOM
6.6 Mitigation of Fault‐Induced Delayed Voltage Recovery (FIDVR) by PV‐STATCOM
6.7 Simultaneous Fast Frequency Control and Power Oscillation Damping by PV‐STATCOM
6.8 Conclusions
References
7 INCREASING HOSTING CAPACITY BY SMART INVERTERS – CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS
7.1 Hosting Capacity of Distribution Feeders
7.2 Hosting Capacity Based on Voltage Violations
7.3 Increasing Hosting Capacity with Non Smart Inverter Techniques
7.4 Characteristics of Different Smart Inverter Functions
7.5 Factors Affecting Hosting Capacity of Distribution Feeders
7.6 Determination of Settings of Constant Power Factor Function
7.7 Impact of DER Interconnection Transformer
7.8 Determination of Smart Inverter Function Settings from Quasi‐Static Time‐Series (QSTS) Analysis
7.9 Guidelines for Selection of Smart Inverter Settings
7.10 Determination of Sites for Implementing DERs with Smart Inverter Functions
7.11 Mitigation Methods for Increasing Hosting Capacity
7.12 Increasing Hosting Capacity in Thermally Constrained Distribution Networks
7.13 Utility Simulation Studies of Smart Inverters for Increasing Hosting Capacity
7.14 Field Implementation of Smart Inverters for Increasing Hosting Capacity
7.15 Conclusions
References
8 CONTROL COORDINATION OF SMART PV INVERTERS
8.1 Concepts of Control Coordination
8.2 Coordination of Smart Inverters with Conventional Voltage Controllers
8.3 Control Interactions – Lessons Learned from Coordination of FACTS Controllers for Voltage Control
8.4 Control Interactions Among Smart PV Inverters and their Mitigation
8.5 Study of Smart Inverter Controller Interactions
8.6 Case Study of Controller Coordination of Smart Inverters in a Realistic Distribution System
8.7 Control Coordination of PV‐STATCOM and DFIG Wind Farm for Mitigation of Subsynchronous Oscillations
8.8 Control Interactions Among Plants of Inverter Based Resources and FACTS/HVDC Controllers
8.9 Conclusions
References
9 EMERGING TRENDS WITH SMART SOLAR PV INVERTERS
9.1 Combination of Smart PV Inverters with Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS)
9.2 Combination of Smart PV Inverters with Electric Vehicle Charging Systems
9.3 Combination of Smart PV Inverters with Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) and EV Charging Systems
9.4 Grid Forming Inverter Technology
9.5 Field Demonstrations of Smart Solar PV Inverters
9.6 Potential of New Revenue Making Opportunities for Smart Solar PV Inverters
9.7 Conclusions
References
INDEX
END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Impact of PV penetration on damping of critical mode.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Minimum reactive power injection and absorption capability.
Table 2.2 Default volt–var settings for different international standards.
Table 2.3 International default volt–watt settings normalized to ANSI volta...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Cost of a 5 MW utility‐scale single‐axis tracker PV system with e...
Table 4.2 Cost of a 100 MW utility‐scale single‐axis tracker PV system with...
Table 4.3 Costs of STATCOMs and SVCs.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Increase in capacity of wind farm.
Table 5.2 System losses and additional loss reduction for Scenario 1.
Table 5.3 Summary of energy savings for different cases.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Increase in stable power transfer limit (MW) for study system I w...
Table 6.2 Increase in power transfer limits for study system II with differ...
Table 6.3 Settling time of power oscillations with different PV‐STATCOM loc...
Table 6.4 Comparison of performance of controller with and without TOV supp...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Different methods of determining settings of smart inverter funct...
Table 7.2 Calculation of PV site impact factor.
Table 7.3 Coordinates of volt–var function.
Table 7.4 International default settings of volt‐watt function normalized t...
Table 7.5 International default settings of volt‐var function normalized to...
Table 7.6 Settings of watt‐power factor.
Table 7.7 Settings of fixed power factor.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Increase in hosting capacity obtained from different smart grid (...
Table 8.2 System eigenvalues for different cases.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Minimum voltages at selected junction points before and after EV ...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 A simple power system with an inductor connected at PCC.
Figure 1.2 Phasor diagrams for network with inductive load; (a) network with...
Figure 1.3 A simple power system with a capacitor connected at PCC.
Figure 1.4 Phasor diagrams for network with capacitive load; (a) network wit...
Figure 1.5 A simple power system with a PV solar system connected at PCC.
Figure 1.6 Phasor diagrams for network with active power injection from the ...
Figure 1.7 Sequential frequency controls after a sudden loss of generation a...
Figure 1.8 Simultaneous contributions of inertial response, primary frequenc...
Figure 1.9 Voltage rise due to active power injected by solar PV based DER i...
Figure 1.10 A realistic distribution feeder in Ontario.
Figure 1.11 PCC bus voltages for various solar farm output cases with increa...
Figure 1.12 TOV in PCC phase voltages for fault at load end.
Figure 1.13 California ISO (CAISO) Duck Chart.
Figure 1.14 (a, b) Network resonant frequency not coincident with harmonic f...
Figure 1.15 System equivalent inertia at different PV penetration levels....
Figure 1.16 WECC frequency response under high PV penetration scenarios: (a)...
Figure 1.17 Typical behavior of power systems with different levels of store...
Figure 1.18 Single‐line diagram of the study system near the participating g...
Figure 1.19 Speed of generator 2103 after a three‐phase fault at bus 2104....
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 P–Q capability curve of a distributed energy resource.
Figure 2.2 Reactive power capability of a typical synchronous generator comp...
Figure 2.3 Depiction of different interconnecting buses.
Figure 2.4 Minimum reactive power capability of Category B DERs.
Figure 2.5 Constant power factor function.
Figure 2.6 Volt–var curve of a DER.
Figure 2.7 Default volt–var settings for different international standards....
Figure 2.8 Typical watt–var characteristic.
Figure 2.9 Dynamic reactive current injection.
Figure 2.10 Dynamic reactive current support function.
Figure 2.11 Volt–watt characteristic for DER (a) without energy storage; (b)...
Figure 2.12 International default volt–watt settings normalized to ANSI volt...
Figure 2.13 Combined operation of volt–var mode and volt–watt mode of operat...
Figure 2.14 Dynamic volt–watt function.
Figure 2.15 DER response to abnormal voltages and voltage ride‐through requi...
Figure 2.16 DER response to abnormal voltages and voltage ride‐through requi...
Figure 2.17 Voltage ride‐through time duration curve from NERC.
*
The area ou...
Figure 2.18 Frequency watt function 1.
Figure 2.19 Frequency watt function 2.
Figure 2.20 Frequency‐droop function curves.
Figure 2.21 Frequency watt function with battery energy storage.
Figure 2.22 DER default response to abnormal frequencies and frequency ride‐...
Figure 2.23 Off nominal frequency capability curve from NERC (a) Eastern int...
Figure 2.24 Charging function of the ESS‐based DER.
Figure 2.25 State of charge (SOC)‐based model of ESS.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 A smart inverter system connected to the power system.
Figure 3.2 Active and reactive power flow from the smart inverter system tow...
Figure 3.3 Reactive power injection by the smart inverter system.
Figure 3.4 Reactive power absorption by the smart inverter system.
Figure 3.5 Control system of a smart PV inverter system.
Figure 3.6 Typical
I–V
characteristic of a PV module at (a) different ...
Figure 3.7 Variation of power output from a PV solar panel.
Figure 3.8 A two‐level Voltage Source Converter.
Figure 3.9 AC filter.
Figure 3.10 Phasor diagram of space phasor
in
abc
and
dq
reference frames....
Figure 3.11 Sinusoidal pulse width modulation. (a) Modulating signal and car...
Figure 3.12 Phasor diagram prior to synchronization by PLL.
Figure 3.13 Phasor diagram after synchronization by PLL.
Figure 3.14 Block diagram of a Phase Locked Loop.
Figure 3.15 Block diagram of the current controller.
Figure 3.16 Block diagram of DC‐link voltage controller.
Figure 3.17 Implementation of volt–var smart inverter function.
Figure 3.18 Block diagram of PCC voltage controller.
Figure 3.19 Typical topology of a solar PV plant.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Single machine connected to infinite bus.
Figure 4.2 Comparison of different power flow limits in a transmission line....
Figure 4.3 A TSC–TCR based SVC.
Figure 4.4 Typical control system of SVC.
Figure 4.5 Synchronous condenser.
Figure 4.6 Variation of synchronous condenser armature current with change i...
Figure 4.7 STATCOM with DC capacitor (no energy storage). (a) power circuit,...
Figure 4.8 Typical Voltage versus Current characteristics of a) STATCOM and ...
Figure 4.9 Typical control system of a STATCOM.
Figure 4.10 (a) Typical low voltage ride‐through characteristic; (b) typical...
Figure 4.11 Voltage profile across a long transmission line.
Figure 4.12 Voltage profile across a long transmission line with dynamic rea...
Figure 4.13 Single machine infinite bus (SMIB) system with a mid‐line connec...
Figure 4.14 (a) A basic PV solar system, (b) A basic STATCOM, and (c) A basi...
Figure 4.15 PV‐STATCOM capability of PV inverter in active power priority mo...
Figure 4.16 PV‐STATCOM operation in reactive power priority mode. Active pow...
Figure 4.17 PV‐STATCOM operation in reactive power priority mode: Active pow...
Figure 4.18 Combined modulation of active and reactive power after partial c...
Figure 4.19 Simultaneous modulation of active power and reactive power with ...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Single‐line diagram of the distributed generation study system....
Figure 5.2 Solar farm as STATCOM – controller diagram. (a) synchronization, ...
Figure 5.3 Solar farm as STATCOM – PCC voltage regulation. (a) PCC voltage p...
Figure 5.4 Solar farm as STATCOM – transient performance during 3LG fault. (...
Figure 5.5 Single‐line diagram of a realistic feeder in Ontario.
Figure 5.6 PV‐STATCOM control system.
Figure 5.7 Variation in PCC voltage with increasing wind power during nightt...
Figure 5.8 Variation in PCC voltage with increasing wind power during daytim...
Figure 5.9 Transient overvoltage at load end during nighttime condition (a) ...
Figure 5.10 Relation between distance of wind farm from PV‐STATCOM and react...
Figure 5.11 Overall increase in wind farm penetration.
Figure 5.12 Modeling of the study system and PV‐STATCOM controller component...
Figure 5.13 Flowchart of the PV‐STATCOM operating modes.
Figure 5.14 Simulation results for Full STATCOM mode with voltage control du...
Figure 5.15 Simulation results for Full STATCOM mode with voltage control du...
Figure 5.16 Simulation results for LVRT test with smart PV system during day...
Figure 5.17 Single‐line diagram of the study system.
Figure 5.18 Modeling of the study system and control components.
Figure 5.19 Flowchart of the smart PV inverter PV‐STATCOM operating modes....
Figure 5.20 Structure of TOV detection block.
Figure 5.21 Performance of three conventional PV systems during small load a...
Figure 5.22 Performance of the third 10 MW PV system as PV‐STATCOM, together...
Figure 5.23 Performance of one PV system with proposed smart inverter contro...
Figure 5.24 PV‐STATCOM control for line loss minimization (a) optimal power ...
Figure 5.25 One line diagram of (a) Scenario 1 and (b) Scenario 2.
Figure 5.26 PV power generation profile and available reactive power capacit...
Figure 5.27 Modified one line diagram of IEEE 33 Bus system with PV solar fa...
Figure 5.28 Load profile for typical day as created from IESO data.
Figure 5.29 (a) Active power loss without PV systems, with PV systems and wi...
Figure 5.30 Voltage profile without PV system, with conventional PV system o...
Figure 5.31 Single‐line diagram of the Study System 1.
Figure 5.32 A PV system connected to Study System 2 with the proposed PV‐STA...
Figure 5.33 (a) Active power output (
P
) and reactive power capability (
Q
) of...
Figure 5.34 Response of induction motor with and without PV‐STATCOM control....
Figure 5.35 Performance comparison of remotely located PV‐STATCOM and locall...
Figure 5.36 PV solar system operating at unity power factor (without PV‐STAT...
Figure 5.37 Response of PV operating according to German grid code. (a) Moto...
Figure 5.38 Motor stabilization by PV‐STATCOM operation at night. (a) Motor ...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Single line diagram of (a) study system I with single solar farm ...
Figure 6.2 Overall DG (solar/wind) system model with damping controller and ...
Figure 6.3 (a) Maximum nighttime power transfer (850 MW) from generator with...
Figure 6.4 (a) Maximum nighttime power transfer (899 MW) from generator with...
Figure 6.5 Maximum daytime power transfer (719 MW) from generator with solar...
Figure 6.6 Maximum daytime power transfer (861 MW) from generator with solar...
Figure 6.7 Maximum nighttime power transfer from generator with both DGs usi...
Figure 6.8 Maximum daytime power transfer from generator while both DGs gene...
Figure 6.9 Single‐line diagram of two‐area system with 100 MW PV plant conne...
Figure 6.10 PV‐STATCOM controller.
Figure 6.11 Flowchart of the operation of oscillation detection unit.
Figure 6.12 Residue analysis for PV‐STATCOM POD controller.
Figure 6.13 Midline and PV active power in two‐area system (230 and 430 MW p...
Figure 6.14 (a) Midline and PV active power, (b) PV reactive power, (c) midl...
Figure 6.15 (a) Midline and PV active power, (b) PV reactive power, (c) Midl...
Figure 6.16 Nighttime (a) Midline active power without POD with PV‐STATCOM c...
Figure 6.17 Effect of PV‐STATCOM control on system frequency in two‐area pow...
Figure 6.18 Single‐line diagram of two‐area power system with PV‐STATCOM con...
Figure 6.19 Detailed nonlinear and small‐signal model of PV‐STATCOM control....
Figure 6.20 Flowchart of PV‐STATCOM operation mode selection.
Figure 6.21 Residue analysis for PV‐STATCOM Q‐POD controller.
Figure 6.22 Residue analysis for PV‐STATCOM P‐POD controller.
Figure 6.23 Maximum power transfer capability of the two‐area power system....
Figure 6.24 Midline active power; and PV‐STATCOM active power, reactive powe...
Figure 6.25 Power system frequency for No POD, Q‐POD, P‐POD, and PQ‐POD cont...
Figure 6.26 Study system involving a PV solar farm connected at the synchron...
Figure 6.27 Damping controller configuration.
Figure 6.28 (a) DC voltage controller, (b) flowchart of DC voltage controlle...
Figure 6.29 System response for Mode 1 SSR without PV‐STATCOM controller....
Figure 6.30 PV‐STATCOM response for damping of Critical Mode 1 SSR.
Figure 6.31 Synchronous generator response for damping of Critical Mode 1 SS...
Figure 6.32 Transmission system response for damping of Critical Mode 1 SSR....
Figure 6.33 System response for Mode 1 SSR without damping controller during...
Figure 6.34 System response for damping of Critical Mode 4 SSR.
Figure 6.35 Study system: (a) modified IEEE First SSR Benchmark System with ...
Figure 6.36 Windfarm response, without and with PV‐STATCOM controller,
P
WF
=...
Figure 6.37 System response with PV‐STATCOM controller,
P
WF
= 500 MW, PV sys...
Figure 6.38 System response without and with PV‐STATCOM controller,
P
WF
= 50...
Figure 6.39 System response without and with PV‐STATCOM controller, nighttim...
Figure 6.40 Single line diagram of the study system.
Figure 6.41 Single line diagram of a large PV plant with the proposed PV‐STA...
Figure 6.42 (a) Typical active “P” and reactive power “Q” exchange capabilit...
Figure 6.43 Response of IMs with PV plant without any control. (a) PCC volta...
Figure 6.44 Response of the large PV plant with proposed PV‐STATCOM control....
Figure 6.45 Comparison of PV‐STATCOM and other smart inverter controls. (a) ...
Figure 6.46 Performance comparison of PV‐STATCOM and actual STATCOM. (a) PCC...
Figure 6.47 Impact on system frequency.
Figure 6.48 Performance of PV‐STATCOM at night. (a) PCC voltage (RMS), (b) 2...
Figure 6.49 Two‐area four‐machine study system.
Figure 6.50 Modified WECC generic dynamic model of PV power plant.
Figure 6.51 Simultaneous FFR and POD control scheme in a PV‐STATCOM plant co...
Figure 6.52 Simultaneous modulation of active power and reactive power with ...
Figure 6.53 25 MW load rejection in area 1 (
P
available
= 100 MW,
K
curt
= 0):...
Figure 6.54 200 MW load rejection in area 1 (
P
available
= 60 MW,
K
curt
= 0):...
Figure 6.55 25 MW load increase in area 1 (
P
available
= 100 MW,
K
curt
= 50%)...
Figure 6.56 100 MW load increase in area 1 (
P
available
= 100 MW,
K
curt
= 50%...
Figure 6.57 100 MW load increase in area 2, PV plant output curtailed by 50%...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Hosting capacity of a distribution feeder. (a) PV systems operati...
Figure 7.2 Additional energy storage needed to achieve a marginal PV net LCO...
Figure 7.3 Study system.
Figure 7.4 Additional PV hosting capacity using APC.
Figure 7.5 Additional PV hosting capacity using different module orientation...
Figure 7.6 PV hosting capacity of the 10 node test feeder in accordance with...
Figure 7.7 Additional PV hosting capacity using DSM.
Figure 7.8 Additional PV hosting capacity using distributed storage systems....
Figure 7.9 PV hosting capacity (absolute and additional) using RPC.
Figure 7.10 Voltage comparison with different PV inverter controls.
Figure 7.11 Key characteristics of 17 test feeders: voltage class, maximum l...
Figure 7.12 PV hosting capacity results of 17 test feeders.
Figure 7.13 Correlation between PV hosting capacity and feeder characteristi...
Figure 7.14 Volt‐var function;
V
1
= 0.95 pu,
Q
1
= 100%,
V
2
= 1.05 pu,
Q
2
= 1...
Figure 7.15 PV hosting capacity results of 17 test feeders after applying va...
Figure 7.16 Voltage responses obtained with different volt–var settings.
Figure 7.17 Methodology for determining optimal smart inverter controller pa...
Figure 7.18 Volt–var control curves with deadband.
Figure 7.19 Consideration of voltage constraint during optimization of perfo...
Figure 7.20 Study distribution system.
Figure 7.21 Aggregate solar and customer load profile over a day.
Figure 7.22 Voltage profile over the day for the three study cases.
Figure 7.23 Combined volt–var and volt–watt smart inverter functions.
Figure 7.24 Volt–var control curves: (a) with deadband and (b) without deadb...
Figure 7.25 Feeder voltage profile as a function of distance for 1 March 201...
Figure 7.26 Normalized power losses with respect to feeder without SI in fee...
Figure 7.27 Case study feeder with the location of new PV (triangle) and tec...
Figure 7.28 Visual representation of international default settings of volt–...
Figure 7.29 Visual representation of international settings of volt–var func...
Figure 7.30 Analysis of volt–watt settings (a) voltage and (b) active power....
Figure 7.31 Analysis of volt–var settings (a) voltage, (b) reactive power, a...
Figure 7.32 Analysis of watt–PF settings (a) voltage, (b) reactive power, an...
Figure 7.33 Analysis of fixed power factor settings.
Figure 7.34 Baseline hosting capacity analysis process applied separately fo...
Figure 7.35 Comparison of watt and var priority for a specific setting on a ...
Figure 7.36 Volt–var with var priority curves that achieved a 25% increase i...
Figure 7.37 Distribution circuit of Porterville, CA [47].
Figure 7.38 PV system POI voltage and reactive power exchange on 23 November...
Figure 7.39 Start of the circuit current magnitude in Phase A and reactive p...
Figure 7.40 Daily behavior of smart PV inverter with
Q
(
V
) and
P
(
V
) functio...
Figure 7.41 Demonstration of volt–var control on a 1.1 MW PV system on a sun...
Figure 7.42 Demonstration of volt–var control on a 1.1 MW PV system on a clo...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 MV grid based on the CIGRE MV benchmark grid. (a) results of the ...
Figure 8.2 Voltage variations d
V
caused by all PV systems. (a) at node T1, (...
Figure 8.3 Study feeder system.
Figure 8.4 Different volt–var curves considered for smart PV inverters.
Figure 8.5 LTC tap operations during a clear day (left) and variable day (ri...
Figure 8.6 Control scheme of power factor and output power of smart inverter...
Figure 8.7 Profiles of active power generation and bus voltage of test PV fa...
Figure 8.8 Profiles of active power generation, reactive power compensation,...
Figure 8.9 SVC interaction analysis network.
Figure 8.10 A proposed Hydro‐Quebec summertime study system with shunt compe...
Figure 8.11 SVC transient behavior in La Verendrye system due to “snapshot” ...
Figure 8.12 The effect of the SVC response rate on system eigenvalues in La ...
Figure 8.13 (a) Simplified grid‐connected model of the smart PV inverter, (b...
Figure 8.14 Single smart inverter connected to a simple network.
Figure 8.15 Distribution line with two smart PV inverters.
Figure 8.16 Normal operation of two PV inverters with volt–var control. (a) ...
Figure 8.17 Control interaction between two smart inverters with different v...
Figure 8.18 Voltage control through volt–var function.
Figure 8.19 (a) Volt–var function for base case, (b) volt–var function for c...
Figure 8.20 Voltage response of both inverters with
K
P
= 0.3 and
K
I
= 3.0, v...
Figure 8.21 Voltage response of both inverters with slope of volt–var curve ...
Figure 8.22 Different volt–var characteristics implemented on PV systems....
Figure 8.23 Bus voltage and reactive power output of a PV system, without va...
Figure 8.24 Bus voltage and reactive power output of the PV system, with var...
Figure 8.25 Study system for smart PV inverter controller interactions.
Figure 8.26 Control system of the smart PV inverters.
Figure 8.27 DER inverter connected to infinite bus.
Figure 8.28 Volt–var function (a) and volt–watt function (b) operative in th...
Figure 8.29 Time‐domain response of voltage
E
k
at the point of connection of...
Figure 8.30 Single line diagram of study system.
Figure 8.31 Block diagram of the volt–var control in the PV plant connected ...
Figure 8.32 Typical volt–var curve of a smart inverter.
Figure 8.33 Structure of a volt–var controller.
Figure 8.34 Variation of dominant poles in (
σ
+
jω
) plane, for var...
Figure 8.35 Variation of dominant poles in (
σ
+
jω
) plane, for var...
Figure 8.36 Reactive power output (
Q
) of both PV plants for delays of: (a) 0...
Figure 8.37 Reactive power output (
Q
) of both PV plants for response time of...
Figure 8.38 Study system: DFIG‐based wind farm and solar PV farm connected t...
Figure 8.39 Subsynchronous damping controller (SSDC) of DFIG converter.
Figure 8.40 Control system of PV‐STATCOM.
Figure 8.41 System response without subsynchronous damping controllers. (a) ...
Figure 8.42 Performance of uncoordinated SSDCs of PV‐STATCOM and DFIG: (a) l...
Figure 8.43 DFIG and PV system responses with coordinated SSDCs of PV‐STATCO...
Figure 8.44 Performance of coordinated SSDCs of PV‐STATCOM and DFIG: (a) lin...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Low voltage feeder network in Danish island.
Figure 9.2 Smart inverter functions implemented on the PV inverters.
Figure 9.3 Real power that can be injected by PV systems without violating o...
Figure 9.4 The ESS need for overvoltage prevention in the conditions of 50%,...
Figure 9.5 Test feeder with PV‐storage integrated systems in Australia.
Figure 9.6 (a) Voltage fluctuation at household HH28 with and without the pr...
Figure 9.7 Study system.
Figure 9.8 Reactive power control capability of PV inverters.
Figure 9.9 Active power output and reactive power capability of a solar PV f...
Figure 9.10 Active power output and reactive power capability of a BESS for ...
Figure 9.11 Active power output and reactive power capability of an EV for a...
Figure 9.12 Active power output and reactive power capability of combination...
Figure 9.13 FFR test during high PV power production with 10% curtailment....
Figure 9.14 Morning AGC test results.
Figure 9.15 Midday AGC test results.
Figure 9.16 Droop response of PV plant during an underfrequency event.
Figure 9.17 Droop response of PV plant during an over frequency event.
Figure 9.18 Power factor control tests in both leading and lagging mode.
Figure 9.19 Reactive power control test results.
Figure 9.20 Reactive power production test at no active power (P ≈ 0 MW)....
Figure 9.21 Schematic diagram of the study system at Bluewater Power Distrib...
Figure 9.22 (a) Field implementation of PV‐STATCOM at Bluewater Power Distri...
Figure 9.23 Response of the conventional PV inverter for large load switchin...
Figure 9.24 Response of the PV‐STATCOM for large load switching during dayti...
Figure 9.25 Response of the conventional PV inverter for large load switchin...
Figure 9.26 Response of the PV‐STATCOM for large load switching during night...
Guide
COVER PAGE
SERIES PAGE
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT PAGE
DEDICATION PAGE
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
FOREWORD
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BEGIN READING
INDEX
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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SMART SOLAR PV INVERTERS
WITH ADVANCED GRID SUPPORT FUNCTIONALITIES
Rajiv K. Varma
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department
The University of Western Ontario
London, ON
Canada
Copyright © 2022 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Varma, Rajiv K., author.Title: Smart solar PV inverters with advanced grid support functionalities / by Rajiv K. Varma.Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley‐IEEE Press, [2022] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021032004 (print) | LCCN 2021032005 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119214182 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119214205 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119214212 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Photovoltaic power systems. | Smart power grids.Classification: LCC TK1087 .V37 2022 (print) | LCC TK1087 (ebook) | DDC 621.31–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021032004LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021032005
Cover Design: WileyCover Images: “Morning sun over solar panels” courtesy of ABB Asea Brown Boveri Ltd, Zurich, Switzerland; “Nighttime PV-STATCOM demonstration site” courtesy of Bluewater Power Group of Companies, Sarnia, ON, Canada.
This book is dedicated to
Our Gurudev
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
RAJIV K. VARMA is a Professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at the University of Western Ontario (UWO). He is a Fellow of the Canadian Academy of Engineering. He was also the Hydro One Chair in Power Systems Engineering from 2012 to 2015.
He has a rich experience of 32 years of teaching and research in academia. He is an internationally renowned researcher in Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), and grid integration of solar and wind power systems. He has received 13 Teaching Excellence awards at UWO.
He was the principal coauthor of the IEEE Press/Wiley book on “Thyristor‐Based FACTS Controllers for Electrical Transmission Systems,” published in 2002. This book has been translated into Chinese and also has a Southeast Asian edition.
He is presently the Chair of the IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) “HVDC and FACTS Subcommittee.” He was also the Chair of the “IEEE Working Group on HVDC and FACTS Bibliography” from 2004 to 2019 and the editor of “IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery” during 2003–2008. He has actively contributed to the development of IEEE Standard 1547‐2018 and IEEE Standard P2800.
He was the team lead for the first‐ever IEEE Tutorial on “Smart Inverters for Distributed Generators” in IEEE PES T&D Conference in 2016 and in PES General Meetings in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He co-delivered the IEEE Substations Committee Tutorial on “Static Var Compensator (SVC)” six times at different IEEE PES T&D Conferences and PES General Meetings during 2005–2012.
He has also delivered several tutorials, courses, workshops, and webinars on smart inverters, FACTS, SVC, HVDC, and solar/wind integration in different countries including the United States, Canada, Colombia, Nepal, and India for utility engineers, system planners, and researchers.
He has led several research grants, including multiuniversity multiutility projects, on grid integration of solar PV systems and FACTS, totaling over $11 million. He has also published more than 180 papers in international journals and conferences.
He has developed a set of innovative technologies of utilizing PV solar farms in the night and day as a dynamic reactive power compensator – STATCOM (a FACTS Controller), which he named as PV‐STATCOM. These novel PV‐STATCOM technologies on existing solar farms can provide a 24/7 functionality of a STATCOM at a significantly lower cost for the same benefits. The PV‐STATCOM technology both for night and day applications was successfully installed and demonstrated for the first time in Canada, and perhaps in the world, on 13th December 2016 in the utility network of Bluewater Power Distribution Corporation, in Sarnia, Ontario.
Dr. Varma holds 23 granted patents and 9 pending patents on this technology in the United States, Canada, Europe, China, and India. For this research, he received the Prize Paper Award from IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) in 2012 and the First Place Poster Award in the 7th International IRED Conference in 2016.
He received the prestigious IEEE PES Nari Hingorani FACTS Award in 2021 “for advancing FACTS controllers application in education, research, and professional society and for developing an innovative STATCOM technology utilizing PV solar farms.” He became a Fellow of the Canadian Academy of Engineering in 2021 with the citation, “…Among his pioneering contributions has been a major ground‐breaking utility‐implemented award‐winning technology, PV‐STATCOM, that enables solar PV plants to provide FACTS functionalities at one‐tenth cost of FACTS themselves...”
He obtained B.Tech. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur, India, in 1980 and 1988, respectively. He started his academic career as an Assistant Professor at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, in 1989. He was awarded the Government of India BOYSCAST Young Scientist Fellowship in 1992–1993 to conduct research on FACTS at the University of Western Ontario, London, Canada. He continued as a Visiting Assistant Professor at UWO until December 1994. He returned to IIT Kanpur and was promoted to Associate Professor in 1997. He was awarded the Fulbright Travel Grant of the U.S. Educational Foundation in India to travel to the United States in 1998 and do research in High Voltage DC (HVDC) transmission and FACTS at Bonneville Power Administration, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Portland, Oregon. He became a Professor at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, in 2001 prior to joining the University of Western Ontario in December 2001.
Dr. Varma has held Adjunct Professor positions at the University of Waterloo and Ryerson University, Toronto. He is Senior Member of IEEE, a Member of CIGRE, and also a licensed Professional Engineer in the province of Ontario.
FOREWORD
During the course of my 33‐year career to date, I have had the privilege to contribute to a wide variety of activities associated with the application of Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Controllers to improve power system dynamic behavior. This interest has taken me on a career journey with two different manufacturers, including direct experience on numerous utility‐scale FACTS installations.
Through our mutual interest with the application of power electronics‐based equipment to improve power system dynamic behavior, it was inevitable that Rajiv and I would meet by way of our common activities and volunteer work within the IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) Transmission and Distribution (T&D) Committee and its HVDC and FACTS Subcommittee and participate in a number of its working groups including Performance and Modeling, Economics and Operating Strategies, and Education. Rajiv and I also interacted over the years on the subject of FACTS Controllers in the IEEE PES Substations Committee in multiple subcommittees and working groups. In addition, when I was an instructor in Bill Long's University of Wisconsin Engineering Professional Development program on the Dynamic Reactive Power Control Short Course series, Rajiv's book titled “Thyristor‐Based FACTS Controllers for Electrical Transmission Systems,” was the text for several editions of that course. Through these experiences, I became quite familiar with Rajiv’s work and contributions to FACTS and smart solar photovoltaic (PV) inverters.
With the advent of more cost‐effective equipment, along with the growing interest in decarbonization via renewable generation, the utilization of solar PV installations has grown significantly over the past decade and more. The application of this technology will continue to grow in the coming years as government mandates for Renewables Portfolio Standards (RPS) (or equivalent) increase and expand, while the total costs of PV installations continue to decrease. Beyond standard PV installations, which primarily focus on the control of the active power generated by the solar panels, lie opportunities for the application of smart solar PV inverters. Through advanced controls, smart solar PV inverters utilize the full range of capability for both active and reactive power, which in turn allows for a variety of benefits to improve power system dynamic behavior. These concepts are highlighted in detail in the various pages of this book.
Around 2009, Rajiv began to develop ground‐breaking techniques to transform solar PV inverters into the performance of a STATCOM, which provides various functionalities both during the night and day. Rajiv termed this advancement as PV‐STATCOM, which is essentially a new FACTS Controller. The PV‐STATCOM controls can provide several advanced grid support functions such as dynamic voltage control, power oscillation damping, mitigation of subsynchronous control interactions and torsional oscillations, improved Fault‐Induced Delayed Voltage Recovery (FIDVR), stabilization of remote critical motors, and fast frequency response, all of which can lead to improved dynamic performance, increased power transfer and load serving, and enhanced connectivity of neighboring wind plants and solar plants. It is worth noting that the PV‐STATCOM technology is about 10 times more economical than an equivalent‐sized STATCOM. This advancement by Rajiv, along with a field demonstration for the first time in 2016, is described in the various pages of this book in several chapters.
Rajiv, by providing this book to the industry, captures his career‐long dedication to, and knowledge of, power electronics‐based systems to improve dynamic performance. This book is a timely addition on the growing topic of smart solar PV installations. The topics cover a wide range of interest from smart PV inverter functions, modeling and control, applications (both distribution and transmission), hosting capacity, coordinated control, and emerging trends. The treatment further supports the characterization that the smart solar PV inverter, designated as PV‐STATCOM, is a new FACTS Controller. This book will be of great interest from beginners to experts in academia, research, and industry of all competencies including utilities, system operators, developers, integrators, regulators, manufacturers, and beyond.
John Paserba, Fellow IEEEVice President, Power Systems Group Mitsubishi Electric Power Products, Inc. (MEPPI) Warrendale, PA, USA
PREFACE
Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are the fastest growing renewable energy systems, worldwide. It is expected that by 2050 about 35% of global electricity will be provided by solar PV systems. While this technology is helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions and meeting the climate targets for the planet, researchers worldwide have been engaged in developing technologies for additional and novel usages of solar systems.
Solar PV systems are based on inverters which have traditionally provided only active power generation from solar energy. Power electronics however allows several additional capabilities to be realized from the same inverters which can be of tremendous benefit in enhancing the stability and reliability of power systems. Efforts have been ongoing worldwide to develop such “advanced” or “smart” functionalities on solar PV inverters. Such inverters have been termed as “advanced inverters” or more commonly as “smart inverters.” Smart inverter functions have been shown to not only mitigate the problems of integration of solar systems themselves but also to alleviate challenges in power systems caused by other sources, such as disturbance events. The developments of smart inverter functionalities have outpaced the Standards responsible for integrating solar PV systems in the grid. The interest and engagement of academics, utilities, system planners, regulators, operators, and manufacturers in the development of the smart inverter technologies is very high.
A wealth of literature has been published over the last two decades describing the controls, simulation studies, laboratory implementations and operating experiences of various functionalities of smart inverters, which continues to grow every day at a very rapid pace. Unfortunately, this invaluable literature is scattered and not available in a comprehensive form.
In 2008, the province of Ontario in Canada undertook a major initiative to develop innovative technologies for integrating solar PV systems at a large scale in transmission and distribution systems. The author of this book was privileged to be selected to lead three highly funded ($8.2 Million) multi‐university multi‐disciplinary multi‐utility research grants in Ontario to achieve this objective. During this period, the author developed a new patented technology of utilizing solar PV systems in the night and day as STATic Synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM), naming it PV‐STATCOM, for providing various grid support functionalities which are typically provided by Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS).
The author was also fortunate to be the team‐lead for the first‐time delivery of the IEEE Tutorial on “Smart Inverters” with leading experts from EPRI, NREL, National Grid, Southern California Edison, Enphase Energy, and First Solar. This Tutorial was delivered with great success for four consecutive years in IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) Conferences. This also provided the author a great learning experience of different perspectives of smart inverters. The author also presented several panels sessions in IEEE PES General Meetings, and invited lectures, courses and workshops on smart inverters in different countries.
All the above provided the motivation to compile and organize, even though on a minute scale, the enormously rich and vastly distributed literature on smart inverters in the form of a book. The author is very grateful to the immense knowledge contributed by researchers worldwide, and leading organizations such as IEEE, EPRI, NREL, NERC, WECC, LBNL, CAISO, CIGRE, IEA PVPS Task 14 Group, to name only a few, from whose knowledge and contributions this book has greatly benefited.
This book is organized into nine chapters.
Chapter 1 presents the concepts of reactive power and active power control, which form the basis of smart inverter functions. The impact of such controls on system voltage and frequency are explained. Different challenges of high solar PV penetration in transmission and distribution systems are briefly described. The evolution of smart inverter technology is then presented.
Chapter 2 presents different smart inverter functions for both reactive power and active power based voltage control. The voltage and frequency ride through functions are explained and their implementation in different Standards such as IEEE Standard 1547‐2018 and NERC’s Standard PRC 024‐3 are described. Smart inverter functions for battery energy storage systems are further elucidated. The prioritization of different smart inverter functions are discussed. Emerging smart inverter functions are then introduced.
Chapter 3 presents the basic concepts of active and reactive power flow in a smart inverter system. The operating principles and models of different subsystems in the power circuit and control circuit of a smart PV inverter system are described. The implementation methodology of different smart inverter controls is explained with smart inverter voltage controller as an example. The principle of achieving a decoupled control of active power and reactive power is presented. The modeling needs of different smart inverter controllers are discussed.
Chapter 4 presents the basic concepts of FACTS technology and two of its main‐shunt connected member Controllers – the Static Var Compensator (SVC) and STATCOM. The focus of this Chapter is to present a new technology developed by this book’s author, of utilizing PV solar farms both during nighttime when solar farms are typically idle and during any time of system need during daytime as a STATCOM, named PV‐STATCOM. The different nighttime and daytime operating modes of the PV‐STATCOM are illustrated. The cost of transforming an existing solar PV system into PV‐STATCOM as well as its operating costs are analyzed. Subsequently, the potential of PV‐STATCOM technology in providing various benefits in transmission and distribution systems, is elucidated.
Chapter 5 describes different night and day applications of PV‐STATCOM technology for providing various grid support functions related to distribution systems, with case studies. These include dynamic voltage control, enhancing connectivity of PV solar farms, increasing connectivity of neighboring wind farms, and stabilization of critical motors. These are the functions for which typically SVCs or STATCOMs are employed, which are quite expensive.
Chapter 6 presents different night and day grid support functions provided by PV‐STATCOM in transmission systems. These comprise improving power transfer capacity in transmission lines, damping of power oscillations and alleviation of Fault Induced Delayed Voltage Recovery (FIDVR). These functionalities are provided by reactive power modulation at night and by a combination of active and reactive power modulation during daytime. PV‐STATCOM applications are also presented for mitigation of subsynchronous oscillations in synchronous generators and induction generator based wind farms connected to series compensated transmission lines. A unique PV‐STATCOM functionality of simultaneously providing fast frequency response and power oscillation damping is also described with a case study.
Chapter 7 explains the concept of hosting capacity for solar PV systems and its enhancement in distribution networks. Different non smart inverter based methods for increasing hosting capacity are presented. The characteristics of different smart inverter functions and their effectiveness in improving hosting capacity are discussed. The methodologies and guidelines for selecting the settings of different smart inverter functions are explained. Several simulation studies of increasing hosting capacity in utility networks are described. Finally, different worldwide field implementations of smart inverters in enhancing hosting capacity are presented and their key takeaways highlighted.
Chapter 8 presents the concepts of control coordination and discusses the lessons learned from control coordination of FACTS Controllers, which would be helpful in resolving control interaction issues in smart inverters. Control coordination issues of smart PV inverters with conventional voltage control equipment are presented. Case studies of control interactions between same and different smart inverter functions among neighboring smart inverters are described. A detailed small signal study of the various factors causing control interaction between two smart inverters in a distribution feeder, validated by electromagnetic transients simulations, is presented. A comprehensive control coordination study of 100 MW PV‐STATCOM and 100 MW Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) based wind farm connected to series compensated line in mitigating subsynchronous oscillations is also described.
Chapter 9 deals with some of the fast‐emerging trends with smart PV inverters. Some application examples are presented of enhanced grid support capabilities enabled by integrating the smart inverter functionalities of solar PV inverters, Battery Energy Storage Systems and Electric Vehicle Chargers. A new technology of “grid forming inverters” that is presently being widely researched across the world, is introduced.
The main focus of this Chapter is to describe the field demonstrations of novel smart PV inverter functions which can provide significant cost savings and benefits to power transmission and distribution systems. These advanced grid support functions are presently not mandated in any Standard worldwide for grid interconnection of solar PV systems. These functionalities include fast frequency response, flexible solar operation, reactive power at night, and night and day PV‐STATCOM technology for providing several FACTS functionalities. This Chapter presents some thoughts on potential financial compensation mechanisms to smart PV inverters for providing grid support functionalities that go beyond being just “good citizens” on the power transmission and distribution systems.
This book is intended for academics, graduate students, utility engineers, system planners, system regulators, system operators, and inverter manufacturers. It starts by providing fundamental understanding of various aspects of smart inverter controls and their functionalities. It then presents advanced controls and novel functionalities of smart inverters for enhancing power system stability and reliability through detailed small signal and electromagnetic transient simulation studies. The book however does not cover protection systems and communications systems for smart inverters.
This book is written both to provide intuitive understanding of smart inverter concepts for beginners as well as advanced knowledge for adepts. The book therefore treads a middle path of presenting mathematical formulations with only a moderate level of complexity. Since the available knowledge on smart inverters is extremely vast the approach in the book is to explain the essential aspects and provide an exhaustive list of references for subsequent reading.
It is hoped that this book will inspire readers into the realm of smart inverters. This is the first book exclusively devoted to smart inverters, to the best of author’s knowledge, and is very likely to have inadvertent errors and omissions. The author sincerely apologizes to all the readers for the same, and requests that these errors may kindly be communicated to him so that they may be rectified later.
Rajiv K. Varma
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I consider myself extremely fortunate to have learned and to be inspired by some of the extraordinarily distinguished and selfless teachers, researchers, and individuals, to whom I shall forever be grateful beyond words. Their immense wisdom has tremendously helped shape my career and which has eventually led to this book.
I first express my profound gratitude to Dr. K.R. Padiyar, my teacher and PhD thesis supervisor at IIT Kanpur, who initiated me into power systems and FACTS, and taught me the fundamentals of how to do research and write it. He had so much to teach me, but I could learn only little due to my own limitations. It is indeed a blessing in my life to be his student.
My sincere thanks to Dr. Narain Hingorani, the inventor of FACTS technology, who has been an enormous inspiration in my career.
My heartfelt gratitude to Dr. M.A. Pai, who has continuously supported and encouraged me throughout my academic career and during the process of this book writing. I am immensely grateful to Late Dr. Prabha Kundur, who incessantly inspired and motivated me all along in my career, and especially so, while writing this book. My true gratitude is also due to Late Michael Henderson for his constant encouragement in my research and in this book writing.
John Paserba has played a very important role in my career and for this book, for which I can never thank him enough. I am indebted to him for firstly reviewing the book’s manuscript and providing very meticulous comments which greatly helped in improving the book. He then very kindly agreed to write the Foreword which is indeed an enormous honor for this book.
I also greatly appreciate Dr. Ram Adapa, Dr. Benjamin Jeyasurya, and Oleg Popovsky for reviewing the initial book proposal and graciously recommending that this book be published by Wiley/IEEE Press.
I sincerely thank IEEE, CIGRE, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC), CEATI International Inc., Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC), Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), California ISO (CAISO), and EU‐PVSEC for providing copyright permissions to reproduce some of their material in this book.
I am immensely grateful to Janice McMichael Dennis, President and CEO, Bluewater Power Group of Companies, and Tim Vanderheide, former Vice President, Bluewater Power, Sarnia, for their constant research support. They were extremely generous to provide their solar farm site for demonstrating my PV‐STATCOM technology for the first time in Canada, and perhaps in the world. I am further very appreciative of Bluewater Power for providing the nighttime picture of their solar farm site for PV‐STATCOM field demonstration, and ABB Asea Brown Boveri Ltd., Switzerland, for the morning picture of their solar farm, which adorn the cover of this book.
I sincerely thank Ben Mehraban, Stephen Williams, and Dr. Hemant Barot for providing valuable insights on the practical aspects of solar PV systems and FACTS, which I have included in this book.
I convey my indebtedness to The University of Western Ontario for having me, and providing all the support and facilities for performing my research in solar PV systems and FACTS. My profound thanks to Dr. Ken McIsaac, Chair of Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, for his support for my PV solar systems research and in writing this book.
I greatly appreciate my former MESc students Sridhar Bala Subramaniam, Mahendra A.C., Byomakesh Das, and Vishwajitsinh Atodaria; former PhD students Shah Arifur Rahman, Ehsan M. Siavashi, Hesamaldin Maleki, Reza Salehi, Mohammad Akbari, and Sibin Mohan; and former Post Doctoral Fellows Dr. Vinod Khadkikar and Dr. Iurie Axente for their research on different aspects of PV‐STATCOM technology. Each one has also helped me in a unique way in this book writing by performing some system studies included in this book, doing literature search, and drawing figures. To each one of them, individually, I express my sincere thanks.
