Solar Cell Nanotechnology E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 740

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Focusing on the cutting-edge technologies available in the field of photovoltaics, Solar Cell Nanotechnology explores the latest research and development activities related to organic, inorganic, and hybrid materials being used in solar cell manufacturing. Several chapters are dedicated to explaining the fundamentals of photovoltaics and nanomaterials utilized in the manufacturing of solar cells. Other essential subjects, such as microcontact printing, plasmonic light trapping, outdoor and indoor efficiency, luminescent solar concentrators, and photon management in photovoltaics, are comprehensively reviewed. Written for a broad audience, this is an essential book for engineers, nanotechnologists, and materials scientists.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Part 1: Current Developments

Chapter 1: Design Considerations for Efficient and Stable Polymer Solar Cells

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Role of Interfacial Layer for Efficient BHJ Solar Cells

1.3 Selection of Interfacial Layer for Stable and Longer Lifetime

1.4 Materials Used as Interfacial Layer

1.5 Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 2: Carbazole-Based Organic Dyes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells: Role of Carbazole as Donor, Auxiliary Donor and π-linker

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Carbazole as a Donor for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

2.3 Carbazole as a π-Linker

2.4 Carbazole as Auxiliary Donor for DSSC

2.5 Carbazole as Donor as Well as Linker for DSSC

2.6 Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 3: Colloidal Synthesis of CuInS2 and CuInSe2 Nanocrystals for Photovoltaic Applications

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Synthesis of CuInS2 and CuInSe2 Nanocrystals

3.3 Application of Colloidal CuInS2 and CuInSe2 Nanoparticles in Solar Energy Conversion

3.4 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 4: Two Dimensional Layered Semiconductors: Emerging Materials for Solar Photovoltaics

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Material Synthesis

4.3 Photovoltaic Device Fabrication

4.4 Microstructural and Raman Spectroscopic Studies of MoS2 and WS2

4.5 Photovoltaic Performance Evaluation

4.6 Electronic Transport and Interfacial Recombination

4.7 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 5: Control of ZnO Nanorods for Polymer Solar Cells

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Preparation and Characterization of ZnO NRs

5.3 Application of ZnO NR in Polymer Solar Cells

5.4 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Part 2: Noble Approaches

Chapter 6: Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Background

6.3 DSSC Key Performance Parameters

6.4 Device Improvements

6.5 DSSC Performance with Different Electrolytes

6.6 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 7: Nanoimprint Lithography for Photovoltaic Applications

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Soft Lithography

7.3 NIL-Based Techniques for PV

7.4 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 8: Indoor Photovoltaics: Efficiencies, Measurements and Design

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Indoor Radiation

8.3 Maximum Efficiencies

8.4 Optimization Strategies

8.5 Characterization and Measured Efficiencies

8.6 Irradiance Measurements

8.7 Characterization

8.8 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 9: Photon Management in Rare Earth Doped Nanomaterials for Solar Cells

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Basic Aspects of Solar Cell

9.3 Up-Conversion Nanomaterials for Solar Cell Application

9.4 Down-Conversion Nanomaterials for Solar Cell Application

9.5 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Part 3: Developments in Prospective

Chapter 10: Advances in Plasmonic Light Trapping in Thin-Film Solar Photovoltaic Devices

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Theoretical Approaches to Plasmonic Light Trapping Mechanisms in Thin-film PV

10.3 Plasmonics for Improved Photovoltaic Cells Optical Properties

10.4 Fabrication Techniques and Economics

10.5 Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 11: Recent Research and Development of Luminescent Solar Concentrators

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Mechanisms of Power Losses in Luminescent Solar Concentrator

11.3 Modeling

11.4 Polymer Materials

11.5 Luminescent Materials for Luminescent Solar Concentrator

11.6 New Designs of Luminescent Solar Concentrator

11.7 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 12: Luminescent Solar Concentrators – State of the Art and Future Perspectives

12.1 Introduction to the Third Generation of Photovoltaic Systems

12.2 Luminescence Solar Concentrators (LSCs)

12.3 Components of LSC Devices

12.4 Pathways for Improving LSC Efficiency

12.5 Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13: Organic Fluorophores for Luminescent Solar Concentrators

13.1 Introduction

13.2 LSCs: Device Operation and Main Features

13.3 Luminophores in LSCs

13.4 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 14: PAn-Graphene-Nanoribbon Composite Materials for Organic Photovoltaics: A DFT Study of Their Electronic and Charge Transport Properties

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Review of Computational Background

14.3 Atomistic Computational Simulations: Modeling and Methodology

14.4 Results and Discussions

14.5 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 15: Analytical Modeling of Thin-Film Solar Cells – Fundamental and Applications

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Basics

15.3 Fundamental Semiconductor Equations

15.4 Analytical Models for Selected Solar Cells

15.5 The Importance of the Temperature Dependence of VOC

15.6 Conclusions and Outlook

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 16: Efficient Organic Photovoltaic Cells: Current Global Scenario

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Current Developments in OPVs

16.3 Economics of Solar Energy

16.4 Conclusions and Future Trends in Photovoltaic

References

Chapter 17: Real and Reactive Power Control of Voltage Source Converter-Based Photovoltaic Generating Systems

17.1 Introduction

17.2 State of Art

17.3 Proposed Solution

17.4 Modeling of the PV Generator

17.5 Control of the PV Generator

17.6 Validation of the Proposed Control Architecture

17.7 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Index

Solar Cell Nanotechnology

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Copyright © 2014 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.

Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts.Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone], or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at [phone], outside the United States at [phone] or fax [phone].

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

For more information about Scrivener products please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-118-68625-6

Preface

Developments in human civilization have revolved around the consumption of energy. Historically, control over energy has been directly related to the centralization of power. The natural abundance of fossil fuels has helped sovereign nations in gaining better control over sociological developments. The absence of such natural resources has forced the remaining societies to greatly depend on the lucky ones that have them. In some cases, the developments have slowed to a crawl, and even basic needs have not been fulfilled. Therefore, materials scientists and engineers have taken up the challenge to reduce our dependence on fossil fuel resources. The invention of methods to harness solar energy has given new hope to the nations with limited or no fossil fuel reserves. In the last few decades the idea of technologies based on solar cells has been well established. New techniques of materials synthesis and their integration in novel engineering designs have helped the industry produce solar cells with high energy efficiency. The use of high purity silicon has dominated the solar cell industry for several decades. It appears that the efficiency of silicon-based solar cells has achieved maximum potential and no further improvements are expected. The high cost of extra pure silicon and saturation in energy efficiency has motivated scientists to look for new materials and technologies that are efficient and relatively cost effective.

Journals are flooded with research articles with claims about materials and technologies that might be able to produce highly efficient solar cells. It is therefore important to summarize the literature in order to draw meaningful conclusions based on the latest research findings. Since silicon-based solar cells are immensely popular, various books are available on the subject. It was therefore decided to look at other types of solar cells, which are either in the development phase or are likely competitors of silicon solar cells. The purpose of our efforts has been to collect articles from various experts in the field with this view in mind. This book is composed of seventeen chapters, each of which was written by an expert in their field. Topics are broadly designed to cover dye-sensitized types of solar cells and their related problems, layered types of solar cells, application of lithography in solar cells, and luminescent solar and plasmonic light trapping. Graphene being the most recent discovery, its application in organic types of solar cells is covered in this book. Finally, analytical modeling and electrical circuit design, which are another important aspect of solar cell development, are also included. The final section of the book appends to the series of articles written on putative future trends in this area. This section is specifically written for advanced practitioners to help them channel their expertise in the desired direction.

We expect that readers will gain an in-depth knowledge in new areas of solar cells, which are not commonly known and for which literature is scarcely available. This title has been edited for a broad readership that includes scholars and researchers from diverse backgrounds, and for commercial sectors looking for innovative solar cell materials and related technologies. This could be a solitary reference book for researchers in materials science, engineering and nanotechnology. We are confident that readers will gain invaluable information that can be utilized not only in research and development, but also in commercial manufacturing of solar cell panels.

Atul Tiwari, PhDRabah Boukherroub, PhDMaheshwar Sharon, PhD

Part 1

CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS

Chapter 1

Design Considerations for Efficient and Stable Polymer Solar Cells

Prajwal Adhikary1, Jing Li2, Qiquan Qiao1,*

1Center for Advanced Photovoltaics, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA

2Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing, China

Abstract

Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) are gaining more interest due to their potential for low fabrication cost, mechanical flexibility and light weight. Not long ago, lower power conversion efficiency and inferior stability compared to their inorganic counterparts were considered major issues associated with OPVs. Today, OPVs with an efficiency as high as 12% have been achieved and stability under ambient conditions has also been significantly improved, especially with the devices using inverted architecture. A major advantage of using OPVs over traditional thin film inorganic solar cells with comparable efficiency (~14–15%), is their excellent performance in real-life environments like high temperature and low light conditions. In this chapter, we discuss recent advances in realizing high performance and stable OPV devices. The chapter consists of three major parts: the role of interfacial layer for efficient Bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells, the selection of interfacial layer for stable and longer life time OPVs and major interfacial materials used for conventional and inverted device architectures.

Keywords: Organic solar cells, inverted structure, normal structure, interfacial layer, cell stability

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Background

Organic and organic/inorganic hybrid solar cells have attracted a lot of interest due to their solution-based processing and low cost [1–15]. A completely new field of conducting polymers emerged in the 1970s when Shirakawa, MacDiarmid and Heeger found that simple doping of polyacetylene with a controlled amount of halogen (Cl, Br, I) could lead to a dramatic increase in conductivity (eleven orders of magnitude) of the film in which electrical properties could be tuned from insulator to semiconductor to metal [16]. In early days, it was fundamentally challenging to achieve high performance organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells by sandwiching a single organic layer between two metal electrodes, in which it is difficult for excitons generated in the active layer to reach the metal interface with the diffusion length of only 10–20 nm [17]. A major breakthrough in OPVs was achieved in 1986 when Tang introduced the concept of bilayer in which copper phthalocyanine as p-type and a perylene derivative as n-type, two organic materials, were sandwiched between metal electrodes [18]. This concept increased the OPVs cell efficiency to 1%, basically due to improved interface for exciton dissociation.

Later, it was found that better charge transport materials with high electron affinity are also required to have their band levels (HOMO and LUMO) aligned with respect to most donor-type polymers. In 1993, Sariciftci et al. reported C60 which possesses higher electron affinity and mobility and soon established itself as a widely used acceptor [19]. Halls et al. reported an increase in photocurrent as high as 20 times with the use of C60 as acceptors with MEH-PPV [20]. A similar increase in photocurrent was reported by Morita et al. when they used C60 with P3AT [21].

It was known that in a bilayer configuration, exciton dissociates at the donor-acceptor interface but the diffusion length of exciton is about 10 nm which limits their dissociation from the photoexcitation sites outside their diffusion length. Therefore, only a small fraction of polymer actually contributes to photocurrent generation. This limitation of bilayer structure was overcome in 1994 when Yu et al. made the first bulk heterojunction organic solar cell by dissolving MEH-PPV and C60 which showed photosensitivity of an order magnitude higher than pure polymer-based solar cells [22].

Major impedance in further improvement of PSC efficiency was due to large bandgap (~ 2 eV) of most polymers which had narrow light absorption range and poor hole mobility [23]. Synthesis of soluble polythiophenes, especially poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT), was one step further in the field of OPVs. Currently, morphology optimization of P3HT/PCBM-based PSCs has increased the PCEs by higher than 4% [24]. An efficiency of over 6% was reported when PCDTBT, a low bandgap polymer that utilized cyclopentadithiophene unit as the donor block in the polymer chain, was developed by Leclerc et al. which incorporated the use of TiOx layer as optical spacer [25]. Efficiency above 7–8% was achieved when low bandgap polymers designed by Yu et al. based on thieno-thiophene (TT) and benzodithiophene (BDT) alternating units were synthesized. Higher Voc of 0.74 V was achieved owing to lowered HOMO level of polymer, and low bandgap helped to harvest more light which led to Jsc of 14.5 mA/cm2 [26].

Major requirements for large area roll to roll (R2R) processing in order to make organic photovoltaic commercially successful are high efficiency and stability. Various strategies can enhance performance parameters of the cell (Voc, Jsc, FF) including choice of materials, efficient light harvesting mechanisms and morphological optimizations. On the other hand, improvement in device stability requires understanding degradation mechanisms of individual components of the OPV devices. Also, utilization of inverted devices instead of conventional architecture could help us achieve more stable OPV devices as it allows us to use materials that are more stable. For example, the acidic nature of PEDOT:PSS used as hole transport layer in conventional devices hampers stability as it etches the bottom ITO. On the other hand, low work function metals on the cathode side oxidize when exposed to ambient condition. The generally used vacuum-deposition-based technique for top electrode increases the cost.