Solar Energy at Urban Scale E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 542

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Increasing urbanization throughout the world, the depletion of fossil fuels and concerns about global warming have transformed the city into a physical problem of prime importance. This book proposes a multi-disciplinary and systematic approach concerning specialities as different as meteorology, geography, architecture and urban engineering systems, all surrounding the essential problem of solar radiation.

It collects the points of view of 18 specialists from around the world on the interaction between solar energy and constructions, combining territorial, urban and architectural scales to better regulate energetic efficiency and light comfort for the sustainable city.

The main subjects covered are: measures and models of solar irradiance (satellite observations, territorial and urban ground measurements, sky models, satellite data and urban mock-up), radiative contribution to the urban climate (local heat balance, radiative-aerodynamics coupling, evapotranspiration, Urban Heat Island), light and heat modeling (climate-based daylight modeling, geometrical models of the city, solar radiation modeling for urban environments, thermal simulation methods and algorithms) and urban planning, with special considerations for solar potential, solar impact and daylight rights in the temperate, northern and tropical climates, and the requirement of urban solar regulation.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Introduction

The Authors

Chapter 1 The Odyssey of Remote Sensing from Space: Half a Century of Satellites for Earth Observations

1.1. To improve the weather forecasts

1.2. Technological challenges to spy and to map from orbit

1.3. Toward global environmental observers in space

1.4. The digital revolution of the ICTs for GIS applications

1.5. Suggested reading

Chapter 2 Territorial and Urban Measurements

2.1. Solar radiation at the Earth’s surface

2.2. Instrumentation

2.3. Radiation measurements in urban environment

2.4. Conclusions

2.5. Acknowledgments

2.6. Bibliography

Chapter 3 Sky Luminance Models

3.1. CIE standard overcast sky (1955)

3.2. CIE standard clear sky (1996)

3.3. CIE standard general sky

3.4. All-weather model for sky luminance distribution — Perez

3.5. ASRC–CIE model

3.6. Igawa all-sky model

3.7. Absolute luminance

3.8. Visualization

3.9. Conclusion

3.10. Bibliography

Chapter 4 Satellite Images Applied to Surface Solar Radiation Estimation

4.1. The solar resource

4.2. Ground measurements of the solar resource

4.3. Satellite images for SSI estimation

4.4. Two different approaches for satellite-based SSI estimation

4.5. Accuracy of satellite-based SSI estimations

4.6. Use of satellite observations for high-resolution solar radiation estimation

4.7. Bibliography

Chapter 5 Worldwide Aspects of Solar Radiation Impact

5.1. Global energy budget at the Earth level

5.2. The distribution of solar radiation on the Earth’s surface

5.3. The Sun at different latitudes

5.4. The solar diagrams

5.5. Climate and housing

5.6. Solar energy at urban scale

5.7. Conclusions and perspectives

5.8. Bibliography

Chapter 6 Local Energy Balance

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Soil–vegetation–atmosphere transfer model

6.3. Physiographic data and boundary conditions

6.4. Solar radiation transfers

6.5. Infrared radiation transfers

6.6. Other heat fluxes

6.7. Conclusions

6.8. Bibliography

Chapter 7 Evapotranspiration

7.1. Physical bases

7.2. Related interest of different types of evapotranspirating surfaces

7.3. From microscale to city scale: the modeling approaches

7.4. Conclusions

7.5. Bibliography

Chapter 8 Multiscale Daylight Modeling for Urban Environments

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Background

8.3. Visualizing the urban solar microclimate

8.4. The ASL building: a solar access study

8.5. Daylighting the New York Times building

8.6. Summary

8.7. Acknowledgments

8.8. Bibliography

Chapter 9 Geometrical Models of the City

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Forward procedural modeling

9.3. Inverse procedural modeling

9.4. Simulation-based modeling

9.5. Example systems

9.6. Bibliography

Chapter 10 Radiative Simulation Methods

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Geometry

10.3. Loading

10.4. Computation model

10.5. Transient thermal coupled problem

10.6. Conclusion

10.7. Bibliography

Chapter 11 Radiation Modeling Using the Finite Element Method

11.1. Basic assumptions

11.2. Visibility and view factors

11.3. Thermal balance equations

11.4. Finite element formulation

11.5. Example problems

11.6. Bibliography

Chapter 12 Dense Cities in the Tropical Zone

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Access to the sky

12.3. Designing for daylight

12.4. Designing for solar access

12.5. Designing with solar renewable energy

12.6. Conclusion

12.7. Bibliography

Chapter 13 Dense Cities in Temperate Climates: Solar and Daylight Rights

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Solar rights in urban design

13.3. Solar envelopes as a design tool

13.4. Solar envelopes as a tool for urban development

13.5. Regulations and applications

13.6. Methods of application

13.7. A simple design tool

13.8. Modeling the building shape for self-shading using the solar collection envelope

13.9. Daylight rights

13.10. Daylight access

13.11. Conclusions

13.12. Bibliography

Chapter 14 Solar Potential and Solar Impact

14.1. Methodological considerations

14.2. Definition of the residential area

14.3. Estimation of irradiance and solar gains

14.4. Estimation of energy needs for heating

14.5. Results analysis

14.6. Perspectives and conclusions

14.7. Acknowledgments

14.8. Bibliography

Conclusion

APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Table of Europe’s Platforms (Micro- and Minisatellites) for Earth Observations

Appendix 2. Commercial Operators of Earth Observation (EO) Satellites (as of January 1, 2012)

Appendix 3. Earth’s Annual Global Mean Energy Budget

List of Authors

Index

First published 2012 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA

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© ISTE Ltd 2012

The rights of Benoit Beckers to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Solar energy at urban scale / edited by Benoit Beckers.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-84821-356-2

1. Solar energy. 2. Urban climatology. 3. Environmental engineering. 4. City planning. I. Beckers, Benoit, 1969-

TJ810.S61815 2012

690.028’6--dc23

2012009827

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-84821-356-2

Introduction

Since ancient times, despite the noise, the overcrowding, the fire hazards, and the epidemics, to live in the center of a large city has been considered a privilege. Kings, architects, and philosophers have imagined the ideal city as the city that would address the most private of activities, public life, and large parties. Foremost, an ideal city is the city that would overcome the vagaries of the weather–wind, cold, heat, and light–and would allow living to the rhythm of civilized society. Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Chang’an, Baghdad, Paris, London, Manhattan, or Brasilia were the greatest accomplishments of their time regarding the quality of life in common.

However, at the turn of the 20th Century, the simultaneous occurrences of elevators, automobiles, and cheap energy–oil and electricity–sharply, and simultaneously, increased the number of floors of downtown buildings and the radius of urban sprawl. In the center, the old buildings were left in the perpetual shade of skyscrapers, and many thousands of hectares of residential areas and roads covered the former farmland.

Today, throughout the world, a crop area equivalent to that of Italy is taken over each year by cities. Several countries, which were previously food exporters, find themselves unable to feed their own population. Entire metropolises depend largely on energy, out of which a huge amount is being consumed for transportation and air conditioning.

Thus, the densification of cities has become a necessity for future generations. However, the inhabitants of pre-industrial cities probably might never have reached the million mark, and the following steps were built on the illusion of inexhaustible fossil fuels. To allow tens of millions of people to live together comfortably and sustainably on a small area, better knowledge of urban physics is indispensable.

This book offers a state of the art as complete as possible around a single element of this physics: solar energy. The idea is to better highlight the different aspects of the problem, their necessary links, the latest advances, and the perspectives from different fields of physics, engineering, and architecture.

This book is organized into four main parts. The first part (measures and models of solar irradiance) processes the input data, such as the data recorded from satellites and ground stations, or recomposed from “sky” models. It describes the radiation emitted by the Sun, until it reaches the urban canopy.

The second part (radiative contribution to the urban climate) describes how this radiation is involved in the urban climate, interacting with buildings and vegetation.

The third part (light and heat modeling) explores the various components of numerical models developed to simulate the radiative exchanges at the urban scale.

The fourth part (urban planning) describes the inclusion of radiation in the process of regulation and in urban planning, in tropical latitudes, in arid climates, in Mediterranean countries and, finally, in cold temperate and northern zones.

The decision to write this book was taken after a workshop held at the Compiègne University of Technology. At this meeting, the participants expressed their interest in a general book covering the whole problem. From the core of speakers at the workshop, a well-established group of contributors was formed to show the recent and future progress in the field of solar energy at the urban scale. This is a research book. However, throughout the world, we feel the need for highly skilled engineers and planners to quantify energy and to apply such calculations to real cases of new districts or districts of regeneration. We hope this book will serve as the first complete reference on the subject, and find its place in the corresponding programs of the faculties of engineering and architecture.

The Authors

Dr. Daniel G. Aliagais an Associate Professor of computer science at Purdue University. Dr. Aliaga’s research is in 3D computer graphics but overlaps with computer vision and with visualization. He focuses on (i) 3D urban modeling, (ii) projector-camera systems, and (iii) 3D digital fabrication. To date, Prof. Aliaga has published over 70 peer-reviewed publications, several patents on 3D acquisition, and served on over 35 program committees, on numerous NSF panels, and on the editorial board of Graphical Models. His research has been completely or partially funded by NSF, MTC, Microsoft Research, Google, and Adobe Inc.

Professor Viorel Badescu is a scientist presently affiliated with Candida Oancea Institute at Polytechnic University of Bucharest. His mainstream scientific contribution consists of more than 200 papers and 30 books related to statistical physics and thermodynamics, the physics of semiconductors, and various aspects of terrestrial and space solar energy applications. In addition, he has theorized on present-day Mars meteorology and Mars terraforming and on several macro-engineering projects. He is a corresponding member of Romanian Academy.

After obtaining an engineering degree in physics from University of Liège in 1992, Benoit Beckers joined the Architecture Superior School of the Polytechnic University of Catalonia in Barcelona, starting with personal research on the following subjects: solar radiation and natural light in architectural and urban projects, geometrical methods in numerical simulation, and wave perception in their physical and cultural environment. In 2008, he joined the Compiègne University of Technology, France, as an associate professor. He is the originator and one of the main designers of the Heliodon software devoted to daylight and solar radiation simulation in architecture.

After graduating as an engineer in physics from the University of Liège in 1966, Pierre Beckers joined the Aerospace Laboratory (LTAS, Laboratoire de Techniques Aéronautiques et Spatiales) of the same university. He devoted his research to finite element models in structural mechanics, computer programs for finite element applications, computer graphics, data visualization, and CAD. Pierre Beckers is one of the main designers of the SAMCEF finite element systems, currently marketed by the Samtech Company founded in 1986. He is now Emeritus Professor at the University of Liège.

Grega Bizjak, PhD, is an associated professor and Head of Laboratory of Lighting and Photometry at Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana. He is active in the field of lighting and photometry as well as in the field of electrical power engineering. His main research interests in lighting are energy-efficient indoor and outdoor lighting, use of daylight, LEDs in lighting applications, and photometry. Prof. Bizjak is the president of Slovenian National Committee of CIE and representative of Slovenia in CIE Division 2.

Philippe Blanc graduated from the Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications de Bretagne (France) in 1995 with a specialization in signal and image processing. In 1999, he obtained a PhD in signal, automatic and robotics from the MINES ParisTech. He worked for nine years in the Research Department of Thales Alenia Space in projects related to Earth observation and spaceborne systems. Since 2007, he has been working as a senior scientist at the Center for Energy and Processes of MINES ParisTech, in Sophia Antipolis. He is the head of the research group “Observation, Modeling, Decision”.

Guedi Capeluto is an architect and an associate professor at the Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Technion–Israel Institute of Technology. He has developed several design tools for energy-conscious and sustainable architectural design in a twofold level: building and urban scale. His research is focused on sustainable architecture, intelligent buildings, daylighting, daylight access, and solar rights in urban design. He is in charge of teaching lighting at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. He also teaches at a solar bio-climatic architectural design studio.

Tom van Eekelen studied aerospace engineering at the Technical University in Delft (the Netherlands), where he specialized in structural engineering. After working at the University, he started working for Samtech where he developed nonlinear mechanics models/solutions in Meccano. Now he is in charge of all the thermal developments in SAMCEF Thermal, which includes functionalities such as thermal radiation and charring ablators.

Bella Espinar received her master’s degree in physics from the University of Granada, Spain, in 2002, and her PhD in applied physics from the University of Almeria, Spain, in 2009. She is experienced in solar radiation measurement, uncertainty analysis and quality control assessment, atmospheric optics, and development of methods exploiting Earth observation data and models. She has participated in several European contracts in relation with solar resource as well as photovoltaic production and smart grids. Currently, she is working at the Center for Energy and Processes of MINES ParisTech, on Earth observation data for solar resource assessment and meteorology for energy.

George Janes founded George M. Janes and Associates in 2008 after spending six years as executive director of the Environmental Simulation Center (ESC), New York. He is one of the region’s experts on the intersection of planning with technology and writes and speaks widely on the topic. He has worked as a planner in the public, not-for-profit, and private sectors with a focus on how technology can be used to make better planning decisions. Previously, Mr. Janes managed the development of several of IBM’s simulation modeling programs including Community, viz, a planning decision-support system that links visual simulation with local land use decision-making; and TRANSIMs, the next-generation traffic simulation developed by Los Alamos National Laboratory and commercialized by IBM.

Pierre Kastendeuch is a lecturer at the Faculty of Geography and Planning (University of Strasbourg). He is a member of the Laboratoire des Sciences de l’Image, de l’Informatique et de la Télédétection (UMR 7005 du CNRS).

Matej Kobav, PhD, is a teaching assistant at the Laboratory of Lighting and Photometry at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana. He is active in the fields of lighting and photometry as well as in the field of electrical power engineering. His main research interest in lighting includes use of daylight and energy-efficient indoor and outdoor lighting and photometry. M. Kobav is the representative of Slovenia in CIE Division 3.

John Mardaljevic is a reader in Daylight Modeling at De Montfort University, Leicester, UK. His first significant contribution in the field of daylight modeling was the validation of the radiance lighting simulation program under real sky conditions. This helped in the establishment of the radiance system as a de facto standard worldwide for lighting simulation. Mardaljevic went on to pioneer the development and application of what has come known as climate-based daylight modeling. Mardaljevic served on the panel for the 2008 revision of British Standard 8206: Daylight in Buildings. He leads the CIE Technical Committee 3-47: Climate-Based Daylight Modeling, and in 2010 he was appointed as “UK Principal Expert on Daylight” for the European Committee for Standardisation CEN/TC 169 WG11.

Professor Frédéric Monette has more than 20 years of experience in the field of environmental engineering and water treatment. After obtaining his undergraduate (1989) and PhD (1999) degrees in civil engineering at the École Polytechnique de Montréal, he worked as a research assistant at UQAM from 1991 to 2004, where he cofounded the Station Expérimentale de Procédés Pilotes en Environnement laboratory in 1994. In 2004, he began his academic career at École de Technologie Supérieure de Montréal. His more recent research interest focuses on urban environmental engineering.

Marjorie Musy is a researcher at CERMA Laboratory of Architectural and Urban Ambient Environment in Nantes, and at the Institute for Research on Urban Sciences and Techniques, IRSTV (France). Her research activity focuses on urban microclimate modeling, impacts of urban vegetation, impacts of urban form, building energy consumption, and natural ventilation of buildings. She is in charge of VegDUD project founded by French Research Agency.

Edward Ng is an architect and a Professor at the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK). He has practiced as an architect, as well as lectured in various universities around the world. Environmental and sustainable design is professor Ng’s specialty. He was the director of the CIE-IDMP research class station at CUHK in Hong Kong. He is director of the MSc Sustainable and Environmental Design Program at CUHK. As an environmental consultant to the Hong Kong government, he developed the performance-based daylight design building regulations and the Air Ventilation Assessment (AVA) Guidelines.

Dr. Marius Paulescu is an Associate Professor at the Physics Department of the West University of Timisoara (Romania). His main research activity is in the field of solar energy conversion, covering the whole range from quantum solid-state physics applied to electronic devices to solar radiation modeling and solar architecture. A core involvement was the designing and placing into operation in 2008 of the first Romanian station outfitted for systematic monitoring of solar irradiance on tilted surfaces.

Théo Pirard has graduated in history and education from the Catholic University of Louvain. Since 1969, he is chronicler for news concerning space research and technology for many periodicals in Belgium, France, UK, USA, and for various Web sites (ESA Belgium, Wallonie Espace). He participated in the educational program of the Euro Space Center/Belgium, the Space Expo in Kourou (French Guyana), and the Space Hall of “Musée de l’Air et de l’Espace Le Bourget (Paris)”. He is co-author of several books such as Emerging Space Powers, The New Space Programs of Asia, the Middle East and South-America, with Brian Harvey, Henk H. F. Smid, and Theo Pirard, Springer Praxis Books, 2010.

Chapter 1

The Odyssey of Remote Sensing from Space: Half a Century of Satellites for Earth Observations1

The operational venture of remote sensing spacecraft started in 1960 following two separate paths: the civilian weather observatories using television (TV) cameras for low-resolution images as well as the military spy satellites with high-resolution photographic films returning to Earth in recoverable capsules. The community of meteorological forecasters was the first one to use the dimension of space to embrace atmospheric changes and weather conditions on a global scale. The intelligence services of the USA and the Soviet Union (now Russia) used powerful telescopes to take precise pictures revealing many details on the ground. The problem for the early remote sensing from space, using optical systems, was that cloud cover prevents the satellites from taking useful photographs much of the time.

As spy satellites were able to observe the military operations in an adverserys camps, the world of the 1960s was saved from the catastrophic move of a Cold War between two nuclear powers of this time toward a severely hot conflict which would have impacted the survival of the whole planet! Half a century later, todays world is saved from the environmental tragedy of global climate change, mainly due to the images (collected every hour) and continuous data, which are currently collected by Earth observation (EO) satellites. Space, along with processing systems, is our new dimension for control of the globe for environmental and security purposes. Among the priorities to develop space as an asset serving the citizens of the world, the European Union (EU) has, along with the civilian Galileo constellation for geo-positioning, deployed the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) program. It consists of five different Sentinel families of operational spacecraft and sensors in orbit, all made in Europe.

1.1. To improve the weather forecasts

To see our planet from space has been a dream since the beginning of the space age. It is still the purpose of most of the student teams, which are currently developing low-cost CubeSats (12 kg) for technological education. The first remote sensing satellites, with low-resolution imaging capabilities, were dedicated to meteorological observations. Using TV-type cameras, they are able to monitor the evolution of the clouds reflecting the sunlight. The weather satellite system, designed and operated for the continuous imaging survey of the globe, was based on the Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS), developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The spin-stabilized Tiros-1 satellite was launched on April 1, 1960, and was operational for only 78 days in the 700 km altitude range. It opened the way to permanent operations with more reliable and more sophisticated spacecraft for weather forecasts. Some of its essential features remain unchanged in its later versions used even today, by Russian, European, Chinese, Japanese, Indian, and Korean meteorological satellites.