Sour Gas and Related Technologies E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Advances in Natural Gas Engineering
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 314

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

This three-volume series, Advances in Natural Gas Engineering, focuses on the engineering of natural gas and its advancement as an increasingly important energy resource. Sour Gas and Related Technologies is the third volume in this important series. Written by a group of the most well-known and knowledgeable authors on the subject in the world, this volume focuses on one of the hottest topics in natural gas today, sour gas. This is a must for any engineer working in natural gas, the energy field, or process engineering. Sour Gas and Related Technologies includes information about upgrading sour gas and the injection of acid gas as an alternative to sulfur production. There are contributions on both surface and subsurface aspects. Also included in this volume are experimental data for density, viscosity, and water content that are so important for the proper design of projects for handling sour gas. There are descriptions of new technologies for the sour gas business including a new method to process sour gas and an update on a technology for dehydration. This outstanding new reference: * Covers the most recent advances in natural gas engineering, in both upstream (reservoir) and downstream (processing) * Covers technologies for working towards a zero-emission process in natural gas production * Written by a team of the world's most well-known scientists and engineers in the field

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Introduction

The World

Acid Gas

In Summary …

References

Part 1: Data: Experiments and Correlation

Chapter 1: Equilibrium Water Content Measurements for Acid Gas at High Pressures and Temperatures

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Experimental

1.3 Recent Results and Modelling

1.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 2: Comparative Study on Gas Deviation Factor Calculating Models for CO2 Rich Gas Reservoirs

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Deviation Factor Correlations

2.3 Model Optimization

2.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 3: H2S Viscosities and Densities at High-Temperatures and Pressures

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Experimental

3.3 Results and Discussion

3.4 Conclusions and Outlook

3.5 Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 4: Solubility of Methane in Propylene Carbonate

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Results and Discussion

4.3 Nomenclature

4.4 Acknowledgement

References

Part 2: Process

Chapter 5: A Holistic Look at Gas Treating Simulation

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Clean Versus Dirty Solvents: Heat Stable Salts

5.3 Summary

Chapter 6: Controlled Freeze Zone™ Commercial Demonstration Plant Advances Technology for the Commercialization of North American Sour Gas Resources

6.1 Introduction – Gas Demand and Sour Gas Challenges

6.2 Acid Gas Injection

6.3 Controlled Freeze Zone™ — Single Step Removal of CO2 and H2S

6.4 Development Scenarios Suitable for Utilizing CFZ™ Technology

6.5 Commercial Demonstration Plant Design & Initial Performance Data

6.6 Conclusions and Forward Plans

Bibliography

Chapter 7: Acid Gas Dehydration - A DexPro™ Technology Update

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Necessity of Dehydration

7.3 Dehydration Criteria

7.4 Acid Gas - Water Phase Behaviour

7.5 Conventional Dehydration Methods

7.6 Development of DexPro

7.7 DexPro Operating Update

7.8 DexPro Next Steps

7.9 Murphy Tupper – 2012 Update

7.10 Acknowledgements

Chapter 8: A Look at Solid CO2 Formation in Several High CO2 Concentration Depressuring Scenarios

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Methodology

8.3 Thermodynamic Property Package Description

8.4 Model Configuration

8.5 Results

8.6 Discussion

8.7 Conclusions

References

Part 3: Acid Gas Injection

Chapter 9: Potential Sites and Early Opportunities of Acid Gas Re-injection in China

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Potential Storage Capacity for CCS

9.3 Emission Sources of Acid Gases

9.4 Distribution of High H2S Bearing Gas Field

9.5 Systematic Screening of Potential Sites

9.6 Early Deployment Opportunities of AGI

9.7 Conclusions

9.8 Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 10: Acid Gas Injection for a Waste Stream with Heavy Hydrocarbons and Mercaptans

10.1 Basis

10.2 Phase Envelope

10.3 Water Content

10.4 Hydrates

10.5 Dehydration and Compression

10.6 Discussion

10.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Compression of Acid Gas and CO2 with Reciprocating Compressors and Diaphragm Pumps for Storage and Enhanced Oil Recovery

11.1 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12: Investigation of the Use of Choke Valves in Acid Gas Compression

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Water Content Behaviour of Acid Gas

12.3 Test Cases to Ascertain the Effect of Choke Valves

12.4 Test Case 1: 20% H2S, 78% CO2 and 2% C1

12.5 Test Case 2: 50% H2S, 48% CO2 and 2% C1

12.6 Test Case 3: 80% H2S, 18% CO2 and 2% C1

12.7 Conclusions

Chapter 13: The Kinetics of H2S Oxidation by Trace O2 and Prediction of Sulfur Deposition in Acid Gas Compression Systems

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Experimental

13.3 Experimental Results and Calculation Methods

13.4 Discussion and Demonstration of Utility

13.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 14: Blowout Calculations for Acid Gas Well with High Water Cut

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Water

14.3 Trace Amount of Gas

14.4 Break-Out Gas

14.5 Brine vs. Water

14.6 Discussion

References

Part 4: Subsurface

Chapter 15: Influence of Sulfur Deposition on Gas Reservoir Development

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Mathematical Models of Flow Mechanisms

15.3 The Mathematical Model of Multiphase Complex Flow

15.4 Solution of the Mathematical Model Equations

15.5 Example

15.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 16: Modeling and Evaluation of Oilfield Fluid Processing Schemes

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Treatment of Produced Water

16.3 Treatment of Re-circulating Mud

16.4 Test on Gas-cut, Water-based Mud

16.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 17: Optimization of the Selection of Oil-Soluble Surfactant for Enhancing CO2 Displacement Efficiency

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Experiment Preparation and Experimental Conditions

17.3 Experiment Contents and Methods

17.4 Optimization of Surfactants

17.5 The Displacement Efficiency Research on Oil-soluble Surfactant Optimization

17.6 Conclusions and Recommendations

17.7 Acknowledgement

References

Index

Sour Gas and Related Technologies

Scrivener Publishing

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Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-0-470-94814-9

Preface

The Third International Acid Gas Injection Symposium (AGIS) was held in Banff, Canada in mid-2012. Papers covering many aspects of sour gas in general, and the injection of acid gas in particular, were presented. Sour gas, as described in the Introduction, is natural gas that contains significant amounts of hydrogen sulfide, whereas acid gas is a mixture of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.

Closely related to the field of sour gas are carbon capture and storage and the use of carbon dioxide for enhanced oil recovery. These are also topics discussed at AGIS.

This new volume is a collection of the papers from the third AGIS covering the topics of sour gas and acid gas, including carbon dioxide. We are grateful to all of the authors whose papers appear in this volume. We would also like to thank all who participated in AGIS, as presenters, attendees, and sponsors.

Ying (Alice) WuJohn J. CarrollCalgary, Canada

Introduction: Sour Gas

Ying Wu1 and John J. Carroll2

1Sphere Technology Connection, Calgary, AB, Canada

2Gas Liquids Engineering, Calgary, AB, Canada

Sweet, easily accessible natural gas is becoming less plentiful, while the world’s demand for energy continues to increase. This need will have to be filled with unconventional gas resources, including sour gas.

In the natural gas business, sour gas refers to gas with high concentrations of sulfur compounds. The most common of these compounds is hydrogen sulfide. There are several other sulfur compounds found in natural gas. These include mercaptans (also known as thiols), sulfides, disulfides, carbon disulfide (CS2), and carbonyl sulfide (COS).

Another important sulfur compound is sulfur dioxide, SO2. Although not found in natural gas, it is formed from the combustion of sulfur compounds.

Hydrogen sulfide is notorious for being poisonous at relatively low concentrations, and for its foul odor at even lower concentrations. The mercaptans also have a fetid odor, which is detectable by the human olfactory at relatively low concentrations. Perhaps the most famous of these is the oil sprayed from a skunk, which has a horrible odor.

The definition of sour gas varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and from application to application. For example, what for raw gas to be considered sweet is very different from sales gas (the product delivered to the customer). For raw gas, the main interest is the emergency planning. Thus, gas that requires no emergency exclusions zones would be considered sweet.

According to the Energy Resources Conservation Board (RCB) in the province of Alberta, “sour gas is natural gas that contains measurable amounts of hydrogen sulfide.”[1] Although not specified by the ERCB, in oilfield terms, “measurable” typically means about 100 parts per million (ppm) or 0.01 mol%.

With this in mind, we present the following simple definitions for raw gas:

Sweet, Raw Gas

less than 100 ppm H

2

S

Low Sour Gas

less than 1% H

2

S, but greater than 100 ppm

Moderate Sour Gas

between 1 and 10% H

2

S

High Sour

between 10 and 25% H

2

S

Ultra High Sour Gas

greater than 25%

Please note, humans and animals subjected to an environment of breathing air of 100 ppm H2S would be in a very dangerous situation. However, the raw gas containing 100 ppm would be diluted with air if released to the environment, and thus the concentration inhaled by those in the vicinity would be much less. Therefore, exclusion zones for the production of gas containing 100 ppm H2S would be limited to the immediate area around the well, pipeline, and processing facilities.

Carbon dioxide is commonly associated with sour gas. However, strictly speaking, gas that contains CO2 but is free of sulfur compounds is not sour. Carbon dioxide has similar properties to H2S, and similar technologies are used to remove it from the raw natural gas. There is a paper in this volume that discusses the modeling of the processes for removing H2S and CO2 from natural gas[2].

The World

There are many regions in the world with important sour and high CO2 fields. These include:

1. In the Canadian province of Alberta, there are several high sour fields. In the extreme is Bearberry, which is more than 90% H2S, but is currently not a commercial field. However, there is production from high sour fields (35% H2S) in Caroline and Zama, for example. According to the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP), approximately 1/3 of the production in Alberta is sour[3].

2. In the United States, there are several fields that are both high-CO2 and sour. For example, the LeBarge Field in Wyoming is 5% H2S and 65% CO2, and is currently produced commercially[4]. Much of the CO2 produced in Wyoming and New Mexico is used for enhanced oil recovery in Texas.

3. Much of the associated gas produced in Kazakhstan is sour; much of this is produced offshore in the Caspian Sea. The raw gas contains more than 10% H2S and about 5% CO2. One of the papers in this volume addresses the problems with the sour gas at a Kazakhstani field[5].

4. The North Field/South Pars shared by Qatar and Iran in the Gulf region in the Middle East is probably the largest gas field in the world, and it is sour. However, the H2S concentration is typically less than 1% throughout the field.

5. Many of the gas fields in Abu Dhabi are sour. One of these in the early stages of development is the Shah Field[6], which contains 25% H2S and 10% CO2.

6. The Sichuan Basin in southwest China has several sour fields[7]. SINOPEC’s Puguang Field, one of the largest gas fields in China, is about 15% H2S and 10% CO2. The Luojiazhai field is about 10% H2S, and is infamous for a blowout in 2003, which killed approximately 250 people: this is a reminder of the dangers of producing sour gas. A paper in this volume discusses the potential for acid gas injection in China[8].

7. The Gulf of Thailand – South China Sea region is famous for high-CO2 gas fields. In the news recently was a report of a project to study the development of the K5 Field offshore near the Malaysian state of Sarawak[9]. This field is 70% CO2.

8. These are just a few examples, but they show that the occurrence of sour gas is widespread throughout the world.

Acid Gas

Acid gas, a mixture composed mostly of H2S and CO2, is the by-product of the processing of the raw gas. Handling this stream is one of the difficulties in the exploitation of these resources. Acid gas injection has become a way to monetize some of these sour fields, particularly the small and remote ones.

In addition to being more toxic than sweet gas, there are other problems associated with producing sour gas. In combination with water, H2S and CO2 are corrosive, and require special material selection and corrosion inhibition programs.

In Summary…

The world’s thirst for energy will continue to increase, and natural gas will probably plan an important role in quenching it. As reserves of sweet gas diminish, sour gas will play a more important role.

References

1. ———, “Sour Gas,” http://www.ercb.ca/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_0_315_247_0_43/http%3B/ercbContent/publishedcontent/publish/ercb_home/public_zone/sour_gas/, Energy Resources Conservation Board, Edmonton, AB, Canada, (2009).

2. Hatcher, N., Alvis, A.S., and Weiland, R., “A Holistic Look Gas Treating Simulation,” in Wu, Y. and Carroll, J.J. (eds.), Sour Gas and Related Technologies, Scrivener Publishing, (2012).

3. ———, “Sour Gas,” http://www.capp.ca/environmentCommunity/air-ClimateChange/Pages/SourGas.aspx, Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers CAPP, Calgary, AB, Canada, (2009).

4. Huang, N.S., Aho, G.E., Baker, B.H., Matthews, T.R., and Pottorf, R.J., “Integrated Reservoir Modeling of a Large Sour-Gas Field with High Concentrations of Inerts,” SPE Res Eval Eng, 14 (4): 398–412, (2011).

5. Zhao, X., Carroll, J.J. and Wu, Y., “Acid Gas Injection for a Waste Stream with Heavy Hydrocarbons and Mercaptans,” in Wu, Y. and Carroll, J.J. (eds.), Sour Gas and Related Technologies, Scrivener Publishing, (2012).

6. Schulte, D., Graham, C, Nielsen, D., Almuhairi, A.H., and N. Kassamali, “The Shah Gas Development (SGD) Project - A New Benchmark,” Sour Oil & Gas Advanced Technology (SOGAT) Conference, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., March 31–April 1, (2009).

7. Wu, Y. and Carroll, J.J., “A Review of Recent Natural Gas Discoveries in China,” Sour Oil & Gas Advanced Technology (SOGAT) Conference, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., April 27–May 1, (2008).

8. Li, Q., Li, X., Du, L., Liu, G., Liu, X., and Wei, N., “Potential Sites and Early Opportunities of Acid Gas Re-injection in China,” in Wu, Y. and Carroll, J.J. (eds.), Sour Gas and Related Technologies, Scrivener Publishing, (2012).

9. ———, “Petronas, Total to study potential of CO2 field,” The Star Malaysia, March 29, 2012.

PART 1

DATA: EXPERIMENTS AND CORRELATION

Chapter 1

Equilibrium Water Content Measurements for Acid Gas at High Pressures and Temperatures

Francis Bernard‡, Robert A. Marriott† and Binod R. Giri

Alberta Sulphur Research Ltd., Calgary, AB, Canada ‡[email protected]†[email protected]

Abstract

The design of safe and reliable acid gas compression, injection, and transport facilities requires a good understanding of the phase behavior of acid gas and water. Although many data are available for natural gas systems in open literature, there are limited reported data on the HS + HO system at pressures relevant to injection schemes and target reservoir pressures.