Spacecraft Lithium-Ion Battery Power Systems E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Wiley - IEEE
- Sprache: Englisch
Spacecraft Lithium-Ion Battery Power Systems Provides Readers with a Better Understanding of the Requirements, Design, Test, and Safety Engineering of Spacecraft Lithium-ion Battery Power Systems Written by highly experienced spacecraft engineers and scientists working at the forefront of the aerospace industry, Spacecraft Lithium-Ion Battery Power Systems is one of the first books to provide a comprehensive treatment of the broad area of spacecraft lithium-ion battery (LIB) power systems technology. The work emphasizes the technical aspects across the entire lifecycle of spacecraft LIBs including the requirements, design, manufacturing, testing, and safety engineering principles needed to deploy a reliable spacecraft LIB-based electrical power system. A special focus on rechargeable LIB technologies as they apply to unmanned and crewed Earth-orbiting satellites, planetary mission spacecraft (such as orbiters, landers, rovers and probes), launch vehicle, and astronaut spacesuit applications is emphasized. Using a system's engineering approach, the book bridges knowledge gaps that typically exist between academic and industry practitioners. Key topics of discussion and learning resources include: * Detailed systematic technical treatment of spacecraft LIB-based electrical power systems across the entire LIB lifecycle * Principles of lithium-ion cell and battery design and test, LIB sizing, battery management systems, electrical power systems, safety engineering, ground and launch-site processing, and on-orbit mission operations * Special topics such as requirements engineering, qualification testing, thermal runaway hazards, dead bus events, life cycle testing and prediction analyses, on-orbit LIB power system management, and spacecraft EPS passivation strategies * Comprehensive discussion of on-orbit and emerging space applications of LIBs supporting various commercial, civil, and government spacecraft missions such as International Space Station, Galileo, James Webb Telescope, Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover, Europa Clipper, Cubesats, and more Overall, the work provides professionals supporting all aspects of the aerospace marketplace with key knowledge and highly actionable information pertaining to LIBs and their specific applications in modern spacecraft systems.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication page
About the Editor
About the Contributors
List of Reviewers
Foreword by Albert H. Zimmerman and Ralph E. White
Preface
Acronyms and Abbreviations
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Purpose
1.3 History of Spacecraft Batteries
1.4 State of Practice
1.5 About the Book
1.6 Summary
References
2 Space Lithium‐Ion Cells
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definitions
2.3 Cell Components
2.4 Cell Geometry
2.5 Cell Requirements
2.6 Cell Performance Characteristics
2.7 Cell Qualification Testing
2.8 Cell Screening and Acceptance Testing
2.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
3 Space Lithium‐Ion Batteries
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Requirements
3.3 Cell Selection and Matching
3.4 Mission‐Specific Characteristics
3.5 Interfaces
3.6 Battery Design
3.7 Battery Testing
3.8 Supply Chain
3.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
4 Spacecraft Electrical Power Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 EPS Functional Description
4.3 EPS Requirements
4.4 EPS Architecture
4.5 Battery Management Systems
4.6 Dead Bus Events
4.7 EPS Analysis
4.8 EPS Testing
4.9 Summary
References
5 Earth‐Orbiting Satellite Batteries
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Earth Orbit Battery Requirements
5.3 NASA International Space Station – LEO
5.4 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Spacecraft
5.5 Van Allen Probes – HEO
5.6 GOES Communication Satellites – GEO
5.7 James Webb Space Telescope – Earth–Sun Lagrange Point 2
5.8 CubeSats – LEO
5.9 European Space Agency Spacecraft
5.10
5.11 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
6 Planetary Spacecraft Batteries
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Planetary Mission Battery Requirements
6.3 Planetary and Space Exploration Missions
6.4 Future Missions
6.5 Mars Sample Return Missions
6.6 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
7 Space Battery Safety and Reliability
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Space LIB Safety Requirements
7.3 Safety Hazards, Controls, and Testing
7.4 Thermal Runaway
7.5 Principles of Safe‐by‐Design
7.6 Passive Propagation Resistant LIB Design
7.7 Battery Reliability
7.8 Summary
References
8 Life‐Cycle Testing and Analysis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 LCT Planning
8.3 Charge and Discharge Test Conditions
8.4 Test Configuration and Environments
8.5 Test Equipment and Safety Hazards
8.6 Real‐Time Life‐Cycle Testing
8.7 Calendar and Storage Life Testing
8.8 Accelerated Life‐Cycle Testing
8.9 Data Analysis
8.10 Modeling and Simulation
8.11 Summary
References
9 Ground Processing and Mission Operations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Ground Processing
9.3 Launch Site Operations
9.4 Mission Operations
9.5 End‐of‐Mission Operations
9.6 Summary
References
Appendix A: Terms and Definitions
Acceptance Test
Battery
Battery Capacity
Battery Energy
Bus Voltage
Cell Bank
Cell Bypass Switch
Cell Formation
Cell Lot
Cell Lot Acceptance Test
Cell Screening
C‐Rate
Commercial Off‐the‐Shelf (COTS) Cells
COTS Cell Lot
Current Interrupt Device (CID)
Dead Bus
Dead Bus Recovery
Dead Bus Survival
Depth‐of‐Discharge (DOD)
Design Mission Life
Design Reference Case (DRC)
Destructive Physical Analysis (DPA)
Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
End‐of‐Mission (EOM)
Energy Balance
Energy Storage
External Short Circuit (ESC)
Fault Management
Foreign Object Debris (FOD)
Ground Support Equipment (GSE)
Hard Passivation
Internal Short Circuit (ISC)
Life Cycle Test (LCT)
Lithium‐Ion Cell
Load
Load Margin
Lock‐Up (or Latch‐Up)
Module or Battery Module
Native Object Debris (NOD)
Normal Operation
Operating Voltage
Operational States
Overcharge
Overdischarge
Passivation
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
Power Budget
Power Generation
Power Margin
Proto‐qualification Test
Qualification Test
Rated (or Nameplate) Battery Capacity/Energy
Regulated Bus
Safe Mode
Service Life
Single Point Failure
Soft Passivation
Spacecraft
Specific Energy
Specific Power
State‐of‐Charge (SOC)
Thermal Runaway (TR)
Vent
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of Li‐ion cells and batteries for sp...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Rechargeable space cell characteristics.
Table 2.2 Non‐rechargeable space cell characteristics.
Table 2.3 Space li‐ion cell cathode material comparison.
Table 2.4 Properties of commonly used electrolyte solvents used in space Li...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Earth‐orbiting mission characteristics and satellite battery requ...
Table 3.2 LIB s‐p and p‐s topology comparison.
Table 3.3 Li‐ion cell, module, battery, and EPS safety devices.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Effect of key spacecraft requirements on selected EPS specificati...
Table 4.2 Representative commercial satellite LIB‐based bus platform provid...
Table 4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of various spacecraft EPS architectu...
Table 4.4 Operation and characteristics of common satellite BMS cell balanc...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 US astronaut EMU lithium battery performance characteristics.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Summary of Mars Orbiter missions since 2000.
Table 6.2 Summary of Mars Lander missions.
Table 6.3 Summary of Mars Rover missions.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Safety standards, guides, and regulations for space Li‐ion cells ...
Table 7.2 Advantages and disadvantages of various test methods used to trig...
Table 7.3 LIB reliability requirements for a representative Earth‐orbiting ...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Test matrix for representative cell LEO and GEO real‐time and acc...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 History of on‐orbit satellite breakups caused by batteries.
Table 9.2 EPS hard and soft passivation approaches and states.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Ag‐Zn batteries for Atlas and Delta launch vehicle applications m...
Figure 1.2 Launched in March 1998, the SPOT 4 commercial high‐resolution opt...
Figure 1.3 28V Ni‐H
2
satellite battery manufactured by EaglePicher Technolog...
Figure 1.4 Launched in 1990, the NASA Hubble Space Telescope utilizes six Ni...
Figure 1.5 PROBA‐1 6s6p 9 Ah LIB manufactured by EnerSys/ABSL.
Figure 1.6 Launched in 2001, PROBA−1 continues to operate after over 100 000...
Figure 1.7 Japan's resupply ship, the HTV‐9 attached to the ISS Harmony modu...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Li‐ion cell capacity description. Cell operational capacity is al...
Figure 2.2 Cross‐section of COTS 18650 Li‐ion cell cap.
Figure 2.3 The discharge capacity of a Yardney 43 Ah Li‐ion cell at various ...
Figure 2.4 Effect of temperature and SOC on the internal resistance of COTS ...
Figure 2.5 The cycle life performance of EaglePicher (Yardney Division) 7 an...
Figure 2.6 The cycle life performance of GS Yuasa Gen II 100 Ah Li‐ion cells...
Figure 2.7 Cycle life performance of Saft VES16 D‐size Li‐ion cells subjecte...
Figure 2.8 General Li‐ion cell qualification test flow derived from ECSS‐E‐H...
Figure 2.9 General lot acceptance test flow derived from ECSS‐E‐HB‐20‐02A.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Representation of a satellite in a GEO orbit in a Sun‐Centric Ref...
Figure 3.2 GEO eclipse season for a representative commercial communications...
Figure 3.3 Variation of eclipse duration for a representative LEO satellite ...
Figure 3.4 LIB electrical s‐p topology.
Figure 3.5 LIB electrical p‐s topology
Figure 3.6 Representative spacecraft LIB qualification and proto‐qualificati...
Figure 3.7 Discharge capacity at different temperatures.
Figure 3.8 Estimation of battery internal resistance by the current pulse me...
Figure 3.9 In‐plane vibration testing of an 8s52p LIB manufactured by EnerSy...
Figure 3.10 Pyro shock testing of a spacecraft LIB. Credit: Saft/Thales Alen...
Figure 3.11 Thermal vacuum testing of a spacecraft LIB. Credit: EnerSys/ABSL...
Figure 3.12 Representative spacecraft LIB thermal vacuum temperature profile...
Figure 3.13 Magnetic moment testing of a spacecraft LIB. Credit: EnerSys/ABS...
Figure 3.14 Space LIB acceptance test sequence.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Unmanned and crewed spacecraft subsystem elements.
Figure 4.2 The NASA Orion Artemis I spacecraft with ESA's service module sho...
Figure 4.3 Fundamental elements of a spacecraft electrical power subsystem....
Figure 4.4 Functional block diagram of a spacecraft electrical power subsyst...
Figure 4.5 Spacecraft EPS requirements engineering flow diagram.
Figure 4.6 Simplified energy balance and power flow for a fully‐regulated DE...
Figure 4.7 The first Meteosat Third Generation‐Imaging (MTG‐I) satellite und...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Earth‐orbiting satellite representation. Credit: Julianna Calin....
Figure 5.2 NASA International Space Station.
Figure 5.3 ISS 30s1p LIB ORU manufactured by Aerojet Rocketdyne.
Figure 5.4 ISS EPS Battery block diagram: (a) Ni‐H
2
76 series 81 Ah cells; (...
Figure 5.5 Solar Dynamics Observatory is readied for launch on its United La...
Figure 5.6 NASA SDO flight 8s104p LIB manufactured by EnerSys/ABSL.
Figure 5.7 NASA GPM LEO satellite system.
Figure 5.8 NASA’s twin Van Allen Probes in orbit within Earth’s magnetic fie...
Figure 5.9 Van Allen Probes 8s1p LIB during
Y
‐axis random vibration testing....
Figure 5.10 GOES‐R undergoing final launch preparations prior to fueling ins...
Figure 5.11 James Webb Space telescope.
Figure 5.12 JWST EPS architecture.
Figure 5.13 JWST 8s44p battery.
Figure 5.14 CubeSat volume and mass classifications.
Figure 5.15 JPL 3s1p high power battery.
Figure 5.16 Sentinel‐1 16s16p LIB flight battery modules (during ground proc...
Figure 5.17 Galileo FOC 11s64p HCM LIB manufactured by EnerSys/ABSL.
Figure 5.18 LLBs during thermal vacuum testing.
Figure 5.19 USA astronaut on EVA with SAFER attached to EMU.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Engineering unit of the Mars Surveyor Program 2001 (MSP'01) batte...
Figure 6.2 The Mars Phoenix Lander on the surface of Mars.
Figure 6.3 The Mars Phoenix Lander battery manufactured by Yardney Technical...
Figure 6.4 Discharge energy (Wh/kg) of heritage NCO and next‐generation NCA ...
Figure 6.5 Discharge capacity (Ah) of a next‐generation NCA 25 Ah nameplate ...
Figure 6.6 Artist's portrayal of Opportunity on the surface of Mars.
Figure 6.7 Picture of the LIB (24–32.8V, 20 Ah capacity) that is similar to ...
Figure 6.8 Performance of the Spirit battery on the surface of Mars.
Figure 6.9 Performance of the Opportunity battery on the surface of Mars....
Figure 6.10 Performance of the Opportunity battery on the surface of Mars....
Figure 6.11 Picture of the Li‐ion battery (24 V–32.80 V, 86 Ah nameplate cap...
Figure 6.12 Yardney 25 Ah cells tested under the InSight program with herita...
Figure 6.13 Artist's portrayal of the Mars helicopter Ingenuity on the surfa...
Figure 6.14 Pictures of the Mars helicopter Ingenuity Li‐ion battery.
Figure 6.15 High power discharge testing of the Mars helicopter battery simu...
Figure 6.16 The final battery design utilized for the MarCO CubeSats.
Figure 6.17 Artist's portrayal of the Juno spacecraft at Jupiter.
Figure 6.18 The Juno spacecraft 55 Ah, 28 V Li‐ion battery.
Figure 6.19 100% DOD cycle life performance of LG Chem MJ1 cells at +30 °C....
Figure 6.20 The cell impedance growth (in mΩ) of LG Chem MJ1 cells subjected...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Notional safe voltage and temperature (V‐T) operating window for ...
Figure 7.2 Five‐by‐five (5 x 5) risk cube for reducing the likelihood and co...
Figure 7.3 Thermal runaway characterization of a COTS 21700 format NMC Li‐io...
Figure 7.4 ARC profiles of a prismatic 36 Ah LCO Li‐ion cell at increasing S...
Figure 7.5 Catastrophic side wall rupture during TR of a representative Li‐i...
Figure 7.6 Original first‐generation US spacesuit EMU 16p5s LLB design.
Figure 7.7 The printed circuit board that attaches to the top of the origina...
Figure 7.8 Full propagation of TR after a single cell is triggered in the fi...
Figure 7.9 LLB test battery TR propagation test showing external LLB surface...
Figure 7.10 Redesign iteration of LLB cell brick. Side plate cell vent holes...
Figure 7.11 LLB2 PPR battery design with gas permeable vent ports on test st...
Figure 7.12 Distribution of spacecraft EPS component failure rates in LEO an...
Figure 7.13 Effect of on‐orbit mission service time on spacecraft battery fa...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Saft 5p10s VL51ES lithium‐ion battery GEO life cycle testing in a...
Figure 8.2 LCT LIB mounted on a temperature‐controlled cold plate.
Figure 8.3 An example custom satellite battery LCT facility.
Figure 8.4 Representative satellite battery cell single charge–discharge cyc...
Figure 8.5 Representative satellite LIB cell charge–discharge cycling during...
Figure 8.6 Sample profiles of battery EODV parameters: (a) LEO cycling under...
Figure 8.7 Sample fit for an empirical model. Symbols: experimental data; so...
Figure 8.8 Example results tracking surface lithium stoichiometry. Here, pos...
Figure 8.9 Simulated GEO cycle response of single cells cycled under the sam...
Figure 8.10 LCT cell life estimates. Based on hypothetical end‐of‐life crite...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 NASA Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) and Launch Control Center at...
Figure 9.2 Representative satellite and flight battery process flow from arr...
Figure 9.3 The US–European Sentinel‐6 Michael Freilich ocean‐monitoring sate...
Figure 9.4 The NASA Johnson Space Centers MCC ISS flight control room flight...
Figure 9.5 Representative NASA ISS 30s1p LIB 3A1 power channel on‐orbit volt...
Figure 9.6 Representative (mission day 206, 115‐min eclipse) Van Allen Probe...
Figure 9.7 Causes of known satellite break‐ups in Earth orbit between 1961 a...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Editor
About the Contributors
List of Reviewers
Foreword by Albert H. Zimmerman and Ralph E. White
Preface
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Appendix A Terms and Definitions
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Spacecraft Lithium‐Ion Battery Power Systems
Edited by
Thomas P. Barrera
This edition first published 2023© 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Chapters 5, 7, and 9 © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd and United States Government as represented by the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. The contributions to the chapters written by Penni J. Dalton, Samuel P. Russell, Eric C. Darcy, and Scott Hull were performed as part of their official duties as employees of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. No copyright is claimed in the United States under Title 17, U.S. Code. All Other Rights Reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data applied forHardback ISBN: 9781119772149
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © NASA
Dedicated to the Memory of Mrs. Sara ThwaiteJanuary 13, 1972 – May 31, 2022
About the Editor
Thomas P. Barrera, PhD, is President, LIB‐X Consulting (Long Beach, CA, USA), where he provides engineering and educational services in the broad area of lithium‐ion battery power systems. Previously, Tom was a Technical Fellow for The Boeing Co., Satellite Development Center (El Segundo, CA), where he led multidisciplinary teams in systems engineering of advanced space electrical power subsystem technologies. During his 19‐year Boeing career, Tom provided mission operations support for the NASA Space Shuttle and International Space Station programs as well as battery expertise for the CST‐100 Starliner, Space Launch System, numerous commercial and government LEO/GEO satellite systems, and various high‐value proprietary satellite programs. Before joining The Boeing Co., Tom served as a space battery R&D test engineer at The Aerospace Corporation and electrical power systems engineer at the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Tom currently serves as an industry member of the NASA Engineering and Safety Center and is on the advisory board for South 8 Technologies. Frequently invited to speak and lecture at domestic and international conferences, Tom has over 50 combined conference presentations and publications, including 3 US patents in the area of aviation battery safety. Dr. Barrera earned his PhD in chemical engineering from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) with a minor in atmospheric chemistry and physics. He also served as a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the department of materials science and engineering at UCLA. Tom earned his MS in industrial engineering and management sciences from Northwestern University, BS in chemical engineering cum laude and BA in mathematics–economics both from University of California, Santa Barbara. He is also an AIAA Associate Fellow, member‐at‐large for the Battery Division of the ECS, and member of the MRS and Tau Beta Pi. Tom and his wife Joan reside in Long Beach, California where they actively enjoy a Southern California lifestyle and traveling abroad.
About the Contributors
Thomas P. Barrera, PhD, is President, LIB‐X Consulting, Long Beach, CA, USA. He has over 35 years of relevant aerospace experience in fuel cell, battery, solar array, power electronics, and harness technologies. During his 19‐year career at The Boeing Co., Dr. Barrera served as a Technical Fellow where he led systems engineering teams in advanced satellite electrical power system development, commercial and government spacecraft launch campaigns, and on‐orbit spacecraft mission operations activities. Previously, he was a space battery R&D test engineer at The Aerospace Corporation and electrical power systems engineer at the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Tom has over 50 combined conference presentations and publications, including 3 US patents in the area of aviation battery safety. He earned his PhD in chemical engineering from UCLA and is a member of the ECS, AIAA, and MRS.
Yannick Borthomieu, PhD, is Product Manager and Saft Fellow, at Saft Defense and Space Division, Poitiers, France. He has worked 33 years in the space battery field acquiring a worldwide recognized expertise in more than 700 Ni‐Cd, Ni‐H2 and Li‐ion combined satellite battery programs in collaboration with all the worldwide satellite prime contractors and operators. He has authored or co‐authored 200 publications, 3 book chapters, and 5 patents. Yannick earned his PhD from CNRS in Bordeaux, France.
Ratnakumar V. Bugga, PhD, is Technical Fellow, Lyten, Inc., San Jose, CA, USA. Previously, Dr. Bugga spent 34 years at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory as a Principal Technologist conducting research on various advanced battery technologies for NASA planetary missions. He provided support to several NASA/JPL planetary missions, including the first major NASA missions to implement Li‐ion batteries, 2003 Mars Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) and 2011 Mars Curiosity Rover as rover battery cognizant engineer and overall battery lead. He was awarded the NASA exceptional service award for his contributions to Mars missions, the JPL Magellan award, and NASA Innovative and Advanced Concepts grants for Venus mission power solutions. He has authored over 100 peer‐reviewed journal articles, granted over 25 US patents, authored four book chapters, and presented in numerous national and international conferences. Kumar earned his PhD in electrochemistry from the Indian Institute of Science. He is member of ECS, MRS, ACS and AIAA.
Keith Chin, PhD, is Sr. Research Technologist, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA. During his 21 years at NASA/JPL, he has led numerous flight and research technology programs in the broad areas of energy storage, energy generation, and in‐situ electrochemical instrumentation. He also has more than 15 years of system engineering experience on spacecraft power system design and operation for CubeSat to Flagship missions and served on Grace (2002), MER (2003), Deep Impact (2005), Phoenix (2007), MSL (2011), and Psyche (2022) mission teams. Keith is the recipient of numerous NASA Awards including the MSL Mission System Development Team and Li‐Ion Battery Tech Dev. Team Awards. Keith earned his PhD and MS in chemical engineering from the University of Southern California and UCLA, respectively.
Steven E. Core served as Associate Technical Fellow, The Boeing Company, El Segundo, CA, USA. Prior to his retirement, Steve was regional manager for the Boeing Satellite Development Center’s Customer Operations Support Center. With over 36 years of aerospace engineering experience, Steve led teams for 7 international customers to maintain their fleet of 16 satellites, resolve on‐orbit anomalies, and perform decommissioning operations. He is an expert in propulsion systems engineering, executing programs for 26 satellites up through AI&T operations, including 20 launch campaigns and mission operations. He holds 2 patents and has MS degrees in both Environmental and Aerospace Engineering from University of Southern California, and a BS in Aero/Astro Engineering from Ohio State University.
David Curzon is Customer Relationship Manager, EnerSys/ABSL Space Products, Abingdon, England. David joined the ABSL Space Products team in 1998. Previously, David served as Program Manager with the NASA GSFC customer on numerous key space battery programs such as ST‐5, LRO, SDO and GPM. David has worked with major space agencies including ESA, Indian Space Research Organization, Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre and Korea Aerospace Research Institute as well as the majority of European Spacecraft Primes. Major projects and achievements have included Proba‐1, Galileo and KSLV‐2. David earned his Class #1 honors degree in Mechanical Engineering from Birmingham University.
Penni J. Dalton served as Electrical Power System Battery Subsystem Manager, International Space Station, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, USA. Prior to her retirement, she had over 40 years of experience designing, building, testing, and operating spacecraft batteries, including the first launch of the NASA ISS Ni‐H2 batteries in 2000 through the latest on‐orbit replacement of those original batteries with Li‐ion batteries in 2021. She is a two‐time recipient of the NASA Exceptional Service Medal, the Spaceflight Awareness Award, and the Silver Snoopy Award and has authored numerous publications on the ISS battery operations. She has a MS in Chemistry from Indiana University and a BS in Chemistry from the University of California, Santa Barbara.
Eric C. Darcy, PhD, is Battery Technical Discipline Lead, NASA, Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX, USA. During his 35‐year NASA career, Eric has led battery design, verification, and safety assessments for various manned spacecraft applications. He has pioneered the development of safe, high performing lithium‐ion battery systems with a focus on understanding, preventing, and mitigating cell latent defects that can lead to catastrophic hazards. He is co‐inventor of a cell implantable internal short circuit device and fractional thermal runaway calorimeter providing significant design insights into cell responses during thermal runaway and enabled valid battery propagation assessments. He earned his PhD in chemical engineering at the University of Houston.
Aakesh Datta is Lead EPS engineer and battery expert at OHB System AG, Bremen, Germany. He is responsible for the development of satellite EPS architectures and Li‐ion battery technologies for on‐orbit applications varying from telecommunications to scientific exploration. In this role, he established the Li‐ion battery in‐flight management for the Galileo FOC constellation ground operational team. Previously, Aakesh served four and a half years as a battery development engineer for Li‐ion technologies at Saft where he was responsible for technical management of the Saft VES16 Li‐ion cell industrialization process and quality control. Aakesh earned a MS in Aeronautics and Aerospace Engineering from the Institut Polytechnique des Sciences Advancées.
Scott Hull is Lead Orbital Debris Engineer, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA. He has over 20 years of experience performing orbital debris assessments, consulting on decommissioning planning, and providing related studies for over 60 spacecraft missions. Mr. Hull has also supported multiple orbital debris related studies for the NASA Engineering and Safety Center, and authored or co‐authored over a dozen conference papers and contributed to two textbooks. Previous experience includes failure analysis, electronic parts engineering, and space mission operations support. He graduated from Drexel University with a BS in Materials Engineering.
Eloi Klein is a battery engineering specialist at Thales Alenia Space, Cannes, France. Eloi joined Thales Alenia Space in 2006, where he has been involved in the development of Li‐ion cells and batteries for various spacecraft, such as the Exomars Trace Gas Orbiter, the Iridium Next constellation, and the Space Inspire commercial satellite product line. Eloi served first at Saft, working on the mechanical and electrical design of the first Li‐ion batteries for GEO and LEO satellite missions. He earned his M.Sc. in Mechanical and Power Engineering from Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Hauts‐de‐France.
David J. Reuter is the space battery subject matter expert, Northrop Grumman Strategic Space Systems Division, Redondo Beach, CA, USA. David has over 25 years of end‐to‐end spacecraft battery design, test, integration, launch and on‐orbit operating experience. He has led multi‐disciplined teams developing high performance, long‐life energy storage systems for many commercial and government spacecraft programs with expertise in Ni‐H2, Li‐ion, and thermal battery power systems. Previously, Dave was a responsible engineering authority for space batteries at Hughes Space and Communications and a lead systems engineer at Raytheon Space and Airborne Systems. Dave earned a BS in mechanical engineering from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona.
Samuel P. Russell is Project Manager and Systems Engineer, NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX, USA. With more than 20 years of experience in developing and testing human space flight hardware, Sam has managed the development of the first Li‐ion battery for critical human space application, and after nearly a decade of successful performance, the first generation of propagation resistant Li‐ion batteries for human spaceflight. Sam is a PhD candidate in Systems Engineering at Stevens Institute of Technology and holds a BS in Environmental Engineering and a MS in Materials Engineering from the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology.
Shriram Santhanagopalan, PhD, is Team Leader for the Battery Materials, Analysis and Diagnostics Group, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden Co, USA. Before joining NREL, Shriram was a Senior Scientist at Celgard, LLC, where he was responsible for developing new characterization tools and Li‐2 components for automotive batteries. Over the last 20 years Shriram has developed models, materials and methodology to address performance and safety limitations of automotive batteries. He actively participates in committees on battery standards. He has authored over 70 peer‐reviewed journal articles, several book chapters and three books. He earned his PhD in Chemical Engineering from the University of South Carolina.
Marshall C. Smart, PhD, is Principal Member of the Technical Staff, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA. During his 28‐year NASA career, Dr. Smart’s major research focus has been the development of low temperature electrolytes for aerospace and automotive lithium‐ion battery applications. Dr. Smart’s low temperature electrolyte technology was successfully used on the MER, Phoenix Lander, MSL, M2020, and InSight missions to Mars. He is currently the Cognizant Engineer of the Li‐ion Batteries for the Europa Clipper project and the Mars 2020 Ingenuity Helicopter. Dr. Smart has authored or co‐authored 59 publications in peer‐reviewed journal articles, over 280 conference proceedings papers and presentations, and has 13 US patents. In 2015, Dr. Smart was awarded a NASA Exceptional Achievement Award for the “Infusion of Li‐ion Battery Electrolytes into Flight Missions”. Dr. Smart earned a PhD in Organic Chemistry from the University of Southern California, a MS in Chemistry from California State University, Los Angeles, and BA degrees in Philosophy and Chemistry from University of California, Santa Barbara. He is also a member of the ACS, ECS and AAAS.
Samuel Stuart is Chief Scientist, Power & Energy Division, Naval Surface Warfare Center, Crane, IN, USA. Sam has over 37 years of experience with commercial and military batteries, working extensively with test, evaluation, failure analysis, and manufacturing technologies across the battery engineering lifecycle. He earned a BS and MS in Chemical Engineering from New Mexico State University. He is a member of the AIAA, AIChE, ASNE, and ECS.
Sara Thwaite was a Battery Technical Specialist, EnerSys/ABSL Space Products, Abingdon, England. For much of her early childhood she and her brother lived in Northern Argentina where their parents worked with the Wichi people of the Chaco region. Returning to England in December 1980 she lived and was educated near and in Exeter, Devon. She read Theology at Exeter College Oxford, graduating in 1993. After graduation she studied a range of engineering disciplines through the Open University. She originally started work in the space industry in 2000 and worked in a variety of roles from technical to product assurance before moving into defense development work on hybrid fuel cell and battery systems. Returning to her real passion of Space in 2010, she continued in a senior Product Assurance team management role until 2018 when she took on her final role of Technical Specialist, providing system engineering and knowledge development support to the business based on her long‐standing experience in the industry. In addition to her strong interest in Space and developing technologies, Sara had a love of nature, regularly hiking and cycling in the UK. She was also a keen photographer of flora and fauna – both in the UK and in various African countries she visited on safaris.
Lloyd Zilch, PhD, is Chief Engineer, Power & Energy Division, Naval Surface Warfare Center, Crane, IN, USA. Lloyd has over 13 years of experience in military manned and unmanned energy storage systems for aviation, missile, and space applications. In this role, Lloyd serves as a technical advisor to the aerospace lithium‐ion battery life cycle test facility. Lloyd earned his PhD in Chemistry from Indiana University and a MS and BS in Chemistry and Biochemistry from Brigham Young University.
List of Reviewers
Valerie AngThe Aerospace CorporationEl Segundo, CA, USA
Christopher R. AshleyAshley Technical Services, LLCRedondo Beach, CA USA
François Bausier, PhDEuropean Space Agency, European Space Research and Technology Centre Noordwijk, The Netherlands
Gary Bayles, PhDScience Applications International Corporation, Crane, IN, USA
Erik J. Brandon, PhDJet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
Robert M. ButtonNASA, Glenn Research Center Cleveland, OH, USA
Gregory A. CarrJet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
Boyd Carter, PhDThe Aerospace CorporationEl Segundo, CA, USA
Jeff CaseSpace Power Systems Engineering Chantilly, VA, USA
David Delafuente, PhDNASA, Johnson Space Center Houston, TX, USA
Jan Geder, PhDVDE Renewables Asia, Singapore
Rob Gitzendanner, PhDEaglePicher Technologies, East Greenwich, RI, USA
Joshua Lamb, PhDSandia National Laboratories Albuquerque, NM, USA
Michel LannesEaglePicher Technologies, East Greenwich, RI, USA
Jamal Mardini, PhDThe Boeing Co., El Segundo, CA, USA
Allen MuroiThe Boeing Co. (Retired), Huntington Beach, CA, USA
David W. OlsenNASA, John F. Kennedy Space Center, FL, USA
Eugene R. Schwanbeck IVNASA, Johnson Space Center Houston, TX, USA
Evelyne Simon, PhDEuropean Space Agency, Harwell Campus, UK
Pinakin M. Shah, PhDPS Battery Tech Consulting, Spring, TX, USA
Dick (Richard) ShawLockheed Martin Space (Retired) Littleton, CO, USA
Ramanathan Thillaiyan, PhDTeledyne Energy Systems, Inc. Hunt Valley, MD, USA
Carl ThwaiteEnerSys/ABSL, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK
Joe TroutmanEnerSys/ABSL, Longmont, CO, USA
Margot L. Wasz, PhDThe Aerospace CorporationEl Segundo, CA, USA
Mark J. WelchNASA, Johnson Space Center Houston, TX, USA
Eric J.M. YoungNASA, Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, MD, USA
Foreword by Albert H. Zimmerman and Ralph E. White
A man emerges from the shadows. Silhouetted in the moonlight, he looks furtively over his shoulder and cradles a glowing coal in his arms before hurrying ahead towards a darkened town. You may recognize this as the mythological story of Prometheus, who stole the technology of fire from the gods and gave it to humanity. This story has come to represent striving for and developing new knowledge, as well as the risks that often come with new technologies. Control over fire is indeed a technology that has energized and altered the course of civilization. The development of lithium‐ion batteries (LIB) has also created a technology that when combined with modern microelectronics, has transformed the course of civilization in the twenty‐first century. New LIB‐powered machines emerge every day and have given people instantaneous connection to both each other and to limitless information.
This book extends the LIB narrative to the power systems used in today’s machines of space, the satellites, the space exploration craft, the planetary explorers, probes, and rovers. The space environment includes challenges not commonly encountered on Earth, temperature extremes of hot and cold, radiation, meteorites, as well as the more familiar day/night cycle that governs charging and discharging of batteries (like the Promethean cycle of torment and rebirth for stealing fire). One additional challenge: the battery systems that power these space vehicles must perform without failure over the vehicle lifetime; battery replacement is usually not an option. This book provides a series of nine chapters in which technology practitioners describe LIB technologies and practices that are utilized to make cells, batteries, and power systems for space vehicles, to integrate these power systems into satellites or planetary spacecraft, to verify safety, risks, reliability, and performance, and finally to discuss experiences operating and managing some representative space systems over their life cycle. The information in these chapters make it abundantly clear that successfully fielding a space LIB power system requires much work and attention to a lot of detail along the way.
This book outlines an overall process that, if followed, should result in the successful design and operation of a space LIB power system. The process is intended to be flexible enough to accommodate cell technology advances and to be applicable to the full range of today’s spacecraft types, ranging from inexpensive CubeSats to the largest and most expensive satellite or deep space mission. From where does this process come from? The answer to this question gets to the heart of why we design space systems as we do today. Simply put, the process is based on experience. This experience is documented in standards and other publications that are referenced in each chapter, and by this means captures both the good and not so good lessons learned from the past. This outstanding book provides a gold standard, which can be followed to optimize the likelihood of power system success, but a standard without any flexibility has limited usefulness. Flexibility is achieved because the critical portions of the standards that are adopted by each space vehicle can be tailored to meet its specific cost, schedule, and reliability needs. This book provides an excellent starting point for the battery scientist and power system engineer who wants to leverage the experience of the past into a space power system for the future.
Albert H. Zimmerman, PhDTechnical Fellow, The Aerospace Corporation
Ralph E. White, PhDProfessor, Chemical Engineering, University of South Carolina
Preface
Whether serving as an educator in a university classroom environment or as a mentor to early career professionals, I learned that we all benefit from sharing relevant experiences, lessons‐learned and proven best practices. To that end, the vision for this book was initially formed while teaching graduate‐level spacecraft power system and LIB short‐courses at USC, UCLA, and NASA. During this time, it was evident that a single‐source comprehensive treatment of the cradle‐to‐grave “life cycle” of spacecraft LIB power systems did not yet exist. Instead, the majority of space Li‐ion cell and LIB engineering requirements, test data, and program experience were widely distributed across hard‐to‐find or difficult‐to‐access public domain resources. Within the spacecraft designer community, this reality had seemingly created challenging knowledge gaps in a common understanding of space LIB power system fundamentals.
After establishing this growing space industry need, a systematic plan for authoring the first‐ever spacecraft LIB technical reference book was socialized within the aerospace community. This included lengthy conversations with industry colleagues at various professional conferences, careful reviews of student course evaluations, and an extensive evaluation of the existing literature. Based on a significant amount of constructive industry feedback, and enthusiastic encouragement from my family, the book project had the needed traction and motivation to move forward to completion. To best serve the space community, this book was intentionally authored for a wide spectrum of practicing industry professionals with varying degrees of experience. As such, early career professionals new to spacecraft LIB power systems, practitioners who require additional technical details to increase their understanding of space LIB applications, and experienced subject matter experts who need a centralized technical LIB reference source will greatly benefit from this book. Since LIBs are an enabling technology, an important objective was to meet the intent of applicable data protection laws, US export controls, and international traffic and arms regulations. As a result, in lieu of LIB design “how‐to” or detailed process explanations, this book provides the basic fundamentals of LIB power systems complemented by detailed public‐domain citations readily available for further learning opportunities.
This ambitious book project would not have been completed without the sage guidance, keen focus, and understanding of the world‐class John Wiley & Sons UK‐based publishing team. A very special thanks to Sandra Grayson (Commissioning Editor) for her encouragement and creative ideas from the beginning of this journey; Becky Cowan (Editorial Assistant) for her patience and attention‐to‐detail in organizing the book contributor team and copyright processing; and to Patricia Bateson for her detailed copy editing of the book manuscript text, figures, and tables. Most of all I gratefully thank Juliet Booker (Managing Editor) for her continuous candid feedback, flexibility with evolving book content dynamics, and welcome focus on execution.
My special gratitude goes to Thomas Evans (NASA‐GSFC) and Dr. Margot Wasz (The Aerospace Corporation) for providing early feedback to the book proposal; Lynn Hitschler for her constant encouragement and genuine interest in this project; Dennis Devine (EaglePicher Technologies) for technical book writing lessons‐learned and invaluable advice; Dr. Dan Doughty (Sandia National Laboratories, retired) and Dr. Robert Spotnitz (Battery Design, LLC) for their willingness to co‐teach LIB courses with me at UCLA; Dr. Chris Iannello (NASA‐KSC) for sponsoring a series of NESC LIB short‐courses which helped develop a detailed book vision; Michael Butler (Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Lab) for his technical expertise on spacecraft EPS architecture; and Stephen Ottaway and Danny Montgomery (Thermal Hazard Technology) for their expertise with accelerated rate calorimetry test and analysis of LIBs. I also thank all my past mentors, friends, and colleagues at the NASA‐Johnson Space Center, The Aerospace Corporation, and The Boeing Co., who gave me the opportunity to learn‐by‐doing in dynamic technical work environments.
A book of this detail would not have been possible without the core expertise and early candid feedback from the major space Li‐ion cell and battery manufacturers. I am therefore forever grateful to Dr. Robert Gitzendanner (EaglePicher Technologies), Joe Troutman (EnerSys/ABSL), Curtis Aldrich and Tom Pusateri (GS Yuasa Lithium Power, Inc.), and Dr. Yannick Borthomieu (Saft) for their interest in the project, willingness to collaborate by sharing relevant data, and creative ideas for increasing book quality. The biggest challenge in completing a technical book of this scope is finding the quality time needed to write while meeting full‐time work commitments. I will always be in debt to each book contributor who selflessly gave their time to complete the project by enduring through my countless virtual meetings, demands for more data, and unrelenting reminders to meet deadlines. This book is a tribute to your dedication and commitment toward achieving our mutual objectives. In addition, each industry peer reviewer who enthusiastically volunteered their valuable time to provide constructive feedback to the final manuscript deserves special credit and recognition. The book team is also grateful to Julianna Calin for her graphics design expertise and guidance with the book chapter artwork.
Our entire book contributor team is forever blessed for the opportunity to work closely with Sara Thwaite throughout the duration of this book project. Sara’s technical expertise in space LIB design and test was only exceeded by her ability to foster team good will and camaraderie. More importantly, Sara’s ability to listen to different points of view and offer alternate explanations to complex ideas had a welcome calming effect on the team dynamics. Brought up with an Amerindian tribe in Northern Argentina where her parents were missionary aid workers, Sara started life without the modern technology most of us take for granted. Nevertheless, on her return to the UK, she developed a love and innate ability for science and engineering, which led her to the space industry she worked in for the majority of her adult life. Upon reflection from her time in Argentina to her career at EnerSys/ABSL, appropriately one of Sara’s favorite sayings was “From Stone Age to Space Age.” Despite the high technology work focus, Sara retained a passion for nature and travel in her private life and never lost sight of her roots. She married her husband Carl in 1994, and they remained inseparable until the end, working together for over 20 years as well as sharing their hobbies and interests. Sara sadly passed away in May 2022, but had remained working until her last month and was honored to be a part of creating this publication to help share knowledge of battery systems for new engineers in the industry.
Finally, I thank my loving wife Joan who always listened when I needed it most, kept Bunke and Wolfy busy so I could write (or delete) a few more words, and encouraged me to invest the quality time needed to cross the finish line. May we all be blessed with that one person in our life who unconditionally makes us better each and every day.
Thomas P. Barrera
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AC
Assembly Complete
ADCS
Attitude Determination and Control System
AFSPC
Air Force Space Command
Ag‐Cd
Silver Cadmium
Ag‐Zn
Silver‐Zinc
Ah
Ampere‐hour
AIAA
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
AI&T
Assembly, Integration, and Test
ANSI
American National Standards Institute
AOS
Acquisition of Signal
AP
Adaptor Plate
APL
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
ARC
Accelerating Rate Calorimetry
BCB
Battery Control Boards
BCDU
Battery Charge–Discharge Unit
BIU
Battery Interface Unit
BMS
Battery Management System
BOL
Beginning of Life
BOM
Bill of Materials
BRC
Battery Risk Classification
BSCCM
Battery Signal Conditioning and Control Module
BTA
Bends Treatment Adaptor
C
Nameplate capacity
CAN
Controller Area Network
CID
Current Interrupt Device
CM
Command Module
COMSAT
Commercial Satellite
COTS
Commercial Off‐The‐Shelf
COVE
CubeSat On‐Board Processing Validation Experiment
CPV
Common Pressure Vessel
CSLI
CubeSat Launch Initiative
CSUN
California State University at Northridge
CT
Computed Tomography
CVL
Charge Voltage Limit
DC
Direct Current
DEC
Diethyl Carbonate
DET
Direct Energy Transfer
DHMR
Dry Heat Microbial Reduction
DLR
German Aerospace Center
DMC
Dimethyl Carbonate
DMSP
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program
DoD
Department of Defense
DOD
Depth of Discharge
DOE
Department of Energy
DoT
Design‐of‐Test
DOT
Department of Transportation
DPA
Destructive Physical Analysis
DRC
Design Reference Case
EBA
Energy Balance Analysis
EBOT
EVA Battery Operations Terminal
EC
Ethylene Carbonate
EDL
Entry, Descent, and Landing
EEE
Electrical, Electronic, and Electromechanical
EGSE
Electrical Ground Support Equipment
EIA
Electrical Interface Assembly
ELV
Expendable Launch Vehicle
EOM
End of Mission
EPS
Electrical Power System
ESA
European Space Agency
ESC
External Short Circuit
EVA
Extravehicular Activity
EM
Engineering Model
EMC
Electromagnetic Compatibility
EMC
Ethyl Methyl Carbonate
EMF
Electromotive Force
EMI
Electromagnetic Interference
EMU
Extravehicular Mobility Unit
EOC
End‐of‐Charge
EOCV
End‐of‐Charge Voltage
EODV
End‐of‐Discharge Voltage
EOL
End of Life
EOM
End of Mission
ER
Eastern Range
ESD
Electrostatic Discharge
ESEO
European Student Earth Orbiter
ESS
Energy Storage Systems
FAA
Federal Aviation Administration
FAR
Federal Acquisition Regulations
FIT
Failure in Time
FM
Flight Model
FMECA
Failure Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis
FOD
Foreign Object Debris
FTS
Flight Termination System
GEO
Geosynchronous Orbit
GLONASS
Global Navigation Satellite System
GNC
Guidance Navigation, and Control
GNSS
Global Navigation Satellite System
GOES
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
GPM
Global Precipitation Measurement
GPS
Global Positioning System
GRACE
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
GRAIL
Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory
GSE
Ground Support Equipment
GSFC
Goddard Space Flight Center
GTO
GEO Transfer Orbit
HAR
Hazard Analysis Report
HCM
Hand Controller Module
HEO
Highly Elliptical Orbit
HST
Hubble Space Telescope
HTV
H‐II Transfer Vehicle
HVAC
Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning
HVI
Hypervelocity Impact
IADC
Inter‐Agency Space Debris Coordination
ICD
Interface Control Document
IEA
Integrated Equipment Assembly
IEC
International Electrochemical Commission
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IESD
Internal Electrostatic Discharge
IOT
In Orbit Test
IOV
In‐Orbit Validation
IPV
Individual Pressure Vessel
ISARA
Integrated Solar Array and Reflectarray Antenna
ISC
Internal Short Circuit
ISO
International Organization for Standardization
ISS
International Space Station
ITAR
International Traffic in Arms Regulations
IVA
Intra‐Vehicular Activity
JAXA
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
JPL
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JSC
Johnson Space Center
JWST
James Webb Space Telescope
KOH
Potassium Hydroxide
LAT
Lot Acceptance Test
LBB
Leak Before Burst
LCC
Launch Commit Criteria
LCO
Lithium Cobalt Oxide
LCROSS
Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite
LCT
Life‐Cycle Test
LDI
Local Data Interface
LEO
Low Earth Orbit
LIB
Lithium‐Ion Battery
LFP
Lithium Iron Phosphate
LiPo
Lithium Polymer
Li‐SOCl
2
Lithium Thionyl Chloride
LLB
Long Life Battery
LM
Lunar Module
LMO
Lithium Manganese Oxide
LPGT
Li‐ion Pistol‐Grip Tool Battery
LREBA
Li‐ion Rechargeable EVA Battery Assembly
LRO
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
LV
Launch Vehicle
M&P
Materials and Processing
MAPTIS
Materials and Processes Technical Information System
MAVEN
Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN
MBSE
Model‐Based Systems Engineering
M‐Cubed
Michigan Multipurpose Minisat
MEO
Medium Earth Orbit
MGS
Mars Global Surveyor
MLI
Multi‐Layer Insulation
MMOD
Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris
MMRTG
Multi‐Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
MMS
Magnetospheric Multiscale
MMU
Manned Maneuvering Unit
MOC
Mission Operations Center
MP
Medium Power
MRB
Material Review Board
MSL
Mars Science Laboratory
MTBF
Mean Time Between FailuresNACANational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Na‐S
Sodium Sulfur
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCA
Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide
NCO
Nickel Cobalt Oxide
NESC
NASA Engineering Safety Center
Ni‐Cd
Nickel Cadmium
Ni‐H
2
Nickel Hydrogen
Ni‐MH
Nickel Metal Hydride
NMC
Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOD
Native Objects Debris
NSI
NASA Standard Initiator
NTGK
Newman, Tiedemann, Gu, and Kim
OCV
Open‐Circuit Voltage
OEM
Original Equipment Manufacturer
ORU
Orbital Replacement Unit
Pb‐SO
4
Lead Acid
PC
Propylene Carbonate
PCB
Printed Circuit Board
PCU
Power Control Unit
PGT
Pistol‐Grip Tool
PLSS
Portable Life Support System
PMAD
Power Management And Distribution
PPR
Passive Propagation Resistance
PPT
Peak Power Tracker
PSE
Power System Electronics
PTC
Positive Temperature Coefficient
PV
Photovoltaic
PXI
PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Extensions for Instrumentation
R&D
Research and Development
RCC
Range Commanders Council
RCCA
Root Cause and Corrective Action
RF
Radio Frequency
ROM
Rough Order of Magnitude
ROSA
Roll‐Out Solar Array
RTCA
Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics
RTG
Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
SAE
Society of Automotive Engineers
SAFER
Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue
SAR
Solar Array Regulator
SAW
Solar Array Wing
SCXI
Signal Conditioning Extensions for Instrumentation
SDO
Solar Dynamics Observatory
SEI
Solid Electrolyte Interphase
SMAP
Soil Moisture Active‐Passive
SME
Subject Matter Expert
SOA
State of the Art
SOC
State of Charge
SOE
Sequence of Events
SOH
State of Health
SoP
State of Practice
SOW
Statement of Work
SPCE
Servicing, Performance, and Checkout Equipment
SSC
Space Systems Command
SSE
Solid‐State Electrolyte
SysML
Systems Modeling Language
T&C
Telemetry and Command
TAU
Telemetry Acquisition Unit
TCS
Thermal Control System
TLI
Trans Lunar Injection
TLYF
Test‐Like‐You‐Fly
TR
Thermal Runaway
TRL
Technology Readiness Level
TRP
Temperature Reference Point
TRR
Test Readiness Review
TVAC
Thermal Vacuum
UL
Underwriters Laboratories
UN
United Nations
UPS
Uninterruptible Power Supply
USAF
United States Air Force
USSF
United States Space Force
V
Potential in Volts
VAB
Vertical Assembly Building
VC
Vinylene Carbonate
VDA
Voltage Drop Analysis
WCCA
Worst‐Case Circuit Analysis
Wh
Watt‐hour
WR
Western Range
1Introduction
Thomas P. Barrera
1.1 Introduction
The role of advanced lithium‐ion battery (LIB) power systems has been significant in enabling the widespread decarbonization of fossil‐fuel consuming modes of transportation. The development of advanced hybrid and all‐electric applications of land, aviation, marine, and rail transport systems benefit greatly from the diverse performance characteristics of LIB technologies. Continued research and development (R&D) into advanced LIB technologies remains a top priority to advancing next‐generation electric vehicles, all‐electric passenger aircraft, and future spacecraft applications. In contrast to the revolutionary changes that characterize advances in commercial LIB applications, the unique performance requirements, stressful environments, high reliability, and cost constraints of spacecraft battery power systems contribute to a more conservative approach in adopting new commercial LIB developments into traditional spacecraft system applications. As such, the space LIB industry has traditionally been viewed as a niche battery marketplace driven by unique spacecraft customer‐driven requirements. These unique space LIB requirements are characterized by electrical, mechanical, and thermal performance operating conditions specific to a diverse set of harsh space mission environments and extended service life needs. In addition, rigorous ground performance and safety test requirements drive additional costs into qualifying space LIB‐based electrical power systems (EPSs). As a critical component to next‐generation spacecraft EPSs, LIB energy storage technologies must continue to realize performance, safety, and reliability design improvements to keep pace with increasing spacecraft power and service life demands.
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this book is to capture and transfer existing expert technical knowledge associated with the requirements, design, manufacturing, test, safety, deployment, and operation of spacecraft LIB power systems. The level of treatment is based on a practical, not theoretical, approach to characterizing the technical aspects of the entire life cycle of spacecraft LIBs. The book chapters provide comprehensive technical details which enable industry practitioners who are directly involved with new or existing programs to develop advanced spacecraft LIB‐based power systems. In addition, academics engaged in R&D, classroom teaching, hands‐on learning, or other educational environments will greatly benefit from the depth and breadth of the book content. This book is also suitable for both undergraduate and graduate students requiring an industry‐oriented treatment of lithium‐ion (Li‐ion) cells and battery applications. A significant portion of the book scope is directly applicable to adjacent LIB markets such as portable commercial electronics, electric vehicles, electrified passenger aircraft, stationary grid energy storage, marine, and other markets requiring reliable LIBs. To accomplish these objectives, a broad system engineering approach toward implementing an LIB power system into a spacecraft application is emphasized. Finally, the book provides the latest state of practice (SoP) information and knowledge, based on relevant space industry experience, which can be used to solve today's challenges facing the safe and reliable deployment of LIBs in spacecraft power system applications.
1.2.1 Background
Across multiple global marketplace applications, Li‐ion cell technologies have enabled increased performance advantages over more traditional rechargeable battery cell design options. In Earth‐orbiting and planetary mission spacecraft applications, incorporation of LIB designs onto EPS platforms have resulted in numerous improvements to on‐orbit capability. The most significant impact of on‐orbit spacecraft LIB applications are mass and volume savings to the EPS design architecture. When compared to the same power level of heritage space battery power systems, LIB mass and volume savings translate into increased spacecraft system performance capability. More recently, new commercial space partnerships are driving paradigm shifts away from traditional Department of Defense (DoD) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) program business models. These partnerships include academic institutions, US Government agencies, and international entities focused on more affordable spacecraft systems and missions. As such, the recent upsurge in commercial space contracts resulting from the DoD‐industry partnerships and the NASA Space Act Agreement has enabled commercial space engineering organizations to have a significant impact on the future of space exploration. However, LIB technology gaps have already emerged where new spacecraft types and mission applications (such as missions to Mars, commercial cargo, and lunar exploration) have driven increasing demands for new energy storage solutions.
To meet these needs, today's spacecraft applications have greatly benefited from leveraging advances in Li‐ion cell technology led by the growing commercial electronics and electrified transportation industries. However, spacecraft missions experience stressing electrical, thermal, and mechanical environments, as well as needs for long mission lifetimes, not typically required by terrestrial commercial market LIB applications. In addition, the reliability and resilience requirements for long on‐orbit mission durations make implementing a space LIB power system design solution a significant technical challenge. Thus, the more stringent quality, performance, and safety characteristics of spacecraft LIBs require a different set of design solutions not currently found in commercial electronics or electrified transportation LIB applications. This book addresses the demanding and challenging needs of spacecraft LIB power systems while offering LIB technical solutions to meet those challenges.
1.2.2 Knowledge Management
Emerging spacecraft markets and changing commercial procurement paradigms have created new opportunities for Li‐ion cell and battery manufacturers to provide more innovative products for their space industry customers. However, the rapid space market growth rate has outpaced LIB knowledge capture and transfer across the broader space LIB community of designers and users. The cause of these widening knowledge gaps can be traced to a number of factors, including space industry barriers toward sharing relevant data, shortfalls in customer dissemination of spacecraft lessons‐learned from on‐orbit experience, and uncontrolled growth of undocumented organizational tribal knowledge. Furthermore, as the number of on‐orbit LIB‐based satellites approaching the end of their design service life increases, additional end of mission (EOM) LIB performance data will be collected and stored. Analyses of these new on‐orbit trend data will enable future spacecraft EPS architectures, create innovative LIB design improvement opportunities, and aid with developing future spacecraft EOM passivation strategies.
The space‐based LIB market has achieved a wide and growing geographically diverse community. North America remains a dominant region for the space LIB market due to the presence ofNASA, US DoD, and various well‐funded commercial spacecraft manufacturers. This presence has increased investments into domestic space technologies with high priorities on commercialization and national security initiatives. Home to the 22‐member state
