Strength and Conditioning E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1514

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

"I recommend that you read and use the information in this book to provide your athletes with the best chances of performing at their best"
from the foreword by Sir Clive Woodward, Olympic Performance Director, British Olympic Association

This book provides the latest scientific and practical information in the field of strength and conditioning.

The text is presented in four sections, the first of which covers the biological aspects of the subject, laying the foundation for a better understanding of the second on the biological responses to strength and conditioning programs. Section three deals with the most effective monitoring strategies for evaluating a training program and establishing guidelines for writing a successful strength and conditioning program. The final section examines the role of strength and conditioning as a rehabilitation tool and as applied to those with disabilities.

This book is an invaluable textbook and reference both for academic programs and for the continuing education of sports professionals.

• Integrates the latest research on physiological, anatomical and biomechanical aspects of strength and conditioning
• Offers numerous practical examples of applications
• Provides guidelines for writing and monitoring effective strength training programs

Leseprobe

Contents

Foreword

Preface

List of Contributors

Section 1 Strength and Conditioning Biology

1.1 Skeletal Muscle Physiology

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.1.2 SKELETAL MUSCLE MACROSTRUCTURE

1.1.3 SKELETAL MUSCLE MICROSTRUCTURE

1.1.4 CONTRACTION MECHANISM

1.1.5 MUSCLE FIBRE TYPES

1.1.6 MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE

1.1.7 HYPERTROPHY AND HYPERPLASIA

1.1.8 SATELLITE CELLS

References

1.2 Neuromuscular Physiology

1.2.1 THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM

1.2.2 MUSCLE FATIGUE

1.2.3 MUSCLE FUNCTION ASSESSMENT

References

1.3 Bone Physiology

1.3.1 INTRODUCTION

1.3.2 BONE ANATOMY

1.3.3 BONE BIOLOGY

1.3.4 MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF BONE

1.3.5 ADAPTIVE PROCESSES IN BONE

1.3.6 ENDOCRINE INVOLVEMENT OF BONE

References

1.4 Tendon Physiology

1.4.1 TENDONS

1.4.2 THE MUSCULOTENDINOUS JUNCTION

1.4.3 THE OSEOTENDINOUS JUNCTION

1.4.4 NERVE SUPPLY

1.4.5 BLOOD SUPPLY

1.4.6 COMPOSITION

1.4.7 COLLAGEN FORMATION

1.4.8 CROSS-LINKS

1.4.9 ELASTIN

1.4.10 CELLS

1.4.11 GROUND SUBSTANCE

1.4.12 CRIMP

References

1.5 Bioenergetics of Exercise

1.5.1 INTRODUCTION

1.5.2 EXERCISE, ENERGY, WORK, AND POWER

1.5.3 SOURCES OF ENERGY

1.5.4 THE TRICARBOXYLIC ACID (TCA) CYCLE

1.5.5 OXYGEN DELIVERY

1.5.6 ENERGY STORES

1.5.7 CONCLUSION

References

1.6 Respiratory and Cardiovascular Physiology

1.6.1 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1.6.2 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

1.6.3 CONCLUSION

References

1.7 Genetic and Signal Transduction Aspects of Strength Training

1.7.1 GENETICS OF STRENGTH AND TRAINABILITY

1.7.2 SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS THAT MEDIATE THE ADAPTATION TO STRENGTH TRAINING

References

1.8 Strength and Conditioning Biomechanics

1.8.1 INTRODUCTION

1.8.2 BIOMECHANICAL CONCEPTS FOR STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING

1.8.3 THE FORCE–VELOCITY–POWER RELATIONSHIP

1.8.4 MUSCULOSKELETAL MACHINES

1.8.5 BIOMECHANICS OF MUSCLE FUNCTION

1.8.6 BODY SIZE, SHAPE, AND POWER-TO-WEIGHT RATIO

1.8.7 BALANCE AND STABILITY

1.8.8 THE STRETCH–SHORTENING CYCLE

1.8.9 BIOMECHANICS OF RESISTANCE MACHINES

1.8.10 MACHINES V S FREE WEIGHTS

1.8.11 CONCLUSION

References

Section 2 Physiological adaptations to strength and conditioning

2.1 Neural Adaptations to Resistance Exercise

2.1.1 INTRODUCTION

2.1.2 EFFECTS OF STRENGTH TRAINING ON MECHANICAL MUSCLE FUNCTION

2.1.3 EFFECTS OF STRENGTH TRAINING ON NEURAL FUNCTION

2.1.4 CONCLUSION

References

2.2 Structural and Molecular Adaptations to Training

2.2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2.2 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AND DEGRADATION IN HUMAN SKELETAL MUSCLE

2.2.3 MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY AND ATROPHY

2.2.4 WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SATELLITE CELLS IN HUMAN SKELETAL MUSCLE?

2.2.5 CONCURRENT STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE TRAINING: CONSEQUENCES FOR MUSCLE ADAPTATIONS

References

2.3 Adaptive Processes in Human Bone and Tendon

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION

2.3.2 BONE

2.3.3 TENDON

2.3.4 CONCLUSION

References

2.4 Biochemical Markers and Resistance Training

2.4.1 INTRODUCTION

2.4.2 TESTOSTERONE RESPONSES TO RESISTANCE TRAINING

2.4.3 CORTISOL RESPONSES TO RESISTANCE TRAINING

2.4.4 DUAL ACTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE AND CORTISOL

2.4.5 GROWTH HORMONE RESPONSES TO RESISTANCE TRAINING

2.4.6 OTHER BIOCHEMICAL MARKERS

2.4.7 LIMITATIONS IN THE USE AND INTERPRETATION OF BIOCHEMICAL MARKERS

2.4.8 APPLICATIONS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING

2.4.9 CONCLUSION

References

2.5 Cardiovascular Adaptations to Strength and Conditioning

2.5.1 INTRODUCTION

2.5.2 CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION

2.5.3 CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS TO TRAINING

2.5.4 CARDIOVASCULAR-RELATED ADAPTATIONS TO TRAINING

2.5.5 CONCLUSION

References

2.6 Exercise-induced Muscle Damage and Delayed-onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

2.6.1 INTRODUCTION

2.6.2 SYMPTOMS AND MARKERS OF MUSCLE DAMAGE

References

2.7 Alternative Modalities of Strength and Conditioning: Electrical Stimulation and Vibration

2.7.1 INTRODUCTION

2.7.2 ELECTRICAL-STIMULATION EXERCISE

2.7.3 VIBRATION EXERCISE

References

2.8 The Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC)

2.8.1 INTRODUCTION

2.8.2 MECHANISMS RESPONSIBLE FOR PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT WITH THE SSC

2.8.3 FORCE UNLOADING: A REQUIREMENT FOR ELASTIC RECOIL

2.8.4 OPTIMUM MTU PROPERTIES FOR SSC PERFORMANCE

2.8.5 EFFECTS OF THE TRANSITION TIME BETWEEN STRETCH AND SHORTENING ON SSC PERFORMANCE

2.8.6 CONCLUSION

References

2.9 Repeated-sprint Ability (RSA)

2.9.1 INTRODUCTION

2.9.2 LIMITING FACTORS

2.9.3 ERGOGENIC AIDS AND RSA

2.9.4 EFFECTS OF TRAINING ON RSA

2.9.5 CONCLUSION

References

2.10 The Overtraining Syndrome (OTS)1

2.10.1 INTRODUCTION

2.10.2 DEFINITIONS

2.10.3 PREVALENCE

2.10.4 MECHANISMS AND DIAGNOSIS

2.10.5 PREVENTION

2.10.6 CONCLUSION

References

Section 3 Monitoring strength and conditioning progress

3.1 Principles of Athlete Testing

3.1.1 INTRODUCTION

3.1.2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TESTING ATHLETES

3.1.3 MAXIMUM STRENGTH

3.1.4 BALLISTIC TESTING

3.1.5 REACTIVE STRENGTH TESTS

3.1.6 ECCENTRIC STRENGTH TESTS

3.1.7 CONCLUSION

References

3.2 Speed and Agility Assessment

3.2.1 SPEED

3.2.2 AGILITY

3.2.3 CONCLUSION

References

3.3 Testing Anaerobic Capacity and Repeated-sprint Ability

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.3.2 TESTING ANAEROBIC CAPACITY

3.3.3 TESTING REPEATED-SPRINT ABILITY

3.3.4 CONCLUSION

References

3.4 Cardiovascular Assessment and Aerobic Training Prescription

3.4.1 INTRODUCTION

3.4.2 CARDIOVASCULAR ASSESSMENT

3.4.3 AEROBIC TRAINING PRESCRIPTION

3.4.4 CONCLUSION

References

3.5 Biochemical Monitoring in Strength and Conditioning

3.5.1 INTRODUCTION

3.5.2 HORMONAL MONITORING

3.5.3 METABOLIC MONITORING

3.5.4 IMMUNOLOGICAL AND HAEMATOLOGICAL MONITORING

3.5.5 PRACTICAL APPLICATION

References

3.6 Body Composition: Laboratory and Field Methods of Assessment

3.6.1 INTRODUCTION

3.6.2 HISTORY OF BODY COMPOSITION METHODS

3.6.3 FRACTIONATION MODELS FOR BODY COMPOSITION

3.6.4 BIOMECHANICAL IMPERATIVES FOR SPORTS PERFORMANCE

3.6.5 METHODS OF ASSESSMENT

3.6.6 PROFILING

3.6.7 CONCLUSION

References

3.7 Total Athlete Management (TAM) and Performance Diagnosis

3.7.1 TOTAL ATHLETE MANAGEMENT

3.7.2 PERFORMANCE DIAGNOSIS

3.7.3 CONCLUSION

References

Section 4 Practical applications

4.1 Resistance Training Modes: A Practical Perspective

4.1.1 INTRODUCTION

4.1.2 BASIC TRAINING PRINCIPLES

4.1.3 STRENGTH, EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH, AND POWER

4.1.4 CONCLUSION

References

4.2 Training Agility and Change-of-direction Speed (CODS)

4.2.1 FACTORS AFFECTING AGILITY

4.2.2 ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING

4.2.3 CHANGE-OF-DIRECTION SPEED

4.2.4 PERCEPTUAL AND DECISION MAKING FACTORS

4.2.5 TRAINING AGILITY

4.2.6 CONCLUSION

References

4.3 Nutrition for Strength Training

4.3.1 INTRODUCTION

4.3.2 THE METABOLIC BASIS OF MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY

4.3.3 OPTIMAL PROTEIN INTAKE

4.3.4 ACUTE EFFECTS OF AMINO ACID/PROTEIN INGESTION

4.3.5 CONCLUSION

References

4.4 Flexibility

4.4.1 DEFINITIONS

4.4.2 WHAT IS STRETCHING?

4.4.3 A MODEL OF EFFECTIVE MOVEMENT: THE INTEGRATION OF FLEXIBILITY AND STRENGTH

References

4.5 Sensorimotor Training

4.5.1 INTRODUCTION

4.5.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF SENSORIMOTOR TRAINING TO THE PROMOTION OF POSTURAL CONTROL AND STRENGTH

4.5.3 THE EFFECTS OF SENSORIMOTOR TRAINING ON POSTURAL CONTROL AND STRENGTH

4.5.4 ADAPTIVE PROCESSES FOLLOWING SENSORIMOTOR TRAINING

4.5.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSORIMOTOR TRAINING

References

Section 5 Strength and Conditioning special cases

5.1 Strength and Conditioning as a Rehabilitation Tool

5.1.1 INTRODUCTION

5.1.2 NEUROMUSCULAR EFFECTS OF INJURY AS A BASIS FOR REHABILITATION STRATEGIES

5.1.3 STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING IN RETRAINING OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM

5.1.4 CONCLUSION

References

5.2 Strength Training for Children and Adolescents

5.2.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2.2 RISKS AND CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH YOUTH STRENGTH TRAINING

5.2.3 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF YOUTH RESISTANCE TRAINING

5.2.4 PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS FOR STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT

5.2.5 POTENTIAL HEALTH AND FITNESS BENEFITS

5.2.6 YOUTH STRENGTH-TRAINING GUIDELINES

5.2.7 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

References

5.3 Strength and Conditioning Considerations for the Paralympic Athlete

5.3.1 INTRODUCTION

5.3.2 PROGRAMMING CONSIDERATIONS

5.3.3 CURRENT CONTROVERSIES IN PARALYMPIC STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING

5.3.4 SPECIALIST EQUIPMENT

5.3.5 CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIFIC DISABILITY GROUPS

5.3.6 TIPS FOR MORE EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMING

References

Index

This edition first published 2011 © 2011, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Strength and conditioning - biological principles and practical applications/edited by Marco Cardinale, Rob Newton, and Kazunori Nosaka.

p.; cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-01918-4 (cloth) - ISBN 978-0-470-01919-1 (pbk.)

1. Muscle strength. 2. Exercise-Physiological aspects. 3. Physical education and training. I. Cardinale,

Marco. II. Newton, Rob (Robert U.) III. Nosaka, Kazunori.

[DNLM: 1. Physical Fitness. 2. Exercise. 3. Physical Endurance. QT 255]

QP321.S885 2011

613.7′11-dc22

2010029179

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic format: ePDF 9780470970003

Set in 9 on 10.5pt Times by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited

First Impression 2011

Foreword by Sir Clive Woodward

High-level performance may seem easy to sport fans. Coaches and athletes know very well that it is very difficult to achieve. Winning does not happen in a straight line. It is the result of incredible efforts, dedication, passion, but also the result of the willingness to learn something new every day in every possible field which can help improve performance.

Strength and conditioning is fundamental for preparing athletes to perform at their best. It is also important to provide better quality of life in special populations and improve fitness. Scientific efforts in this field have improved enormously our understanding of various training methods and nutritional interventions to maximize performance. Furthermore, due to the advancement in technology, we are nowadays capable of measuring in real time many things able to inform the coach on the best way to improve the quality of the training programmes.

Winning the World Cup in 2003 was a great achievement. And in my view the quality of our strength and conditioning programme was second to none thanks to the ability of our staff to translate the latest scientific knowledge into innovative practical applications. The success of Team GB in Beijing has also been influenced by the continuous advancement of the strength and conditioning profession in the UK as well as the ability of our practitioners to continue their quest for knowledge in this fascinating field.

Now, even better and more information is available to coaches, athletes, sports scientists and sports medicine professionals willing to learn more about the field of strength and conditioning. Strength and Conditioning: Biological Principlesand Practical Applications is a must read for everyone serious about this field. The editors, Dr Marco Cardinale, Dr Robert

Newton and Dr Kazunori Nosaka are world leaders in this field and have collected an outstanding list of authors for all the chapters. Great scientists have produced an incredible resource to provide the reader with all the details needed to understand more about the biology of strength and conditioning and the guidance to pick the appropriate applications when designing training programmes.

When a group of sports scientific leaders from all over the world come together to produce a book about the human body and performance, the reader can be assured the material is at the leading edge of sports science. Success in sport is nowadays the result of a word class coach working with a world class athlete surrounded by the best experts possible in various fields. This does not mean the coach needs to delegate knowledge to others. A modern coach must be aware of the science to be able to challenge his/her support team and always stimulate the quest for best practice and innovation.

The book contains the latest information on many subjects including overtraining, muscle structure and function and its adaptive changes with training, hormonal regulation, nutrition, testing and training planning modalities, and most of all it provides guidance for the appropriate use of strength and conditioning with young athletes, paralympians and special populations.

I recommend that you read and use the information in this book to provide your athletes with the best chances of performing at their best.

Sir Clive Woodward

Director of Sport

British Olympic Association

Preface

In order to optimise athletic performance, athletes must be optimally trained. The science of training has evolved enormously in the last twenty years as a direct result of the large volume of research conducted on specific aspects and thanks to the development of innovative technology capable of measuring athletic performance in the lab and directly onto the field. Strength and conditioning is now a well recognised profession in many countries and professional organisations as well as academic institutions strive to educate in the best possible way strength and conditioning experts able to work not only with elite sports people but also with the general population. Strength and conditioning is now acknowledged as a critical component in the development and management of the elite athlete as well as broad application of the health and fitness regime of the general public, special populations and the elderly. Strength and conditioning it is in fact one of the main ways to improve health and human performance for everyone.

The challenge for everyone is to determine the appropriate type of training not only in terms of exercises and drills used, but most of all, to identify and understand the biological consequences of various training stimuli. Understanding how to apply the correct modality of exercise, the correct volume and intensity and the correct timing of various interventions is it in fact the “holy grail” of strength and conditioning. The only way to define it is therefore to understand more and more about the biological principles that govern human adaptations to such stimuli, as well as ways to measure and monitor specific adaptations to be able to prescribe the most effective and safe way of exercising. Modern advancements in molecular biology are now helping us understand with much greater insight how muscle adapts to various training and nutritional regimes. Technology solutions help us in measuring many aspects of human performance as it happens. We now have more advanced capabilities for prescribing “evidence-based” strength and conditioning programmes to everyone, from the general population to the elite athlete. Our aim with this book is to collect all the most relevant and up to date information on this topic as written by World leaders in this field and provide a comprehensive resource for everyone interested in understanding more about this fascinating field.

We have structured the book to provide a continuum of information to facilitate its use in educational settings as well as a key reference for strength and conditioning professionals and the interested lay public. In Section 1 we present the biological aspects of strength and conditioning. How muscles, bones and tendons work, how neural impulses allow muscle activity, how genetics and bioenergetics affect muscle function and how the cardiorespiratory system works. In section 2 we present the latest information on how various systems respond and adapt to various strength and conditioning paradigms to provide a better understanding of the implications of strength and conditioning programmes on human physiology. Section 3 provides a detailed description of various modalities to measure and monitor the effectiveness of strength and conditioning programmes as well as identifying ways for improving strength and conditioning programme prescriptions. Section 4 provides the latest information on practical applications and nutritional considerations to maximise the effectiveness of strength and conditioning programmes. Finally section 5 provides the latest guidelines to use strength and conditioning in various populations with the safest and most effective progressions.

The way the material has been presented varies among the chapters. We wanted our contributors to present their area of expertise for a varied audience ranging from sports scientists to coaches to postgraduate students. Authors from many countries have contributed to this book and whatever the style has been, we are confident the material can catch the attention of every reader.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The editors would like to thank Nicola Mc Girr, Izzy Canning, Fiona Woods, Gill Whitley the wonderful people in the John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. for the continuous support, guidance and help to make this book happen.

Marco Cardinale would like to thank the numerous colleagues contributing to this book as well as the coaches, athletes and sports scientists which over the years contributed to the development of strength and conditioning. Thank you, my dear wife Daniela and son Matteo for your love and support over the years and for putting up with my odd schedules and moods over the preparation of this project.

Robert Newton acknowledges the fantastic collaborators that he has had the honour to work with over the past three decades and the dedicated and hardworking students and postdocs that he has been privileged to mentor. Thank you, my dear wife Lisa and daughter Talani for all your support and patience through my obsession with research and teaching.

Ken Nosaka appreciates the opportunity to make this book with many authors, Marco, Rob, and the wonderful people in the John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. I have experienced how challenging it is to edit a book and to make an ideal book, but it was a good lesson. Because of many commitments, I have a limited time with my wife Kaoru and daughter Cocolo. I am so sorry, but your support and understanding are really appreciated, and would like to tell you that you make my life valuable.

List of Contributors

Per Aagaard

Institute of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

Chris R. Abbiss

School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia

Tim Ackland

School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health, University of Western Australia, WA, Australia

Jesper L. Andersen

Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen, Bispebjerg Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark

David Bishop

Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), School of Sport and Exercise Science,Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia

Anthony Blazevich

School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia

Marco Cardinale

British Olympic Medical Institute, Institute of Sport Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK; School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK

Christian Cook

United Kingdom Sport Council, London, UK

Matthew Cook

English Institute of Sport, Manchester, UK

Stuart J. Cormack

Essendon Football Club, Melbourne, Australia

Prue Cormie

School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia

Blair Crewther

Imperial College, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, London UK

Paul Davies

English Institute of Sport, Bisham Abbey Performance Centre, Marlow, Bucks, UK

Vincenzo Denaro

Department of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, Campus Bio- Medico University, Rome, Italy

Kevin De Pauw

Department of Human Physiology and Sports Medicine, Faculteit LK, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

Fred J. DiMenna

School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK

Avery D. Faigenbaum

Department of Health and Exercise Science, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, NJ, USA

Marco Gazzoni

LISiN, Dipartimento di Elettronica, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy

Olivier Girard

ASPETAR - Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar

Umile Giuseppe Longo

Department of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, Campus Bio- Medico University, Rome, Italy

Albert Gollhofer

Institute of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg, Germany

Urs Granacher

Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany

Stuart Gray

School of Medical Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

Markus Gruber

Department of Training and Movement Sciences, University of Potsdam, Germany

Mark Jarvis

English Institute of Sport, Birmingham, UK

Andrew M. Jones

School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK

Arimantas Lionikas

School of Medical Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

Nicola A. Maffiuletti

Neuromuscular Research Laboratory, Schulthess Clinic, Zurich, Switzerland

Nicola Maffulli

Centre for Sports and Exercise Medicine, Queen Mary University of London, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Mile End Hospital, London, UK

Constantinos N. Maganaris

Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health (IRM), Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Ron J. Maughan

School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK

Michael R. McGuigan

New Zealand Academy of Sport North Island, Auckland, New Zealand; Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand

Romain Meeusen

Department of Human Physiology and Sports Medicine, Faculteit LK, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

Thomas Muehlbauer

Institute of Exercise and Health Sciences, University of Basel, Switzerland

Marco V. Narici

Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health (IRM), Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Robert U. Newton

School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia

Kazunori Nosaka

School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia

Jeremiah J. Peiffer

Murdoch University, School of Chiropractic and Sports Science, Murdoch, WA, Australia

Alberto Rainoldi

Motor Science Research Center, University School of Motor and Sport Sciences, Universit à degli Studi, di Torino, Torino, Italy

Aivaras Ratkevicius

School of Medical Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

J ö rn Rittweger

Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK; Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany

William A. Sands

Monfort Family Human Performance Research Laboratory, Mesa State College - Kinesiology, Grand Junction, CO, USA

Andreas Schlumberger

EDEN Reha, Rehabilitation Clinic, Donaustauf, Germany

Christopher S. Shaw

School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, The University of Birmingham, UK

Jeremy Sheppard

Queensland Academy of Sport, Australia; School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia

Matt Spencer

Physiology Unit, Sport Science Department, ASPIRE, Academy for Sports Excellence, Doha, Qatar

Filippo Spiezia

Department of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, Campus Bio- Medico University, Rome, Italy

Arthur Stewart

Centre for Obesity Research and Epidemiology, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK

Margaret E. Stone

Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA

Michael H. Stone

Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA; Department of Physical Education, Sport and Leisure Studies,University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia

Wolfgang Taube

Unit of Sports Science, University of Fribourg, Switzerland

Kevin D. Tipton

School of Sports Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, UK

Valmor Tricoli

Department of Sport, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of S ã o Paulo, S ã o Paulo, Brazil

Henning Wackerhage

School of Medical Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

Warren Young

School of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria. Australia

Section 1

Strength and Conditioning Biology

1.1

Skeletal Muscle Physiology

Valmor Tricoli

University of São Paulo, Department of Sport, School of Physical Education and Sport, São Paulo, Brazil

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION

The skeletal muscle is the human body’s most abundant tissue. There are over 660 muscles in the body corresponding to approximately 40–45% of its total mass (Brooks, Fahey and Baldwin, 2005; McArdle, Katch and Katch, 2007). It is estimated that 75% of skeletal muscle mass is water, 20% is protein, and the remaining 5% is substances such as salts, enzymes, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, amino acids, and highenergy phosphates. Myosin, actin, troponin and tropomyosin are the most important proteins.

Skeletal muscles play a vital role in locomotion, heat production, support of soft tissues, and overall metabolism. They have a remarkable ability to adapt to a variety of environmental stimuli, including regular physical training (e.g. endurance or strength exercise) (Aagaard and Andersen, 1998; Andersen et al., 2005; Holm et al., 2008; Parcell et al., 2005), substrate availability (Bohé et al., 2003; Kraemer et al., 2009; Phillips, 2009; Tipton et al., 2009), and unloading conditions (Alkner and Tesch, 2004; Berg, Larsson and Tesch, 1997; Caiozzo et al., 2009; Lemoine et al., 2009; Trappe et al., 2009).

This chapter will describe skeletal muscle’s basic structure and function, contraction mechanism, fibre types and hypertrophy. Its integration with the neural system will be the focus of the next chapter.

1.1.2 SKELETAL MUSCLE MACROSTRUCTURE

Skeletal muscles are essentially composed of specialized contracting cells organized in a hierarchical fashion supported by a connective tissue framework. The entire muscle is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called fascia. Underneath the fascia is a thinner layer of connective tissue called epimysium which encloses the whole muscle. Right below is the perimysium, which wraps a bundle of muscle fibres called fascicle (or fasciculus), thus; a muscle is formed by several fasciculi. Lastly, each muscle fibre is covered by a thin sheath of collagenous connective tissue called endomysium (Figure 1.1.1).

Directly beneath the endomysium lies the sarcolemma, an elastic membrane which contains a plasma membrane and a basement membrane (also called basal lamina). Sometimes, the term sarcolemma is used as a synonym for muscle-cell plasma membrane. Among other functions, the sarcolemma is responsible for conducting the action potential that leads to muscle contraction. Between the plasma membrane and basement membrane the satellite cells are located (Figure 1.1.2). Their regenerative function and possible role in muscle hypertrophy will be discussed later in this chapter.

All these layers of connective tissue maintain the skeletal muscle hierarchical structure and they combine together to form the tendons at each end of the muscle. The tendons attach muscles to the bones and transmit the force they generate to the skeletal system, ultimately producing movement.

1.1.3 SKELETAL MUSCLE MICROSTRUCTURE

Muscle fibre s, also called muscle cell s or myofibre s, are long, cylindrical cells 1-100µm in diameter and up to 30–40 cm in length. They are made primarily of smaller units called myofibril s which lie in parallel inside the muscle cells (Figure 1.1.3). Myofibrils are contractile structures made of myofilament s named actin and myosin. These two proteins are responsible for muscle contraction and are found organized within sarcomere s (Figure 1.1.3). During skeletal muscle hypertrophy, myofibrils increase in number, enlarging cell size.

A unique characteristic of muscle fibres is that they are multinucleated (i.e. have several nuclei). Unlike most body cells, which are mononucleated, a muscle fibre may have 250–300 myonuclei per millimetre (Brooks, Fahey and Baldwin, 2005; McArdle, Katch and Katch 2007). This is the result of the fusion of several individual mononucleated myoblast s (muscle’s progenitor cells) during the human body’s development. Together they form a myotube, which later differentiates into a myofibre. The plasma membrane of a muscle cell is often called sarcolemma and the sarcoplasm is equivalent to its cytoplasm. Some sarcoplasmic organelles such as the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the transverse tubules are specific to muscle cells.