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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: ISTE Invoiced
- Sprache: Englisch
The silicate mantle and its dynamics have controlled the Earth's internal cooling for over four billion years. Today, these dynamics are rather slow, but this was not always the case: shortly after the core/mantle separation, this reservoir was significantly melted, with dynamics like those of a magma ocean. Despite advances in analytical and numerical tools and a better understanding of the Earth’s internal structure, the Earth's mantle currently remains a mystery.
Structure and Dynamics of the Earth's Interior 1 presents the evolution of mantle dynamics throughout Earth’s history, from its formation to the present day. It examines the contributions of numerical modeling, as well as the seismological, petrological and geochemical data used to constrain dynamic models. Finally, the book analyzes the manifestations of mantle dynamics in terms of surface cooling, volcanism and coupling with the atmosphere.
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Seitenzahl: 421
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
1 Models of Mantle Dynamics
1.1. Toward the first models of the Earth’s mantle
1.2. The physical model: thermal convection
1.3. “Solving” partial differential equations
1.4. From a reductionist to a holistic approach
1.5. Conclusion
1.6. References
2 How the Earth’s Core and Mantle are Separated: Geochemical and Dynamic Constraints
2.1. Introduction
2.2. How the Earth’s core and mantle are separated: geochemical clues
2.3. Iron/silicate separation in a magma ocean
2.4. Iron/silicate separation by giant diapirism
2.5. Giant impact core assemblies
2.6. Conclusion and outlook for magnetic fields
2.7. References
3 Dynamics and Thermal Evolution of the Earth’s Early Mantle
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Primitive energy sources
3.3. Melting curves in the deep mantle
3.4. The mantle during the magma ocean stage
3.5. From magma oceans to present-day mantle dynamics
3.6. External influences
3.7. Conclusion
3.8. References
4 Hotspots, Large Igneous Provinces and Global Mantle Dynamics
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Active hotspots today
4.3. Geochemistry of hotspot lavas: long-lived and short-lived isotope systems, what do they tell us?
4.4. Seismic imaging below hotspots: To which extent do LLSVPs and ULVZs “feed” mantle plumes?
4.5. Plumes in the convecting mantle
4.6. Large igneous provinces
4.7. Environmental effects of Phanerozoic large igneous provinces
4.8. Concluding remarks
4.9. References
5 Heat Flow and Secular Cooling of the Mantle
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Geophysics of the seafloor and the oceanic heat flow
5.3. Continental heat flow
5.4. Heat sources and secular evolution
5.5. Conclusion
5.6. References
6 Noble Gases: Geochemical Tracers of Mantle Dynamics
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Noble gases in the mantle
6.3. The evolution of the mantle–atmosphere system
6.4. Past and present dynamics of the Earth’s mantle
6.5. Open questions on the origin and evolution of terrestrial noble gases
6.6. References
List of Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1. Radioactive isotope pairs that have contributed to the heat balance...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1. Long-lived and short-lived isotopes
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1. Photograph of convection cells (or cellular eddies) observed by He...
Figure 1.2. Diagram proposed by Holmes (1931) to explain continental drift thr...
Figure 1.3. Elementary volume Ω with Γ as boundary, traversed by a flow
V
.
dΓ
...
Figure 1.4. Flow diagram for convection patterns
Figure 1.5. Different forms of convection. (a, b) Shadowgraphs of laboratory e...
Figure 1.6. Convection cell model (Rayleigh Bénard case for an isoviscous flui...
Figure 1.7. Some aspects of finite-difference and finite-volume methods.
Figure 1.8. Schematic vertical profiles of temperature (yellow curve) and vert...
Figure 1.9. Regime diagram for convection with temperature-dependent viscosity...
Figure 1.10. Two examples of plate tectonic structures that can be reproduced ...
Figure 1.11. Principle of BEAMS (Bridgmanite-enriched ancient mantle structure...
Figure 1.12. Laboratory results for the dynamics of the Earth’s mantle and maj...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1. Mantelic xenolith trapped inside a volcanic bomb (credits: http://...
Figure 2.2. Model of the formation of the Earth’s core from a deep magma ocean...
Figure 2.3. Schematic representation of the current internal structure of the ...
Figure 2.4. Goldschmidt classification in the periodic table of chemical eleme...
Figure 2.5. Schematic of chondritic meteorite composition (from Beck (2005))
Figure 2.6. Mantle elemental abundances relative to a carbonaceous chondrite (...
Figure 2.7. Modeling core/mantle separation using analog laboratory experiment...
Figure 2.8. Thermal evolution of a highly deformable metal drop as a function ...
Figure 2.9. Fraction of the mantle chemically contaminated by a moderately sid...
Figure 2.10. Scaled temperature (left semicircle) and chemical composition (ri...
Figure 2.11. Normalized temperature (left) and composition (right) (for iron f
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1. Temporal evolution of radioactive heating for the chemical element...
Figure 3.2. Representation of the topographic and thermal evolution of a growi...
Figure 3.3. Schematic representation of the evolution of the Earth’s internal ...
Figure 3.4. Solidus melting curves for a variety of deep mantle compositions.
Figure 3.5. Melting curves for various mantle silicates.
Figure 3.6. Mantle melting diagram at 135 GPa, the prevailing pressure at the ...
Figure 3.7. Adiabatic temperature profiles inside the mantle for different pot...
Figure 3.8. Temporal evolution of temperature profiles inside the Earth’s mant...
Figure 3.9. Schematic representation of changes in the viscosity of a partiall...
Figure 3.10. Temporal evolution of the fraction of material in the molten mant...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1. Distribution of active hotspots (stars), LIPs (red) and the volcan...
Figure 4.2. The inset at the upper-left gives the direction in which
143
Nd/
144
Figure 4.3. Pedagogic scheme for the long-lived system
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Sm →
143
Nd (a...
Figure 4.4. Pedagogic scheme for the short-lived system
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Hf →
182
W. W...
Figure 4.5. From Mundl-Petermeier et al. (2020). CMER is the core-mantle equil...
Figure 4.6. (a) Image of a laboratory experiment featuring a purely thermal pl...
Figure 4.7. (a) Photo of the Deccan Traps by Mark Richards. (b) Siberian flood...
Figure 4.8. Wrangell Mountains, Alaska. The photo shows 1,000 m of continuous ...
Figure 4.9. Figure from Ernst et al. (2001) showing the giant Mackenzie dyke s...
Figure 4.10. The Extinction intensity represents the fraction of marine genera...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1. Sadi Carnot at age 17 (left) and the first page of his book (right...
Figure 5.2. Schematic model of the oceanic lithosphere produced at a ridge and...
Figure 5.3. Map of the seafloor age obtained using magnetic anomalies. The age...
Figure 5.4. Compilation of good quality oceanic heat flow data, that is, obtai...
Figure 5.5. Heat flow density (top) and structure of the seafloor near the Jua...
Figure 5.6. Map of the seafloor depth (left) and depth as a function of lithos...
Figure 5.7. Schematic model of the oceanic lithosphere with exaggerated topogr...
Figure 5.8. Oceanic heat flow computed from the seafloor age map.
Figure 5.9. Distribution of seafloor ages.
Figure 5.10. Topography around the Hawaiian island chain.
Figure 5.11. Rayleigh-Bénard convection in a spherical shell with internal hea...
Figure 5.12. Schematic model of a subducting oceanic plate.
Figure 5.13. Various temperature profiles in boreholes from the Canadian shiel...
Figure 5.14. Global heat flow map. The model is from Jaupart and Mareschal (20...
Figure 5.15. Radiogenic heat production in the mantle as a function of time. C...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1. Periodic table of the elements.
Figure 6.2. Figure showing the three isotopes of neon in carbonaceous chondrit...
Figure 6.3. Explanatory diagram of the possible source of ubiquitous atmospher...
Figure 6.4. Histogram of helium isotopic ratios in ridge basalts (MORB) and is...
Figure 6.5. Three-isotope diagram of neon showing a compilation of ridge basal...
Figure 6.6. Three-isotope neon diagram showing results from an early helium OI...
Figure 6.7. Krypton isotopes in a Galapagos sample showing an excess with resp...
Figure 6.8. Figure showing for MORBs certain radiogenic xenon isotopes, includ...
Figure 6.9. Corrected 129Xe/130Xe ratio for atmospheric contamination using ne...
Figure 6.10. Simple two-stage mantle degassing model (according to Moreira (20...
Figure 6.11. Non-radiogenic xenon isotopes in a gas-rich MORB, with a new anal...
Figure 6.12. Explanatory diagram of the aging of the xenon isotopic compositio...
Figure 6.13. Figure showing the standard deviation of the 4He/3He ratio of sev...
Figure 6.14. 4He/3He ratio as a function of latitude for off-axis samples of t...
Figure 6.15. Drawing of the early Earth’s magma ocean and the corresponding de...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
List of Authors
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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SCIENCES
Geoscience, Field Director – Yves Lagabrielle
Earth’s Interior, Subject Head – Nathalie Bolfan-Casanova
Structure and Dynamics of the Earth’s Interior 1
Dynamics of the Earth’s Mantle
Coordinated by
Julien Monteux
First published 2025 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2025The rights of Julien Monteux to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2024949966
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78945-172-6
ERC code:PE10 Earth System Science PE10_7 Physics of earth’s interior, seismology, geodynamics
Foreword
Yanick RICARD
LGL TPE, CNRS, University de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, University Lyon 1, France
Silicate mantle makes up most of the Earth’s volume (83%) and mass (66%). Its immense thermal inertia controls the planet’s slow cooling and has maintained plate tectonics for at least 2 billion years, and perhaps even since the surface solidified a few hundred million years after the Earth’s formation 4.54 billion years ago. The causes of plate tectonics, which have not been observed on any of the planets and satellites of the Solar System, remain largely mysterious.
The average properties of the Earth and its mantle have been discussed since the conception of Newtonian mechanics (Cavendish 1731–1810; and Laplace 1749–1827). However, it was not until the beginning of the 20th century that the founders of seismology (Oldham 1858–1936; Gutenberg 1889–1960; and Lehmann 1888–1993) proposed a radial model of its properties. The interest shown by physicists in studying the Earth’s interior was not all positive. Determination of the solid character of the mantle (where shear waves can propagate), combined with a lack of knowledge of the phenomena of convection and radioactivity (only discovered at the very end of the 19th century by Becquerel (1852–1903)), was opposed to the concept of “continental drift” and the very long geological timescales predicted by geographers and geologists (on the order of 1 billion years). It was not until the 1940s that the concepts of convective fluid mechanics (Bénard 1874–1939; and Rayleigh 1842–1919) were applied to the mantle with the work of Hales (1911–2006), Pekeris (1908–1993), Hess (1906–1969), or Runcorn (1922–1995), and isotope geochemistry was able to date geological events (Holmes 1890–1965) and confirm the very long history of our planet. Finally, it was not until the late 1960s that bathymetric and magnetic surveys of the ocean floor made it possible to establish plate tectonics, with the work of Vine and Matthews, Wilson, Morgan, McKenzie and Le Pichon. So, it was only some 60 years ago that mantle was no longer seen as a static object, but as a slowly flowing fluid carrying tectonic plates along its surface.
Although the role of convection in mantle dynamics was accepted and illustrated by various numerical convection models, direct comparison with observations was difficult as long as the three-dimensional structure of the mantle was unknown. In the 1980s, seismologists began to visualize mantle heterogeneities in three dimensions. At the same time, the determination of the Earth’s gravity field by studying the trajectories of artificial satellites made it possible to map the gravity field induced by density anomalies that drive convection. Gravity anomalies linked convective fluid mechanics and seismological observations of the mantle. Finally, the ability of numerical simulations to propose models of geological evolution has made it possible to integrate the temporal dimension of observations; paleotectonics and sedimentology, which document the Earth’s horizontal and vertical movements, provide clues and constraints for mantle dynamics models. These comparisons between tomography, geodynamics and geology are still a very active field. Also in the 1980s, the refinement of mass spectrometry techniques led to the classification of mantle material sources into a large number of “reservoirs” with subtly differing isotopic or elemental compositions. While geochemistry was so precise in determining many reservoirs, it had no way of constraining their geometry. This view of reservoir geochemistry has lost its relevance as tomographic images and convection models have improved. Although a certain resistance to vertical movements in the mantle is observed at the transition between the upper and lower mantle or, for other authors, more diffusely between 600 and 1,200 km depth, the mantle cannot be described by reservoirs with more or less impermeable boundaries. However, these geochemical studies have left us with two major ideas: indications of recycling of materials that have been on the surface are observed in all magmatic sources, and basalts of hotspot volcanoes are linked to dynamics and sources that differ from those of ridge basalts.
Over the past 20 years, mantle research has both continuously improved its methods and succeeded in approaching its subject with new eyes. In this improvement of methods and tools, the effects of gigantic advances in computer technology are of course to be noted, enabling the construction of models based on millions of data sets, reconstructing the seismic signal over a wide range of frequencies. Computer progress has also democratized convection codes, and convection simulations have been able to take into account many of the mantle’s specific features: spherical geometry, high convection vigor, complexity of the rheological law, self-consistent generation of tectonic plates, etc. The ab initio calculation (a chemical model based on quantum mechanics) has also become a new method for exploring mineralogy. Technological advances have also made it possible to study mineralogy in much greater detail at very high temperatures and pressures, and rapid phenomena (phase change, seismic attenuation, fluid percolation, etc.) can now be tracked live on a crystal scale.
New themes have emerged with their own new issues: the differentiation of the Earth during accretion, the nature of the deep mantle, the role of magma extraction in understanding the geochemical signal and the premises of extrasolar geodynamics. In these different fields, seismologists, geochemists, mineralogists, astrophysicists and geodynamicists have had to cross-fertilize their ideas and concepts, and these four lines of research have mutually hybridized.
Geochemistry, with its ever-increasing measurement precision, has revealed very primitive fractionations of the Earth’s mantle, totally challenging the idea of a homogeneous primordial mantle. The mantle is neither made up of homogeneous reservoirs sampled by volcanoes or ridges, nor is it the result of the mixing of an oceanic lithosphere extracted from a homogeneous mantle. Experimental mineralogy suggests that core formation took place in a largely molten primitive Earth, where mantle and core equilibrated at depths corresponding to those of the middle mantle. Finally, the observation of thin lenses of fused silicates on the surface of the core, associated with two large zones of the mantle where seismological properties seem to indicate compositional variations, has also changed our view of the mantle. How was the mantle formed? What was its state after core separation? Are the large abyssal provinces of anomalous properties and molten lenses fossils of mantle crystallization? The mantle’s early history may hold the key to its present state.
Advances in experimental and ab initio mineralogy, which have clarified the equilibrium conditions of core formation, have also changed our understanding of the deep mantle. While silicate phase changes seemed to take place in the transition zone (between 400 and 700 km depth), and the so-called bridgmanite phase was considered the ultimate and most compact phase of silicates, a new phase has been proposed. This transformation takes place at the same depth as another change, that of the iron spin state, which affects the oxide-perovskite equilibrium. All these changes take place in the deep mantle at pressures close to the core boundary, where the temperature is close to the silicate melting temperature. This makes the zone above the core extremely complex. Of course, this problem of the present-day mantle is closely related to that of the primitive mantle and its evolution since its formation.
The description of the mantle in terms of individualized reservoirs has lost its relevance because magma sources have ceased to be seen as homogeneous environments. Observations at different scales, as well as modeling of convection-driven heterogeneities, suggest an extremely heterogeneous mantle, a “marbled mantle”, where chemical and isotopic variability are expressed right down to the grain scale. Thus, the isotopic signal observed at the surface is no longer directly that of a homogeneous source, but the product of a partial melting dynamic whose modeling must take into account the chemical complexity and multi-phase dynamics of magma extraction.
Finally, there is no real scientific understanding when only one object is explained. Understanding the evolution of the Earth alone does not guarantee that geological mechanisms have been understood. Comparative planetology, comparing the Earth with other planets and solid satellites, comparing these with ice and ocean satellites, and finally comparing the planets of our Solar System with those of extraterrestrial planets, opens up new scientific perspectives and will, among other things, have to resolve a major question: What are the conditions that lead to plate tectonics?
