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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Sustainability in Biofuel Production Technology Explore current challenges and the latest technologies in biofuel production In Sustainability in Biofuel Production Technology, a team of engineers and chemists delivers a thorough and accessible exploration of the source of renewable energy biofuels poised to help conserve natural resources and limit the impact of fossil fuel use. The book offers detailed information about the challenges and trends in biodiesel production and includes contributions from leading researchers in the field of biodiesel production. Readers will explore aviation biofuels, biofuel production technologies, reactor design and safety considerations, and the modelling and simulation of biofuel production as they move through the book's 14 chapters. The authors also analyze the performance of biofuels along with cost estimations and mathematical modeling of various process parameters. Readers will also find: * A thorough introduction to biofuels, including their history, generation, classification, and relevant technologies * In-depth presentations of the production technologies of biofuels, including chemical and biological production processes * Comprehensive explorations of the utilization of biofuels in aviation, including performance analyses and safety considerations * Fulsome discussions of key issues and challenges in biofuels production pathways and the environmental effects of biofuels Perfect for academic researchers and industrial scientists working in the biofuels, bioenergy, catalysis, and materials science sectors, Sustainability in Biofuel Production Technology will also be suitable for members of regulatory bodies in the bioenergy sector.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Introduction to Biofuel
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Biofuel Development
1.3 Generation in Biofuel
1.4 Classification of Biofuels
1.5 Technologies Involved in Biofuel Production
1.6 Biofuel Properties
1.7 Socioeconomic and Environmental Impact
1.8 Conclusion
References
2 Ethanol as the Leading ‘First‐Generation’ Biofuel
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Historical Development of Ethanol as Biofuels
2.3 Environmental Aspects of Using Ethanol as Biofuels
2.4 Cost Models of Ethanol as Biofuels
2.5 Sustainability Aspects – Need of Alternative Biofuel
2.6 Summary
References
3 Advanced Biofuels – Alternatives to Biofuels
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biofuels Deserve Another Look
3.3 Global Production, Need and Demand
3.4 Feedstock for Advanced Biofuels
3.5 Advanced Biofuels for Different Applications
3.6 Commercial Development
3.7 Aviation Fuel and Green Diesel
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Biofuel Production Technologies – An Overview
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Industry Challenges Associated with Biofuels
4.3 Edible Vegetable to Non‐edible/Low‐cost Raw Materials for Biodiesel Production
4.4 Development of Chemical Conversion Technologies
4.5 Development of Thermochemical Conversion Technologies
4.6 Development of Biological Conversion Technologies
4.7 Development of Biochemical Conversion Technologies
4.8 Technology Innovation in Biofuel Production
4.9 Process Integration and Biorefinery
4.10 Alternatives to Biofuel Production
4.11 Technology Survey
4.12 Key Collaborations for Biofuel Production
4.13 Market Research on Biofuels
4.14 Future Trends
4.15 Summary
References
5 Chemically Produced Biofuels
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Triglycerides – Best Participant as Fuels
5.3 Biogas Using Anaerobic Digestion
5.4 Catalytic Biofuel Production
5.5 Nanoparticles Potential in Biofuel Production
5.6 Production Cost Analysis
5.7 Environmental Footprints of Chemical Processes
5.8 Future Demand and Scope
5.9 Conclusion
References
6 Microalgae – Biofuel Production Trends
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Technology for Microalgae Cultivation
6.3 Biofuels from Microalgae
6.4 Role of Nanoadditives in Algae‐based Biofuel Production
6.5 Cost Analysis of Microalgae‐based Biofuel Production
6.6 Challenges and Opportunities in Microalgae‐based Biofuel Production
6.7 Summary
References
7 Agro‐Waste‐Produced Biofuels
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Agricultural Waste and Residues as Valuable Materials
7.3 Pre‐treatment of Agro‐waste
7.4 Process Technology – Agro‐waste to Bioenergy
7.5 Creating Wealth from The Agricultural Waste
7.6 Economic Valuation of Agro‐waste
7.7 Impact of Agricultural Waste
7.8 Current Challenges and Future Trends
7.9 Summary
References
8 Biofuels for Aviation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Chemistry of Fuel Molecules
8.3 Alcohol to Jet (ATJ)
8.4 Oil to Jet (OTJ)
8.5 Gas to Jet (GTJ)
8.6 Sugar‐to‐Jet (STJ) Fuel
8.7 Overview of Blending Sustainable Aviation Fuel
8.8 Summary
References
9 State of the Art Design and Fabrication of a Reactor in Biofuel Production
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Limitation of Conventional Production Technology
9.3 Ideal Reactors
9.4 Reaction Designing from an Engineering Aspect
9.5 Process Parameters in Reactor Designing
9.6 Safety Consideration of Reaction Design
9.7 Reactors for Biodiesel Production
9.8 Ultrasonic Biodiesel Reactors
9.9 Supercritical Reactors
9.10 Static Mixers as Biodiesel Reactors
9.11 Reactive Distillation
9.12 Capital Cost and Performance Analysis of Reactors
9.13 Summary
References
10 Modelling and Simulation to Predict the Performance of the Diesel Blends
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Cause and Effect Relationships
10.3 Approach to Formulate
10.4 Concept of Man–Machine System
10.5 Formulation of the Mathematical Model
10.6 Limitations of Adopting the Experimental Database Model
10.7 Identification of Causes and Effects of an Activity
10.8 Dimensional Analysis
10.9 Case Study on the Engine Performance by Using Alternative Fuels
10.10 Establishment of Dimensionless Group of Π Terms
10.11 Summary
References
11 Challenges to Biofuel Development
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Key Issues and Challenges in Biofuel Production Pathways
11.3 Other Glycerol Derivatives in Diesel Production
11.4 Biofuel Blends and Future Trends
11.5 Environmental Effects of Biofuels
11.6 Economic Impact of Biofuels
11.7 Biorefineries
11.8 Summary
References
12 Greener Catalytic Processes in Biofuel Production
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sustainable Catalysts
12.3 Summary
References
13 Life Cycle Assessment
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Life Cycle Assessment of Biomass
13.3 Feedstock Used
13.4 Purpose of Life Cycle Impact Assessment
13.5 Life Cycle for Fossil Fuels
13.6 Ethanol Life Cycle
13.7 Life Cycle Analysis
13.8 ISO Life Cycle Assessment Standards
13.9 Life Cycle Assessment Benefits
13.10 Role of LCA in Public Policies/Regulations
13.11 Conclusion
References
14 Socioeconomic Impact of Biofuel
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Employment Opportunities in Biofuel Production Industries
14.3 Socioeconomic and Environmental Impact
14.4 Biodiesel Industries
14.5 Export and Import of Biodiesel
14.6 Production of Biodiesel
14.7 Economic Impact of Biofuels
14.8 The Development of Renewable Energy Based on Income
14.9 The Development of Renewable Energy Based on Carbon Emission
14.10 Biofuel Impact on the Society
14.11 Barriers in the Production of Biofuels
14.12 Biofuel Desire to Improve the Balance of Trade
14.13 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Specifications of biodiesel.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Overview of the world ethanol market in the past 10 years.
Table 2.2 Production cost (USD l
−1
ethanol) estimation for bioethanol...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Properties of vegetable oil.
Table 4.2 Biodiesel properties.
Table 4.3 Chemical conversion process.
Table 4.4 Biological conversion processes.
Table 4.5 Chemical Conversion Process.
Table 4.6 Key collaboration for biofuel production.
Table 4.7 Global biofuel market trends.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of different biodiesel production pr...
Table 5.2 Catalyst used in biofuel production.
Table 5.3 Yield and energy comparison between two advanced technologies.
Table 5.4 Environmental impacts of fuel combustion emission.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Nanoparticle blended biofuels applications.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Pre‐treatment for agricultural residues.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Comparison of Jet and AVGAS.
Table 8.2 Various pathways approval and blending limits.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Important aspects of chemical reactor design.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Types of the derived quantities.
Table 10.2 Dimensional formulae of the derived quantities.
Table 10.3 Independent and dependent variables.
Table 10.4 Independent dimensionless π terms.
Table 10.5 Dependent dimensionless π terms.
Table 10.6 Data related to the dimension term π
1
.
Table 10.7
Data related to the dimension terms π
2
, π
3
and π
4
.
Table 10.8
Data related to the dimension term π
5
.
Table 10.9
Data related to the dimensions term π
6
.
Table 10.10
Data related to the dimension terms π
7
, π
8
and π
9
.
Table 10.11
Data related to the dimension term π
10
.
Table 10.12
Data related to the dimension term π
11
.
Table 10.13
Data related to the dimension term π
12
.
Table 10.14
Data related to the dimension term π
13
.
Table 10.15
Data related to the dimension term π
14
.
Table 10.16
Data related to the dimension terms π
D1
and π
D2
.
Table 10.17
Data related to the dimension term Π
1
(P
c1
) combined with terms ...
Table 10.18
Data related to the dimension term Π
2
(P
c2
) combined with terms ...
Table 10.19
Data related to the dimension term Π
3
(P
c3
) combined with terms ...
Table 10.20
Data related to dimension term Π
4
(P
c4
) combined with terms π
11
,...
Table 10.21
Evaluation of constants
A
,
B
,
C
and
D
representing independent π...
Table 10.22
Evaluation of constants
A
,
B
,
C
and
D
representing independent π...
Table 10.23
Evaluation of constants
A
,
B
,
C
and
D
representing indep...
Table 10.24
Evaluation of constants
A
,
B
,
C
and
D
representing indep...
Table 10.25 Evaluation of constants
A
,
B
,
C
and
D
representing independent ...
Table 10.26 Comparison of experimentally calculated values and mathematical...
Table 10.27 Comparison of experimentally calculated values and mathematical...
Table 10.28 Comparison of experimental calculated values, equation base val...
Table 10.29 Comparison between observed and computed values of the dependen...
Table 10.30 Comparison of experimental calculated values, equation base val...
Table 10.31 Comparison between observed and computed values of the dependen...
Table 10.32 Sensitivity analysis for the brake thermal efficiency (Z1).
Table 10.33
Percentage change in the brake thermal efficiency (Z1) with +/− ...
Table 10.34
Sensitivity analysis for brake‐specific fuel consumption (Z2).
Table 10.35 Percentage change in brake‐specific fuel consumption (Z2) with ...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Blue water consumption for biofuels by different countries.
Table 11.2 Global biofuel production from 2000 to 2019 [56].
Table 11.3 Biofuel consumption in the United States from 2009 to 2020.
Table 11.4 Global biofuel production.
Table 11.5 Biofuel‐related jobs worldwide by region.
Table 11.6 The sale price of biodiesel in Brazil.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Catalysts for biodiesel preparation.
Table 12.2 Catalyst from animal waste bones.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Types of feedstock with the corresponding final product.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Sources of energy.
Figure 1.2 Different generation biofuels.
Figure 1.3 First‐generation biofuels.
Figure 1.4 Second‐generation biofuels.
Figure 1.5 Third‐generation biofuels.
Figure 1.6 Fourth‐generation biofuels.
Figure 1.7 Production of biofuels.
Figure 1.8 Types of reactors.
Figure 1.9 Socioeconomic and environmental impacts of biofuels.
Figure 1.10 Multidimensional sustainability assessment.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Share of the total US energy.
Figure 2.2 US transportation energy sources.
Figure 2.3 Classification of biofuels.
Figure 2.4 Development of the world ethanol market.
Figure 2.5 Ethanol production and consumption review.
Figure 2.6 Unleaded gasoline and ethanol prices, January 2019 to March 2020....
Figure 2.7 The chemical reaction pathway for the production of bioethanol.
Figure 2.8 Ethanol production from sugar beet.
Figure 2.9 Ethanol production from sugar cane.
Figure 2.10 Ethanol production from corn (dry and wet milling processes).
Figure 2.11 Ethanol production using cassava.
Figure 2.12 Flow chart for first‐generation bioethanol.
Figure 2.13 Environmental aspects of ethanol as biofuels.
Figure 2.14 Pros and cons of using first‐generation bioethanol.
Figure 2.15 Factors accountable for the ethanol market growth.
Figure 2.16 Ethanol market size.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Importance and popularity of renewable energy sources.
Figure 3.2 Processing of ethanol from sugar cane.
Figure 3.3 Use of bioenergy in different sectors.
Figure 3.4 End product obtained from biomass.
Figure 3.5 Biofuel market.
Figure 3.6 Different types of solid waste.
Figure 3.7 Commercial analysis of the bioeconomy growth.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Chemical conversion of biomass.
Figure 4.2 Biomass pyrolysis process.
Figure 4.3 Hydrothermal liquefaction process.
Figure 4.4 Biomass gasification process.
Figure 4.5 Natural flow of biomass through a chemical conversion process.
Figure 4.6 Anaerobic digestion process.
Figure 4.7 Microbial digestion process.
Figure 4.8 Hydrolysis sugar fermentation process.
Figure 4.9 Technology developed in biofuel production.
Figure 4.10 Bioenergy from the biomass – integration process.
Figure 4.11 Alternative sources for biofuel production.
Figure 4.12 Innovation in technology commercialisation.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Scheme of the transesterification reaction for biodiesel producti...
Figure 5.2 Steps involved in methane production.
Figure 5.3 Various nanoparticles used in biofuel production.
Figure 5.4 Reduction in GHG emissions for various feedstock used.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Different generation biodiesel production processes compared with...
Figure 6.2 Cultivation methods for microalgae.
Figure 6.3 The advantages and disadvantages of the autotropic/phototropic cu...
Figure 6.4 Heterotropic microalgae cultivation.
Figure 6.5 The advantages and disadvantages of heterotropic microalgae culti...
Figure 6.6 Advantages and disadvantages of mixotropic cultivation method.
Figure 6.7 Advantages and disadvantages of photoheterotropic cultivation met...
Figure 6.8 Biofuels from microalgae.
Figure 6.9 Nanoadditive applications in microalgae cultivation to biofuel ap...
Figure 6.10 Fuel cost ($/gge or kWh) and annual consumer fuel cost ($/yr) re...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Some of the agro‐waste and its by‐product.
Figure 7.2 Classification of agricultural waste and residues.
Figure 7.3 Pre‐treatment process for rice straw.
Figure 7.4 Role model of bioeconomy.
Figure 7.5 Impact of agricultural residues.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Fuel properties compared to various feedstock.
Figure 8.2 The ATJ process flow chart.
Figure 8.3 ATJ flow chart for ethanol and butanol.
Figure 8.4 ATJ flow chart for methanol.
Figure 8.5 OTJ process flow chart.
Figure 8.6 HRJ/HEFA pathway for jet fuel production.
Figure 8.7 The generalised GTJ path.
Figure 8.8 FT reaction pathway for jet fuel production.
Figure 8.9 Gas fermentation process.
Figure 8.10 Pathway for the STJ process.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Conventional bioreactor.
Figure 9.2 Batch reactor.
Figure 9.3 Semi‐continuous flow reactor.
Figure 9.4 Continuous flow reactor.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Block diagrammatic representation of an activity.
Figure 10.2 Training of the network for the brake thermal efficiency.
Figure 10.3 Graph of comparison with experimental database, neural network p...
Figure 10.4 Graph of comparison with experimental database and neural networ...
Figure 10.5 Graph of comparison with experimental database and equation base...
Figure 10.6 Training of the network for brake‐specific fuel consumption.
Figure 10.7 Graph of comparison with experimental database, neural network p...
Figure 10.8 Graph of comparison with experimental database and neural networ...
Figure 10.9 Graph of comparison with experimental database and equation base...
Figure 10.10 Percentage change in pi terms with variations in the dependent ...
Figure 10.11 Percentage change in pi terms with variations in the dependent ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Production of toxic chemicals in engines from glycerol present....
Figure 11.2 Base‐catalysed FAME production using DMC.
Figure 11.3 Biofuel as a percentage of gasoline, diesel and jet fuel consump...
Figure 11.4 Feedstock requirement for 1000 l ethanol alcohol or biodiesel.
Figure 11.5 Reduction in greenhouse gas emission by different feedstock.
Figure 11.6 Estimated production of ethanol from lignocellulosic feedstock....
Figure 11.7 GHG emission with different lignocellulosic feedstock.
Figure 11.8 GHG emission trend and target per year.
Figure 11.9 Total feedstock jobs at the RFS level.
Figure 11.10 Economic value of cellulosic feedstock production.
Figure 11.11 Availability of ethanol for different purposes.
Figure 11.12 India's bioethanol blending performance in kilolitre (KL).
Figure 11.13 India's biodiesel blending performance in kilolitre (KL).
Figure 11.14 Real output growth rate of biohydrogen by production efficiency...
Figure 11.15 The world biogas market forecast for 2025 by geography.
Figure 11.16 Sustainability of biorefineries.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 MW‐assisted biodiesel production process with either CaO or KOH ...
Figure 12.2 Scheme of US horn for biodiesel production catalysed by sulphate...
Figure 12.3 Solid acid‐catalysed transesterification reaction.
Figure 12.4 Preparation of magnetic
Citrus sinensis
peel ash catalyst.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Price of biodiesel by using different procedures.
Figure 13.2 Life cycle assessment of fossil fuel.
Figure 13.3 Life cycle assessment of ethanol.
Figure 13.4 Life cycle stages.
Figure 13.5 Phases of life cycle assessment.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Various feedstock used and their performance parameters in South...
Figure 14.2 Approximate gross value added and the number of jobs during the ...
Figure 14.3 Permanent effect on gross value added and the number of jobs in ...
Figure 14.4 Report of export and import of biodiesel.
Figure 14.5 Statistical data of biodiesel consumption and biodiesel used on ...
Figure 14.6 Comparison of the cost of conventional and alternative biodiesel...
Figure 14.7 Economic analysis of the production of biodiesel in UAE.
Figure 14.8 Biofuel production (in thousand metric tonnes per capita).
Figure 14.9 World economic globalisation.
Figure 14.10 Impact of biofuel [50–52].
Figure 14.11 Barrier in the biofuel production.
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Sustainability in Biofuel Production Technology
Pratibha S. Agrawal
Laxminarayan Institute of Technology
Nagpur, India
Pramod N. Belkhode
Laxminarayan Institute of Technology
Nagpur, India
Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum
National Institute of Technology Silchar
Silchar, India
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Preface
This book Sustainability in Biofuel Production Technology highlights the source of renewable energy biofuels to save natural resources and minimise the impact of fossil fuels. It presents detailed information about the challenges and recent trends in biodiesel production which will be useful for future researchers and industrialists at a global level. It includes contributions of leading researchers in the field of biodiesel, and will serve as a valuable source of information for scientists, researchers, graduate students, and professionals alike. This book focusses on several aspects of biodiesel productions, technologies employed, and sustainability. It consists of 14 chapters which gives complete information to the reader on all the aspects of biofuels.
Chapter 1 is an introduction to biofuels covering details about the history, generation, classification, and various technologies involved along with their environmental impact. Chapter 2 is on ethanol which is used as the first‐generation biofuel and its development, environmental aspects, and various models are explained. Chapter 3 includes advanced biofuels explaining the next generation of biofuels with reducing cost and technological development.
Chapter 4 details the production technologies of biofuels and covers all production aspects. Chapters 5, 6 and 7 cover the production of biofuels chemically, biologically, and also by agricultural waste treatment along with processing techniques and cost analysis; and present challenges and future requirements are also discussed.
Chapter 8 focusses on the advanced topic of biofuel utilisation in the aviation industry. In Chapter 9, the authors discuss process equipment such as types of reactors, reactor design, safety considerations, performance analysis with cost estimation, used in the production of the biofuels. Investigation of any phenomenon is important and that the best conclusion of a complete process is presented. Based on that principle, the process can be monitored through various techniques such as modelling, analysis and optimisation.
Chapter 10 includes a case study of the investigation of process parameters of biodiesel blends via a mathematical modelling approach, sensitivity analysis, simulation through artificial neural networks followed by its optimisation. The investigation is helpful to control the behaviour of production by identifying the most influencing terms involved in the processing.
Chapter 11 details key issues and challenges in biofuels production pathways, environmental effects and economic impact. Chapter 12 discusses greener catalytic processes in biofuel production and sustainable catalysts. Uses of feedstock, life cycle impact assessment and analysis with ISO life cycle assessment standards are included in Chapter 13, while Chapter 14 discusses the economics, environmental and policy issues regarding the production and assessment of biofuels.
Thus, the book covers the complete information of biofuels which is useful to optimise the natural resources and assure humans about the need for harmony in nature by minimising the environmental pollution. This is only possible by utilising advanced biofuels that are processed by treating the waste and utilising the maximum amount of energy for all the similar types of applications.
1Introduction to Biofuel
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Need of Emerging Technology
Food, water, clothing and shelter are the traditional basic needs of humans. However, today we rely on electricity and transportation like we do on food and water. Electricity and transportation are such an essential part of our modern life that we cannot imagine today what life would be like without it. Even if we radically decrease transportation to that firmly wanted to ensure basic needs, humans can still certainly survive, but this would need a profound re‐modelling of anthropoid activities such as economic and social. An upcoming scenario where human actions are not excessively unnatural is likely more tolerable. These amenities come with a need, i.e. fuel to run and this fuel is usually from the fossils of animals and plants buried millions of years ago. Fossil fuels have facilitated our civilisation everywhere. The major energy source for today's world is fossil fuels [1]. Fossil fuels have been driving the world for eras, making them economical and dependable since the infrastructure is previously in place for their sustained use. Since the early nineteenth century, the fossil fuel consumption in the world has almost doubled every 20 years. The advantage of fossil fuels is their ability to produce huge quantities of energy in just a single location. Innovation of the world's energy system must be on the horizon in current worldwide conditions that have led to a collective awareness. The development and advancement of nations worldwide is also dependent on the fossil fuel industry. The significant driver of the fossil fuel industry in its vast expansion over the course of several decades is the political and economic support [2]. The technical advancement in the technologies related to energy conversion to produce heat, electricity and transportation fuels has made a striking impact on society.
Being non‐renewable resource, its overconsumption will apparently result in serious environmental issues [2]. Several consequences have already been observed on the habitat from the burning of fossil fuel, which releases noxious gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide [3]. Fossil fuel is estimated to account for one‐third of global energy utilisation and is responsible for 15 and 31% of global CO2 and O3 man‐derived emissions, respectively [4]. Acid rain is one of the major consequences of these gases, which damages the crops, lakes, rivers, trees, wildlife statues and architecture. The consequence of global warming can be reversed and halted with making a shift to clean energy sources. Change to clean can be achieved with the renewable energy fuel (biofuel) that is formed by current processes from biomass rather than geological processes from the formation of fossil fuels (Figure 1.1). Thus, there has been a recent prerequisite to research and thereby to develop advanced energy alternatives that are feasible contenders having the potential to alleviate the matters of climate variation and energy security.
Figure 1.1 Sources of energy.
1.1.2 Renewable Energy
Renewable energy sources are the resources that can be replenished as quickly as they are utilised. Some of the main renewable energy sources are solar, biomass and wind. With the use of renewable energy sources, some of the environmental, social and economic problems can be omitted since these resources are environment friendly, with very little release of consumed and toxic gases. Since these resources can be used again and again to produce convenient energy, renewable energy is going to be a significant basis for power generation in the future [5, 6]. A total of 15–20% of the entire world's energy is provided by different renewable energy resources, such as hydropower, wind, solar, biomass, ocean energy, biofuel, geothermal, etc. The chief barriers to the progress of renewable energy are cost, market share and policy [7, 8]. Some of the unique properties of renewable energy resources are that they have the capacity to meet the world's energy demand, offer energy security and protect the atmosphere.
The most utilised non‐fossil fuel in today's world which serves as a substitute for engine fuel is bioethanol. Oil being the world's prime source of energy and chemicals, the present demand is about 12 million tonnes per day (84 million barrels a day) with a projection to increase to 16 million tonnes per day (116 million barrels a day) by 2030 [9–11]. The world leaders in biofuel development and usage are United States, Sweden, Brazil, France and Germany. On a worldwide scale, the United Nations (UN) International Biofuels Forum is formed by Brazil, China, India, South Africa, United States and the European Commission [12, 13].
Three percent of the global fuels for road transportation is provided by biofuel [14]. Worldwide biofuel production reached 161 billion litres (43 billion gallons US) in 2019, which was up by 6% from 2018. In the direction of reducing reliability on petroleum by 2050, International Energy Agency (IEA) wants more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels to be filled by biofuel [15]. To reach IEA's target annually, global biofuel productivity has to surge by 10% from 2020 to 2030. Only 3% growth/year is expected in the coming few years. However, the production and consumption of biofuels are not on track to meet the IEA's sustainable development scenario. By 2024, nearly 154 billion US dollars is projected to grow in the market for alternative fuels. IEA recorded that the ratio of development and deployment of renewable energy is getting to be deployed, which should be clogged to obtain net zero climate goals using different policies and subsidies [16].
Presently, bioenergy is the major renewable energy source worldwide and more than two‐thirds of the renewable energy mix is accounted for with these resources. One can continuously produce biofuels by growing biomass feedstock repeatedly that can withstand indeterminate human exploitation. Biofuels and bioproducts over the previous few years have been produced by biomass, which is one of the renewable resource derivatives of biological precursors [17, 18]. Biofuel is one of civilisation's utmost vital renewable energy sources as well as storable, contrasting conventional fossil energy. Microalgae are being assumed to be the greatest attractive basis for the production of biofuels, amid all these living organisms utilised.
Renewable energy is the leading emergent energy source, which has grown to 90% in the past 20 years [19]. Cost, demand, policy decisions, feedstock availability and public acceptance are the various factors that affect the renewable energy deployment [20].
1.2 History of Biofuel Development
Ever since humans discovered fire, charcoal, woodchips and cattle dung have been used as a source of energy and still today people use these solid fuels for heating and cooking in many parts of the world. In the mid‐1700s and early 1800s, oil extracted from whale was broadly used for lighting purposes. The discovery of biofuel is not very recent. In the mid‐1700s and early 1800s, oil extracted from whale was largely used for illumination purposes [21]. Since the nineteenth century, transesterification of vegetable oils has been generally identified and employed. In fact, the method presently employed for the production of biofuels from biomass is the same inherited from the ancient times. The feedstock used for their production was also very analogous [22]. Peanut, hemp, and corn oil and animal tallow were conventionally utilised and have been partly substituted by soya bean, rapeseed, recycled oil, forest wastes, and trees and sugar cane. The history of biofuel is considered to be more political and economic than being technical. Ever since humans have explored fire, feedstock like charcoal, woodchips, and cattle dung have been utilised as a basis of energy, and still in many countries around the world these solid biofuels are used for heating and cooking [23].
German named Nikolaus August Otto was the first discoverers to influence public for the usage of ethanol. In the 1860s, he ran his initial engines on ethanol, which is a fermented product of yeasts [24]. This car was completely designed to use hemp derived biofuel as fuel. In the 1880s, Henry Ford's first sample automobile could be functioned with ethanol as fuel, the ‘Quadricycle’ and his “Model T”, the most prevalent car produced between 1908 and 1927 [25]. The first communal demo of vegetable‐oil‐based diesel fuel was at the 1900 World's Fair in Paris, when the diesel engine was built by Otto Company to run on peanut oil when the French government commissioned it. Diesel engine was invented by another German scientist Rudolf Diesel. His diesel engine was designed to run on peanut oil.
However, during the 1920s, due to inexpensive prices and low viscosity of the diesel engine, producers reformed their engines to petroleum‐derived diesel fuel, leading to the improved atomisation of the fuel in the engine's combustion chamber [26, 27]. This problem was resolved when the Belgian patent 422,877 was granted on 31 August 1937 to George Chavanne of the University of Brussels. It designates the usage of methyl and ethyl esters of vegetable oil, attained by acid‐catalysed transesterification [28], as diesel fuel, being the first report on what is today known as biodiesel.
1.3 Generation in Biofuel
Based on feedstock and method of production, biofuels are classified in different groups named as first‐, second‐, third‐ and fourth‐generation biofuels [29] (Figure 1.2). The composition and calorific content of biofuel depend on the kind of biomass and process used.
In first‐generation biofuels (Figure 1.3), edible biomass is used for starch and sugar, which leads to increased production cost; the utilisation of resources are inefficient; and energy is consumed in cultivating crops. Specifically, edible biomass uses a large area of crop fields for its production and requires a large quantity of fertilisers and water which leads it to compete with food crops.
The second generation of biofuels is built on more resourceful renewable substituents by employing switch grass, sawdust, low‐priced woods, crop wastes and municipal wastes that are categorised under inedible lignocellulose biomass [30]. Although this generation requires more phases to generate acceptable biofuels at a viable cost, it overcomes the disadvantages of the first generation (Figure 1.4) [32].
Algae biomass is used in third‐generation biofuels, which is an aquatic feedstock [33, 34]. Seaweed is the example of algae that are photosynthetic plants that capture large amounts of CO2 and produce O2 and oil as well. Biofuels are less stable when produced from algae than from other sources because the core reason is that oil produced is highly unsaturated making them more volatile specifically at higher temperatures. However, this kind of biomass has some disadvantages such as its huge price and the fact that they are more likely to degrade [35]. Bioengineered microorganisms such bioengineered algae or crops conquered fourth‐generation biofuel. They are still in an early stage of development and are genetically modified such that they can consume a large amount of CO2 than they emit when burned in the environment [36].
Figure 1.2 Different generation biofuels.
Figure 1.3 First‐generation biofuels.
Figure 1.4 Second‐generation biofuels.
Source: Adapted from [31].
First‐generation biofuels include ethanol and biodiesel and are directly related to a biomass that is more than often edible or in other terms food‐related items. Concerns arose about using edible crops as feedstock and the impacts on croplands, biodiversity and food supply [37]. The emergent problems that can be observed directly were as follows:
the biomass chemical composition,
energy balance,
availability of croplands and the contribution to biodiversity and cropland value losses,
competition with food needs,
cultivation practices,
emission of pollutant gases,
impact of mineral absorption on water resources and soil,
use of pesticides,
cost of the biomass and its transport and storage,
soil erosion,
economic evaluation considering both the coproducts and feedstock,
creation or maintenance of employment and
resource availability such as water.
Second‐generation biofuels are defined as fuels produced from a wide array of different feedstock, [38] especially but not limited to non‐edible lignocellulose biomass or non‐food sources. A wide variety of abandoned materials can be used as biofuel feedstock such as agricultural waste [39], poplar trees [40], willow and eucalyptus [41], miscanthus [42], switch grass [43], reed canary grass [44] and wood [45], and they mostly consist of plant cell walls whose primary components is polysaccharides [46]. Second‐generation biofuels are bio‐ethanol, bio‐methanol, Fischer–Tropsch (FT) diesel, dimethyl ethanol (DME), bio‐hydrogen, which are a few examples of second‐generation biofuels. Second‐generation biofuels also generate higher energy yields per acre than first‐generation biofuels [47]. The general pathway for the production of second‐generation biofuel is biochemical or thermochemical [48], but as far as sustainability is considered, the following problems are incurred:
feedstock is not economically and practically viable for stable energy supply due to their low conversion rates,
lack of feedstock and
with the ever‐growing demand, various algae‐based biofuels have been augmented.
Figure 1.5 Third‐generation biofuels.
The cost effectiveness of this generation of biofuels still needs development because there are several technical barriers that need to be overcome.
The third‐generation biofuels are usually made up of algae or microbial feedstock (Figure 1.5). Third‐generation biofuels are more energy dense than first‐ and second‐generation biofuels per area of harvest [49]. There are two main classifications for algae based on their size and morphology: macroalgae and microalgae [50]. Microalgae have several important properties such as requiring less space to grow, high oil content, the ability to grow in both artificial and natural environments, and being eco‐friendly. They also possess a unique advantage that is the capability for both oxygenic photosynthesis and hydrogen production. In addition, their growth requirements are simple and limited to light, carbon dioxide and other inorganic nutrients [51, 52].
It is considered the most energy‐intensive fuel. Third‐generation biofuels still have the following disadvantages:
requirement of complex structure, storage and content,
capital intensity of the process of third‐generation biofuels,
cultivation of cultures and
lack of preferences during cultivation.
For a country to adopt alternative fuels, it must be able to avoid a food crisis and control measures regulating the fuel markets [53].
Figure 1.6 Fourth‐generation biofuels.
The fourth category would include biofuels produced from biomass (Figure 1.6), whose genetic modification would additionally increase the absorptivity of carbon dioxide in the photosynthesis process [54].
This generation approach utilises metabolic engineering of algae for generating biofuels from oxygenic photosynthetic microbes and creating artificial carbon sinks. Figure 1.7 demonstrates various pathways for the production of biofuels.
1.4 Classification of Biofuels
Biofuels, as discussed, are produced from the organic materials. They can be present in any type of state and form. Thus, on the basis of the state, the biofuels can be classified as the solid, liquid and gaseous biofuels [55].
Solid biofuel includes wood, coal, dried plant material and manure. Improvement in the physical and chemical properties, i.e. particle size, moisture content and energy content, is implemented time to time. The use of solid biofuels is renewable, which can replace energy generated from fossil fuels and help to displace greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from fossil fuels. It can also lower the risk of forest fires by managing the forest floor debris.
The main drawbacks associated with these fuels are their variable composition, high moisture content, low energy density and availability of the related resources. However, the high content of volatile matter, water‐soluble nutrients, low maintenance cost and reduced harmful emission make it a preferable candidate in biofuel market [56]. The technological and other barriers can be dealt with due care in progressive modifications. Thus, renewable standardised solid biofuels offer consistent quality, leading to improved performance, lower maintenance costs and reduced emissions.
Liquid biofuels include bioethanol, dimethyl ether, bio‐oil and biodiesel. A wide range of feedstock, process technologies, and field of applications are opened in this area [57]. Ethanol is a type of alcohol that can be produced by fermentation using any feedstock containing significant amounts of sugar. Ethanol can be blended with petrol or burned in nearly pure form in slightly modified spark‐ignition engines. Bioethanol suffers from the disadvantage that it can degrade certain elastomers and corrode certain metals inside the vehicle, leading to the conclusion that continual replacement is needed. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15% bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Biodiesel can be derived from a wide range of oils, including rapeseed, soya bean, palm, coconut or jatropha oils using transesterification process [58–60]. Biodiesel can be used in regular diesel engines in pure form or may be blended with petro‐diesel in any proportion. Sixty percent of the emission is reduced with the use of biodiesel instead of diesel. One of the problems associated with the biodiesel is that its viscosity increases with a decrease in the temperature. Thus, its use in countries with lower climate requires extra precautions while using biodiesel [61]. Industry, government and research organisations are also supporting the research activities and the related growth of liquid biofuels [62].
Figure 1.7 Production of biofuels.
Major examples of gaseous biofuel include biogas and syngas. Biogas and bio‐hydrogen are companionable gaseous biofuels for blending with natural gas. Usually, woody biomass is a suitable feedstock used in the production of biofuel due to its easy availability and use of non‐arable lands. The cellulose and hemicellulose divisions of wood can be used for the fermentative production of gaseous biofuels [63].
Biogas is a gas composed principally of methane and carbon dioxide produced by anaerobic digestion of biomass or by thermal processes from biomass, including biomass in waste [64]. Biogas is a blend of gases produced by the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic biogas, which is comparable to landfill gas, comprises 60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide [65]. Biogas is used in power generation systems such as combined‐cycle power plants. Syngas, also called a synthesis gas, is a mix of molecules containing hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapours as well as other hydrocarbons and condensable compounds [66]. It is the main product of gasification, and the majority of products of high‐temperature pyrolysis are carried on any biomass, residues and waste. Thermochemical process called gasification converts carbonaceous materials, such as biomass, municipal wastes, coal, petroleum and tyres under controlled amounts of oxidants such as oxygen, air and CO2 inside a gasifier to obtain syngas [67]. Syngas is mainly used for the generation of heat and power in both stand‐alone combined heat and power plants and also in large‐scale power plants. It can also be used in internal combustion engines as fuel.
The characterisation of the biomass and selection of the feedstock have a major effect on the technology used and the application field. Thermochemical processes involved such as pyrolysis, gasification and combustion involve several steps, chemical species reactions, catalysts, and routes. To lessen the efforts, simulations and modelling need to be simplified, which will allow optimal conditions for biofuel productions [68].
1.5 Technologies Involved in Biofuel Production
The biofuel is nothing but the monoalkali ester that is derived from the animal fat or vegetable oil. These monoalkali esters are to be extracted from the feedstock, and to do so different technologies are to be employed. Some of the technologies involved in the production of biofuels are transesterification, thermochemical process, microwave‐assisted synthesis [69–71], etc.
Pyrolysis of oils is a chemical change using heat in the presence of nitrogen (without participation of oxygen) to produce a wide range of different products such as alkanes, alkenes, alkadienes, aromatics, carboxylic acids, etc. The purpose of this route is to obtain high‐value fuel products from biomass by thermal and catalytic methods. Pyrolysis of triglycerides was found to be a potential option for the production of biodiesel [72]. This process is not widely accepted due to huge ash and carbon residue content (79% carbon in the case of soya bean oil), large input energy and high pour point of the final fuel product [73].
Microemulsions are defined as transparent, thermodynamically stable colloidal dispersions, in which the diameter of the dispersed‐phase particles is less than one‐fourth of the wavelength of visible light [74]. The flow behaviour of biofuel in the application of a diesel engine needs to be simplified, which was successfully solved with this technique.
Transesterification of oil to its corresponding fatty ester is one of the most promising techniques involved in the synthesis of biofuel. Basically, in transesterification reaction oil reacts with alcohol in the presence of some catalysts to yield fatty acid alkyl ester and glycerol [58, 75, 76]. The catalysts that are primarily used in transesterification reaction in biofuel synthesis are alkali, acid and enzymes. Alkali catalysts are considered suitable catalysts for the transesterification reaction.
Microwaves are electromagnetic radiations that represent a non‐ionising radiation that influences molecular motions such as ion migration or dipole rotations, but does not alter the molecular structure. The frequencies of microwave range from 300 MHz to 30 GHz, generally a frequency of 2.45 GHz is preferred in laboratory applications. The microwave process can be explained for the biodiesel production with transesterification reaction: the oil, methanol and base catalyst contain both polar and ionic components [77]. Microwaves activate the smallest degree of variance of polar molecules and ions, leading to molecular friction, and therefore the initiation of chemical reactions is possible. When the reaction is carried out under microwaves, transesterification is efficiently accelerated in a short reaction time. As a result, a drastic reduction in the quantity of by‐products and a short separation time are obtained with high yields of highly pure products [78].
Ultrasonic waves are energy applications of sound waves that are vibrated more than 20 000 per second. Ultrasonic processing of biodiesel involves the following steps: (i) mixing vegetable oil with the alcohol (methanol or ethanol) and catalyst, (ii) heating the mixture, (iii) the heated mixture is sonicated inline and (iv) glycerine separation by using centrifugation [79].
In all the above methods, four steps are involved for the biofuel synthesis in general. In the first step, transesterification reaction takes place between reagents and reactants under the controlled conditions. The resultant slurry is settled and centrifuged for phase separation in the second step. Thirdly, in an evaporator or a flash unit unreacted alcohol, the formed biofuel is sent to separate alcohol. Neutralisation and distillation of biofuel from other unwanted components such as catalyst and unreacted triglyceride is carried out in the fourth step.
The two most commonly used reactors for the commercial production of biofuel are batch‐mode process and continuous flow reactor. In the batch‐mode process, there is no flow of reactant and product of the reagents in and out of the reactor in a specific period of time, [80] while in the continuous flow process, feedstock is continuously fed into the continuous‐mode reactor while product stream leaving the system.
Many reactors for the biodiesel production are available. These reactors are based on the operational parameter with respect to chemical properties of reactants, reagents and products as well as physical parameters of procedure [81]. Thus, cost‐effective and eco‐friendly biofuel production technologies should be adopted to make this biofuel more competitive against the traditional fuels used. Different transesterification reactors are listed in Figure 1.8, which are finally analysed from the various angles. Merits and limitations of each reactor open up a new area of research.
1.6 Biofuel Properties
Properties of biofuel will indicate whether it is suitable or not for the performance, emission and life for the desired application. The major deviation in the range of standard parameters of biofuel could damage the engine in which it is used. An acceptable and persistent properties of biodiesels can only be guaranteed by relating to the biodiesel quality standards. It is essential to watch the quality during the biodiesel manufacturing procedure, from the feedstock to the delivery stations to accomplish this goal. The composition and nature of the feedstock used for the production strongly impact the physicochemical properties of biofuels. Blending, testing, storage and distribution should be involved in quality assurance and monitoring. Usually, the differences in biofuel properties listed in Table 1.1 are seen in oxidation stability, cetane number, iodine value, viscosity and density [105, 106].
Figure 1.8 Types of reactors.
Acceptability of biodiesel by various sectors depends on its socioeconomic and environmental impacts. Adverse cold flow properties, poor oxidation stability, corrosive and acidic nature, and degradation tendency of biodiesel present it as a non‐compatible system. A vast area is opened for the R and D sector to further improve its properties and make it compatible with automotive materials.
Table 1.1 Specifications of biodiesel.
Property
ASTM D975‐08a
ASTM D6751‐12
EN 590:2004
EN 14214:2012
2‐B
1‐B
Test
Flash point
[82]
, min
No 1D 38 °C No 2D 52 °C
D93
93 °C
D93
55 °C
EN 22719
101 °C
EN ISO 2719
Water and sediment
[83]
, max
0.05% vol.
D2709
0.050% vol.
D2709
Water, max
200 mg/kg
EN ISO 12937
500 mg/kg
EN ISO 12937
Total contamination, max
24 mg/kg
EN 12662
24 mg/kg
EN 12662
Distillation temperature
[84]
(% vol. recovered)
90%: 1D 288 °C max 2D 282–338 °C
D86
90%: 360 °C max
D1160
65%: 250 °C min 85%: 350 °C max
EN ISO 3405
Kinematic viscosity
[85]
1D 1.3–2.4 mm
2
/s 2D 1.9–4.1 mm
2
/s
D445
1.9–6.0 mm
2
/s
D445
2.0–4.5 mm
2
/s
EN ISO 3104
3.5–5.0 mm
2
/s
EN ISO 3104
Density
[86]
820–845 kg/m
3
EN ISO 3675 EN ISO 12185
860–900 kg/m
3
EN ISO 3675 EN ISO 12185
Ester content
[87]
5% vol. max
EN 14078
5% vol. max FAME
EN 14078
96.5% min
EN 14103
Ash
[88]
, max
0.01% wt.
D482
0.01% wt.
EN ISO 6245
Sulfated Ash
[89]
, max
0.020% mass
D874
0.02% mass
ISO 3987
Sulphur
[90]
, max (by mass)
1D and 2D: S15 15 mg/kg S500 0.05% S5000 0.50%
D5453 D2622 D129
[2]
Two grades: S15 15 ppm S500 0.05%
D5453
Two grades: 50 mg/kg 10 mg/kg
EN ISO 14596 EN ISO 8754 EN ISO 24269
10.0 mg/kg
EN ISO 20846 EN ISO 20884 EN ISO 13032
Copper strip corrosion [
91
–
93
], max
No 3
D130
No 3
D130
class 1
EN ISO 2160
class 1
EN ISO 2160
Cetane number
[94]
, min
40
D613
47
D613
51.0
EN ISO 5165
51.0
EN ISO 5165
Cetane index
[95]
, min
46.0
EN ISO 4264
One of
[3]
:
cetane index
aromaticity
40 min 35% vol. max
D976–80 D1319
PAH, max
11% wt.
IP 391 EN 12916
Operability
[96]
cloud point
LTFT/CFPP
Report
D2500 D4539 D6371
Cloud point
Report
D2500
Location and season dependent
EN 23015
Location and season dependent
EN 23015
CFPP
[97]
Location and season dependent
EN 116
Location and season dependent
EN 116
Carbon residue on 10% distillation residue, max
1D: 0.15% wt. 2D: 0.35% wt.
D524
0.050% wt.
[5]
D4530
0.30% wt.
EN ISO 10370
Acid number
[91]
, max
0.50 mg KOH/g
D664
0.50 mg KOH/g
EN 14104
Oxidation stability
[98]
3 h min
EN 14112
25 g/m
3
max
EN ISO 12205
8 h min
EN 14112
Iodine value
[99]
, max
120 g Iod/100 g
[1]
EN 14111 EN 16300
Linolenic acid methyl ester
[100]
, max
12.0% wt.
EN 14103
Polyunsaturated methyl esters, max
1.00% wt.
EN 15779
Alcohol control
0.2% wt. methanol max, or
EN14110
0.20% wt. methanol max
EN 14110
130 °C flash point min
D93
Monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides, max
MG 0.40% wt.
D6584
MG 0.70% wt. DG 0.20% wt. TG 0.20% wt.
EN 14105
Group I metals (Na + K), max
5 mg/kg
EN 14538
5.0 mg/kg
EN 14108 EN 14109 EN 14538
Group II metals (Ca + Mg), max
5 mg/kg
EN 14538
5.0 mg/kg
EN 14538
Free glycerine
[101]
, max
0.020% wt.
D6584
0.02% wt.
EN 14105 EN 14106
Total glycerine
[102]
, max
0.240% wt.
D6584
0.25% wt.
EN 14105
Phosphorous, max
0.001% wt.
D4951
4.0 mg/kg
EN 14107 prEN 16294
Lubricity
[103]
, max
520 μm
D6079
460 μm
ISO 12156‐1
Conductivity
[104]
, min
25 pS/m
D2624 D4308
Cold soak filtration time
(
CSFT
), max
360 s
[4]
200 s
D7501
1.7 Socioeconomic and Environmental Impact
The development of world economy is restricted because of one of the important factors, i.e. shortage of energy. Public awareness, opinion and knowledge could contribute to the social acceptance of biofuels [107]. The current surge in biofuel investments and manufacturing capacities is determined by the potential of multiple social, economic, ecological, and geopolitical aids. From a broader view, there are mainly three motives behind the promotion of biofuel in the society (Figure 1.9). The socioeconomic and environmental impact of biofuel varies widely based on the specific condition of the country. Political support or strategy is evolved out of or by the combination of those three areas.
The profit and cost for biofuel have a tendency to differ across commodities, landscape and business models. The main positive influence of the countries is income, rural development, employment and energy security [108]. Energy security refers to the capacity of nation to access the energy resources desired to sustain its national power. The evaluation of the economics of renewable energy development included the estimation of the resulting economic costs and benefits to any country including (i) cost of electricity, (ii) direct and indirect impacts on jobs, income and economic output, and (iii) renewable liquid fuel price impacts. The benefits of bioenergy comprise support of traditional trades, the financial expansion of rural civilisations and rural diversification. The cost of biomass conversion includes factors such as the scale of operation, types of biomasses, conversion process and the location of feedstock. The relative cost of biofuel will also depend on the accessibility of the alternative energy possibilities. In the development of biofuels, trade barriers, price interventions and financial support played a critical role. Biofuel chain (harvesting, production, transportation, etc.) will generate employment opportunities and increase people's income [109]. The socioeconomic effect of biofuel includes its impact on food security, supply and accessibility. Moreover, the reuse of unrestrained crops imitates the idea of a recycling economy, advances the efficacy of resource usage, and thus protects resources associated with the production method. The first‐generation biofuels are considered to be cost‐effective, while the second‐generation biofuels cost is indeterminate and differ with the production and conversion process. Feedstock for second‐generation biofuel would reduce the cost by 50% for production than the use of corn and sugar‐based feedstock.
Figure 1.9 Socioeconomic and environmental impacts of biofuels.
Biofuels have the strongest association with agricultural markets and residues as they are formed from agricultural supplies and have the utmost ability to influence food production and values [110], while next‐generation biofuels derived from lignocellulosic biomass and photosynthetic algae may have rarer straight relations to food production systems. Biofuel is explored so much because of its advantage on environment. The reason being biofuel is carbon neutral, i.e. the amount of carbon released when it is burned is equal to the amount of carbon utilised in the photosynthesis of plants, thereby reducing the GHG gas emission in the environment. Environmental impact includes issues such as loss of biodiversity, degradation of soil and water resources quality. Environmentally benign biofuel‐making procedure is projected to have little energy involvements in all steps starting from agriculture to processing of plants and manufacturing of biofuels with higher energy balance and better engine performance. Ecosystem is affected significantly with feedstock production for biofuel, either by enhancing biodiversity or intimidating the natural habitat and species. Some feedstock like sugar beet has higher impact on aquatic ecosystem than maize or wheat so that its monoculture is preferred compared to others. A number of tasks are placed for biofuel and managing the soil fertility. First is the possibility of recycling for small organic and plant nutrients. Current agricultural practices (in particular in developing countries) for soil management depend on the crop wasted. Secondly, feedstock nutrients can be retrieved during land conversion processes and applied to the crop field for biofuel production. Finally, hydrological effects are also important. Some bioenergy crops require the same amount of water irrigation as food crops (i.e. sugar cane). Best agricultural practices should avoid water infiltrations of water wastes to guarantee an efficient growth of bioenergy crop. Economic and environmental credibility of coproducts is essential to completely justify that investments in biofuel sectors are profitable and will meet the present energy demands and also curb greenhouse emissions (Figure 1.10). Thus, multidimensional sustainability assessment is very essential for a sustainable energy future.
Figure 1.10 Multidimensional sustainability assessment.
1.8 Conclusion
Fossil fuel being limited, i.e. non‐renewable energy source, its combustion causes side effects on the environment; thus, an alternative has to be considered. The usage of biofuels is projected to contribute to the energy maintenance and global warming reduction [111]. Biofuel is a renewable energy that can be used again and again. More than two‐thirds of the total renewable energy mix is accounted by the bioenergy. The centre stage is gained by biofuel as human activities are rising. The high reliance and burden on limited fossil fuels will be shifted due to the worldwide call to look into renewable eco‐friendly fuel carriers.
