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Sustainable Agriculture Systems and Technologies
A robust treatment of traditional and new techniques in sustainable agriculture
In Sustainable Agriculture Systems and Technologies, a team of distinguished researchers delivers an up-to-date and comprehensive exploration of sustainable agriculture and its relationship to the drivers of climate change. Along with robust examinations of food security and the agrarian livelihood, the book covers the impact of climate change and variability on agriculture, water management in agricultural systems, and precision agriculture.
This book represents a significant contribution to the scientific understanding of the application of technologies that address food insecurity and climate change through sustainable productivity, system diversification, irrigation practices, crop modeling, data analytics, and agricultural policy. It also explores the risks and benefits of different agricultural systems under changing climate scenarios.
The book also offers:
- A thorough introduction to agriculture and food security, including the diversification of ecosystems and the impact of Covid-19 lockdowns on food security and smallholder agricultural systems
- Comprehensive explorations of crop diversification and the impacts of climate variability on food security in Indonesia
- Practical discussions of water conservation agriculture and the quality of irrigation water for sustainable agriculture development in India
- In-depth examinations of geoinformatics, artificial intelligence, sensor technology, and big data
Perfect for academics, scientists, environmentalists, and environmental consultants, Sustainable Agriculture Systems and Technologies will also earn a place in the libraries of computing experts working in the field of agricultural science.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
About the Editors
Foreword 1
Foreword 2
Section 1: Food Security and Agrarian Livelihood
1 Agriculture and Nutritional Security in India
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Growth of Agriculture in India
1.3 Dynamics of Under Nutrition in India
1.4 Institutional Interventions to Cope Up with Malnutrition
1.5 Policy Implication
1.6 Conclusion
References
2 Diversification for Restoration of Ecosystems and Sustainable Livelihood
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Need for Agricultural Diversification for Sustained Livelihood
2.3 Crop Diversification and Ecosystem Services
2.4 Reducing Emission of Greenhouse Gases
2.5 Effect of Technology‐Induced Crop Diversification
2.6 Congenial Conditions for Crop Diversification
2.7 Crop Diversification and Composition
2.8 Constraints in Crop Diversification
2.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
3 Impact of Total Mixed Ration on Performance of Heifers and Homemade Concentrate Feeding on Milk Yield in Dairy Animals
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials and Methods
3.3 Results and Discussion
3.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
4 Multifaceted Impact of Lockdown During COVID‐19 on Food Security and Smallholder Agricultural Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Predictive Model for Deflation of COVID‐19 Spread in India
4.3 Impact on the National Economy
4.4 Government of India and Local Government Initiatives
4.5 The Economic Challenges of Local Farmers
4.6 Impact on the Economy of Indian Farmers
4.7 ICAR Initiatives
4.8 Impact on State Agriculture
4.9 Conclusion
References
Section 2: Climate Change and Agriculture
5 Crop Diversification
5.1 Introduction
5.2 What Is Diversification?
5.3 Concept of Crop Diversification
5.4 Key Drivers of Crop Diversification
5.5 Urgent Need
5.6 Scope of Crop Diversification
5.7 Key Elements for Diversification
5.8 Plant Breeding Supports for Crop Diversification
5.9 Advantages of Agricultural Diversification
5.10 Constraints in Crop Diversification
5.11 Research and Development Support for Crop Diversification
5.12 Institutional and Infrastructure Development Toward Crop Diversification
5.13 Strategies for Boosting Agricultural Production for Food Security
5.14 Conclusion
References
6 Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security Dimensions in Indonesia
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Method
6.3 Results
6.4 Discussion
6.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Author Contribution
References
7 Knowledge‐Intensive Livestock Resource Management in a Changing Environment
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sources GHGs from Livestock Sector
7.3 Effect of Climate Change on Livestock Production System
7.4 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies to Combat Climate Change Effects on Livestock
7.5 Awareness and Capacity Development of the Stakeholders
7.6 Conclusions
References
8 Aquaculture Resources and Practices in a Changing Environment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Aquaculture Resources and Production
8.3 Aquaculture–Environmental Interaction and Conservation
8.4 Climate Change and Aquaculture
8.5 COVID‐19 and Aquaculture
8.6 Adaptive Measures
8.7 Application of Modern Technologies
8.8 Strategies
8.9 Conclusion
References
Section 3: Water Management in Agricultural Systems
9 An Approach to Understand Conservation Agriculture
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Definition
9.3 Principles of Conservation Agriculture
9.4 History of Conservation Agriculture
9.5 How Conservation Agriculture Is Beneficial?
9.6 Global Scenario of Conservation Agriculture
9.7 Conventional vs Conservation Agriculture
9.8 Different Types of Conservation Agriculture Practices
9.9 Impact of Conservational Agriculture on Crop Production
9.10 Future Prospect of Conservation Agriculture in India
9.11 Challenges and Constraints in Conservation Agriculture
9.12 Conclusion and Policy Implications
References
10 Quality of Irrigation Water for Sustainable Agriculture Development in India
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Global Water Resources and Their Scarcity
10.3 Water Resources in India
10.4 Status of Groundwater Quality of India
10.5 Impact of Poor‐Quality Irrigation Water
10.6 Irrigation Water Quality Parameters
10.7 Irrigation Water Quality of Indian Groundwater
10.8 Sustainable Irrigation Water Management Options in Agriculture
10.9 Government and Public Awareness to Sustainable Water Use in Agriculture
10.10 Conclusion
References
11 Agricultural Water Footprint and Precision Management
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Water Footprints of India and World
11.3 Analysis of Water Footprint in Agriculture
11.4 Water Footprints of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops
11.5 Precision Management of Water Resources
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 Drip Fertigation for Enhancing Crop Yield, Nutrient Uptake, Nutrient, and Water Use Efficiency
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Effect of Drip Fertigation on Crop Productivity
12.3 Effect of Drip Fertigation on Water Use Efficiency (WUE)
12.4 Effect of Drip Fertigation on Nutrient Uptake
12.5 Effect of Drip Fertigation on Nutrient Use Efficiency
12.6 Effect of Drip Fertigation on Soil Nutrient Dynamics
12.7 Constraints in Adoption of Drip Irrigation
12.8 Conclusion
References
Section 4: Precision Agriculture
13 Sustainable Agriculture Systems and Technologies
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Alternate Land Use System
13.3 Modern Sustainable Technology
13.4 Input and Process‐Based Sustainable Technologies
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Geoinformatics, Artificial Intelligence, Sensor Technology, Big Data
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Agriculture: Problems Worldwide and in India
14.3 GIS‐Remote Sensing and Big Data in Smart Agriculture
14.4 Big Data and Agriculture
14.5 GIS‐Remote Sensing in Agriculture
14.6 Techniques and Tools Used in Big Data Analysis
14.7 Role of Big Data in Agriculture Production Ecosystem: For Smart Farming
14.8 Future Prospects
14.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
15 Investigation of the Relationship Between NDVI Index, Soil Moisture, and Precipitation Data Using Satellite Images
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Methodology
15.3 Results and Discussion
15.4 Conclusion
References
16 Artificial Machine Learning–Based Classification of Land Cover and Crop Types Using Sentinel‐2A Imagery
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Methodology
16.3 Accuracy Assessment
16.4 Results and Discussion
16.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
17 Geoinformatics and Nanotechnological Approaches for Coping Up Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Crop Plants
17.1 Introduction
17.2 “3‐T” Concept for Crop Management
17.3 Geoinformatics
17.4 Role of Geoinformatics in Abiotic and Biotic Stress
17.5 Nanoparticles
17.6 Role of NPs in Abiotic and Biotic Stress
17.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Percentage change in area production and productivity of wheat an...
Table 1.2 Average Annual Rate of Return of stunting and wasting from 2005–2...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Crop diversification options with oilseed crops.
Table 2.2 The diversification of traditional crop base with annual oilseed ...
Table 2.3 System productivity and economics of maize‐based diversification ...
Table 2.4 Possible new niches for pulses.
Table 2.5 Nutritional importance of vegetable crops.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Composition of home‐made balanced concentrate mixtures.
Table 3.2 Season‐wise production potential of different fodder.
Table 3.3 Performance of crossbred cows fed on TMR.
Table 3.4 Performance of crossbred lactating cows fed on homemade balanced ...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Coxidered variables in the study of effects of climate variabilit...
Table 6.2 Natural disasters in NTT from 1951 to 2014.
Table 6.3 GAM analysis result of deviance explained, significance level, an...
Table 6.4 Fixed and random effect models.
Table S1
Impacts of climate variability on food access and utilization.
Table S2
Impacts of climate variability on food availability.
Table S3
Impacts of climate variability on food utilization and availability...
Table S4
Impacts of climate variability on food availability.
Table 6.5 Impacts of climate variability on food access and utilization....
Table 6.6 Impacts of climate variability on food availability.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Economically important culturable species in aquaculture in India...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Comparison between conventional and conservation agriculture.
Table 9.2 Impact of conservation agriculture on different crops.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Top 15 countries poor in water resources in the world.
Table 10.2 Top 15 countries rich in water resources in the world.
Table 10.3 Indian water resources.
Table 10.4 Average physicochemical characterization of groundwater from dif...
Table 10.5 Suitability of irrigation water on the basis of electrical condu...
Table 10.6 Suitability of irrigation water based on sodium ion activity.
Table 10.7 Suitability of irrigation water as per RSC and MHR value.
Table 10.8 Boron concentration on crops.
Table 10.9 Chloride content in irrigation water and their suitability for c...
Table 10.10 List of tolerant crops in irrigation water salinity (ECw) and s...
Table 10.11 Institution for ground water management.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Number of irrigations, water requirement, and WUE of vegetable c...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Effect of drip irrigation and fertigation on yield (t/ha) of dif...
Table 12.2 Effect of drip irrigation and fertigation on WUE (kg ha/cm) of d...
Table 12.3 Effect of drip irrigation and fertigation on nutrient uptake (kg...
Table 12.4 Effect of drip irrigation and fertigation on nutrient use effici...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Eigenvalues and principal component analysis (PCA).
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Per capita per day availability of food grains 1958–2018 in gm/da...
Figure 1.2 Status of undernutrition in India. (a) Prevalence of stunted chil...
Figure 1.3 Trend of undernutrition over time in India 2005–2006 vs 2015–2016...
Figure 1.4 Association of stunting prevalence with socio‐economic indicators...
Figure 1.5 Comparison of socioeconomic indicators of states with higher rate...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Crop diversification maintains many of the ecosystem services and...
Figure 2.2 (a) Functional biodiversity delivering ecosystem services (e.g. p...
Figure 2.3 Agro‐ecological regions map of the country (2015) and revised Bio...
Figure 2.4 Diversified agri‐horti system for higher system yield and income....
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Milk yield of crossbred cows fed on TMR.
Figure 3.2 Daily feed cost and feed cost for milk production in cows fed dif...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Predictive statistical model for the deflation of COVID‐19 spread...
Figure 4.2 Recent and expected developments in the GDP of India since the fo...
Figure 4.3 Timeline of Finance Minister announces lockdown restrictions in I...
Figure 4.4 (Top panel) Variations in the average nominal wage (agriculturall...
Figure 4.5 Wheat/rice crops are ready for harvesting at many places and farm...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Study area.(
See insert for color representation of the figure
Figure 6.2 Analytical framework.
Figure 6.3 Annual trend of climate variability.
Figure 6.4 Types of natural disasters and frequency of occurrence in NTT....
Figure 6.5 Three months running mean of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) ...
Figure 6.6 Food production between 2002 and 2014 in NTT provinces.(
See i
...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Fan system in cow shed at the farm of ICAR Research Complex for N...
Figure 7.2 Overhead showering system for buffaloes at the farm of ICAR Resea...
Figure 7.3 Pastoral system for grazing of cattle in Dunedin, New Zealand.
Figure 7.4 Pastoral system for grazing of sheep in Dunedin, New Zealand.
Figure 7.5 Low‐cost, bamboo‐made fencing for rotational grazing of Black Ben...
Figure 7.6 Bamboo‐ and iron‐mesh‐net‐made fencing for rotational grazing of ...
Figure 7.7 Low‐cost, raised, bamboo‐made goat house in South Tripura, India....
Figure 7.8 Low cost, half‐walled pig shelter for smallholder pig farming in ...
Figure 7.9 Stockpiling of cow dung in Bhojpur, Bihar, India.
Figure 7.10 Vermicomposting in Bhojpur, Bihar, India.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Fisheries and aquaculture resources of India.
Figure 8.2 Design of small scale recirculatory aquaculture unit.
Figure 8.3 Design of small scale aquaponics unit.
Figure 8.4 Sustainable approach in aquaculture system.
Figure 8.5 Mechanism of biofloc system.
Figure 8.6 IMTA: Coculture of fish, sea weed, and oyster in cage system.
Figure 8.7 Dimensions of sustainable aquaculture system.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 World water consumption by different sectors.
Figure 10.2 Temporal changes in heavy water stress country (>80%) in the wor...
Figure 10.3 Utilization of different water resources in agriculture sectors ...
Figure 10.4 Ground water hydro chemistry of different states of India.
Figure 10.5 Salinity and sodium hazards of the Indian groundwater. (
See inse
...
Figure 10.6 Wilcox diagram of the Indian groundwater.
Figure 10.7 Area of drip and sprinkler irrigation system in different states...
Figure 10.8 Number of publications on irrigation water quality and quality o...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Water demand in India by 2050.
Figure 11.2 Global average water footprint (m
3
/capita/year).
Figure 11.3 Water scarcity faced by the world by 2050.
Figure 11.4 Between 2005 and 2014, average state‐level blue, green, and tota...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Effect of drip irrigation and fertigation on soil physical prope...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Four conceptual pillars of conservation agriculture practices.
Figure 13.2 Concept, component, and pathways of sustainable production of IN...
Figure 13.3 Basic views of regenerative agriculture.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 The picture depicts the steps involved; from primary data acquis...
Figure 14.2 Process of data acquisition and its conversion into useful infor...
Figure 14.3 Green and healthy vegetation reflects a large portion of the nea...
Figure 14.4 Reflection of light by healthy, sick, and dead leaves. Healthy l...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Location of study area.
Figure 15.2 Rainfall diagram.
Figure 15.3 Soil surface moisture diagram.
Figure 15.4 NDVI diagram.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Data preprocessing downloaded and derived images: the first row ...
Figure 16.2 Flow diagram for land cover and crop mapping (a) preprocessing o...
Figure 16.3 Random forest machine learning‐based mapped cropland cover of th...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Integrated farming systems that have geoinformatics, nanoparticl...
Figure 17.2 Diagrammatic representation of 3‐T concept.
Figure 17.3 Diagrammatic representation of geoinformatics type are their app...
Figure 17.4 The LAI, total chlorophyll content of various types of plants in...
Figure 17.5 Diagrammatic representation of
Vegetation Condition Index
(
VCI
) ...
Figure 17.6 Diagrammatic representation of IRECI of Indore district, Madhya ...
Figure 17.7 Nanoparticle‐mediated transformation into the plant cell.
Guide
Cover Page
Sustainable Agriculture Systems and Technologies
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
About the Editors
Foreword 1
Foreword 2
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Sustainable Agriculture Systems and Technologies
Edited by
Pavan Kumar
College of Horticulture and Forestry
Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University
Jhansi, UP, India
A.K. Pandey
College of Horticulture and Forestry
Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University
Jhansi, UP, India
Susheel Kumar Singh
College of Agriculture
Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University
Jhansi, UP, India
S.S. Singh
Extension Education
Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University
Jhansi, UP, India
V.K. Singh
ICAR‐Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
This edition first published 2022© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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The right of Pavan Kumar, A. K. Pandey, Susheel Kumar Singh, S. S. Singh, and V. K. Singh to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Kumar, Pavan (Professor of forestry), editor. | Pandey, A. K. (Scientist), editor. | Singh, S. K. (Professor of Soil science), editor. | Singh, S. S. (Sati Shankar), editor. | Singh, V. K. (Vinod Kumar) (Director of ICAR‐CRIDA), editor.Title: Sustainable agriculture systems and technologies / edited by Pavan Kumar, A. K. Pandey, Susheel Kumar Singh, S. S. Singh, V. K. Singh.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021970023 (print) | LCCN 2021970024 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119808534 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119808541 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119808558 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable agriculture. | Agricultural innovations.Classification: LCC S494.5.S86 S837 2022 (print) | LCC S494.5.S86 (ebook) | DDC 338.1–dc23/eng/20220118LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021970023LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021970024
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © MONOPOLY919/Shutterstock
List of Contributors
AishwaryaCollege of AgricultureRani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural UniversityJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Safik AhamadGSM DivisionICAR‐IGFRIJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
S. BabuDivision of AgronomyICAR‐IARINew Delhi, India
Boubacar Siddighi BaldeIntegrated Research System for Sustainability Sciences (IR3S), The University of TokyoKisohigashi, Tokyo, Japan
B.P. BhattNRM DivisionIndian Council of Agricultural ResearchNew Delhi, India
Ramesh ChandDepartment of Plant Pathology and MycologyInstitute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Bhagwan Singh ChaudharyDepartment of GeophysicsKurukshetra UniversityKurukshetra, Haryana, India
Shib Kinkar DasDepartment of AquacultureFaculty of Fishery SciencesWest Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences (WBUAFS)Kolkata, India
A. DeyICAR Research Complex for Eastern RegionPatna, Bihar, India
Anwesha DeyDepartment of Agricultural EconomicsInstitute of Agricultural SciencesBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Pavel DmitrievThe Botanical GardenSouthern Federal UniversityRostov‐on‐Don, Russia
Mohamed EshamDepartment of Agribusiness ManagementFaculty of Agricultural Sciences Sabaragamuwa University of Sri LankaBelihuloya, Sri Lanka
Shilan FelegariDepartment of Soil ScienceFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of ZanjanZanjan, Iran
Avijit GhoshGSM DivisionICAR‐IGFRIJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ahmad GolchinDepartment of Soil ScienceFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of ZanjanZanjan, Iran
J.J. GuptaICAR Research Complex for Eastern RegionPatna, Bihar, India
Avijit HaldarDepartment of Animal ReproductionICAR‐Agricultural Technology Application Research Institute (ATARI)Kolkata, West Bengal, India
H.M. HalliICAR‐Indian Grassland and Fodder Research InstituteJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Harshi JainForest Research Institute Deemed to be University (FRIDU)Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Pawan JeetDivision of Land & Water ManagementICAR‐Research Complex for Eastern RegionPatna, Bihar, India
Sachin Onkar KhairnarDepartment of AquacultureCollege of Fisheries, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (GADVASU)Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Bal KrishnaDepartment of Plant Breeding & GeneticsBihar Agricultural UniversitySabour, Bihar, India
Manoj KumarGIS CentreForest Research Institute (FRI)Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Parveen KumarNatural Resource Management DivisionICAR‐Central Coastal Agricultural Research InstituteOld Goa, Goa, India
Pavan KumarDepartment of Forest Biology and Tree Improvement College of Horticulture and ForestryRani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural UniversityJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Pradeep KumarDepartment of ForestryNorth Eastern Regional Institute of Science TechnologyNirjuli, Arunachal Pradesh, India
Rakesh KumarDivision of Crop ResearchICAR‐Research Complex for Eastern RegionPatna, Bihar, India
R.V. KumarGSM DivisionICAR‐IGFRIJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sunil KumarGSM DivisionICAR‐IGFRIJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Narendra KumawatAICRP for Dry land AgricultureCollege of AgricultureIndore, Madhya Pradesh, India
Bharat LalCollege of AgricultureRani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural UniversityJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Amit MandalDepartment of AquacultureCollege of FisheriesGuru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (GADVASU)Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Manjanagouda S. SannagoudarGSM DivisionICAR‐IGFRIJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Riya MehrotraCentral Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic CropsLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Tatiana MinkinaAcademy of Biology and BiotechnologySouthern Federal UniversityRostov‐on‐Don, Russia
Kamran MoravejDepartment of Soil ScienceFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of ZanjanZanjan, Iran
I. Wayan NampaDepartment of AgribusinessFaculty of AgricultureNusa Cendana UniversityKupang, Indonesia
Rajiv NandanCollege of AgricultureRani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural UniversityJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
V. ParameshaNatural Resource Management DivisionICAR‐Central Coastal Agricultural Research InstituteOld Goa, Goa, India
Shubhi PatelDepartment of Agricultural EconomicsInstitute of Agricultural SciencesBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Amlan Kumar PatraDepartment of Animal NutritionWest Bengal University of Animal and Fishery SciencesKolkata, West Bengal, India
G.A. RajannaICAR‐Directorate of Groundnut ResearchRegional StationAnantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India
Vishnu D. RajputAcademy of Biology and BiotechnologySouthern Federal UniversityRostov‐on‐Don, Russia
Meenu RaniDepartment of GeographyKumaun UniversityNainital, Uttarakhand, India
Sanjay S. RathoreDivision of AgronomyICAR‐IARINew Delhi, India
Sapna RawatDepartment of BotanyUniversity of DelhiNew Delhi, Delhi, India
Indranil SamantaDepartment of Veterinary MicrobiologyWest Bengal University of Animal and Fishery SciencesKolkata, West Bengal, India
M.S. SannagoudarICAR‐Indian Grassland and Fodder Research InstituteJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Martiwi Diah SetiawatiResearch Center for OceanographyNational Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN)Jakarta, Indonesia
Alireza SharifiDepartment of Surveying EngineeringFaculty of Civil EngineeringShahid Rajaee Teacher Training UniversityTehran, Iran
Ragini SharmaDepartment of ZoologyPunjab Agricultural UniversityLudhiana, Punjab, India
Kapila ShekhawatDivision of AgronomyICAR‐IARINew Delhi, India
Abhishek Kumar ShuklaCollege of AgricultureRani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural UniversityJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Abhishek SinghDepartment of Agricultural BiotechnologySardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and TechnologyMeerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
Amit K. SinghGSM DivisionICAR‐IGFRIJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Anil Kumar SinghDivision of Land & Water ManagementICAR‐Research Complex for Eastern RegionPatna, Bihar, India
Anil Kumar SinghUniversity of Allahabad Senate House CampusAllahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Awani Kumar SinghCentre for Protected Cultivation and TechnologyIndian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, Delhi, India
H.P. SinghDepartment of Agricultural EconomicsInstitute of Agricultural SciencesBanaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Omkar SinghDepartment of Soil Science & Agril. ChemistryCollege of Agriculture, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and TechnologyMeerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
Prashant Deo SinghGSM DivisionICAR‐IGFRIJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Rakesh SinghDepartment of Agricultural EconomicsInstitute of Agricultural Sciences Banaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
R.K. SinghDivision of AgronomyICAR‐IARINew Delhi, India
Ram Kumar SinghDepartment of Natural ResourcesTERI School of Advanced StudiesNew Delhi, India
Rudra Pratap SinghCollege of AgricultureAcharya Narendra DevUniversity of Agriculture and TechnologyAyodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India
Shashank SinghDepartment of Agricultural BiotechnologySardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and TechnologyMeerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
Susheel Kumar SinghDepartment of Soil Science and Agricultural ChemistryCollege of AgricultureRani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural UniversityJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
V.K. SinghDivision of AgronomyICAR‐ Central Research Institute for Dryland AgricultureHyderabad, Telangana, India
Prem K. SundaramDivision of Land & Water ManagementICAR‐Research Complex for Eastern RegionPatna, Bihar, India
Aqil TariqState key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying Mapping and Remote Sensing (LIESMARS)Wuhan UniversityWuhan, China
Ram Sewak TomarCollege of Horticulture and ForestryRani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural UniversityJhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Keshav TyagiForest Research Institute Deemed to be University (FRIDU)Dehradun, India
Pravin Kumar UpadhyayDivision of AgronomyICAR‐ Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, Delhi, India
Preface
Technological change has been the major driving force for increasing agricultural productivity and promoting agriculture development across the globe. In the past, the choice of technologies and their adoption was to increase production, productivity, and farm incomes. However, with changing agrarian economy, food habits, and climate scenario, demand for nutritious food and ecofriendly cultivation practices are becoming a major concern. Over many decades, policies for agriculture, trade, research and development, education, and training have been strong influences on technology adoption, agricultural production, and farm management. Agriculture is one of the most important sources of food nutrition, income, and employment in most of the developing world, including India. With passes of time, predominant rice, wheat, and other grains producing tracts have started showing symptoms of fatigue due to several eco‐physical and socioeconomic constraints. Effects are witnessed as frequent drought occurrence, soil carbon depletion and degradation, and reduced farm income. Under these circumstances, cultivators, advisors, and policy makers are facing technological complexities, which are either available or under development, causing pressure on agricultural research and advisory services. Although, few attempts have been made in establishing the role of climate on crop productivity in current and future scenarios. But it does not consider non‐climatic factors such as land use, technological advancement, change in irrigation pattern, soil fertility, and crop destruction due to insects, pests and diseases. Integrating all these may become robust tools for decision‐ and policy‐making to prioritize the vulnerable zones that need immediate attention.
This book covers significant and updated contribution in the field of sustainable agriculture systems and technologies linked to climate change. The updated knowledge from countries like India, Indonesia, Japan, Sri Lanka, Iran, and China, is presented in this book through selected case studies for major thematic areas that have basic preliminary concepts and elaborates the scientific understanding of the relationship between sustainable agriculture systems and climatic drivers. The book has been separated into four major themes, each having subject‐specific chapters to develop the concept and to present the findings in a lucid way that is useful for a wide range of readers. While the range of applications and innovative techniques is constantly increasing, this book provides a summary of key case studies to provide the most updated information. Chapters incorporate multisource data and information that offer critical understanding to explain the causes and effects of environmental changes linked to sustainable agriculture systems. This book will be of interest to researchers and practitioners in the field of agriculture, remote sensing, geographical information, and policy studies, etc., related to agricultural systems. Also, researchers, graduate, and postgraduate students of various disciplines, planners, and policy makers will find valuable information in this book. We believe that the book will be read by people with a common interest in sustainable development and other diverse backgrounds within earth observation.
The scientific quality of the book was ensured by a rigorous review process where leading researchers from India, Indonesia, Japan, Sri Lanka, Iran, and China, participated to provide constructive comments to improve the chapters. Due to the confidentiality of the review process, we are unable to provide their name; however, we are deeply indebted and thankful for their voluntary support. On behalf of the team of authors, we express our gratitude to the entire crew of Wiley for all kind of assistance to make this successful endeavor.
Pavan KumarA. K. PandeySusheel Kumar SinghS. S. SinghV. K. Singh
About the Editors
Dr. Pavan Kumar is an Assistant Professor at the College of Horticulture and Forestry, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India. He obtained his PhD degree from Faculty of Natural Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India. He did a BSc (Botany) and MSc (Environmental Science) from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India, and subsequently obtained his master's degree in Remote Sensing (MTech) from Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra Ranchi, India. His current research interests include resilient agriculture and climate change studies. He is recipient of Innovation China National academy award for Remote Sensing. Dr. Kumar has published 50 research papers in international journals and authored several books. He has visited countries including USA, France, the Netherlands, Italy, China, Indonesia, Brazil, and Malaysia for various academic/scientific assignments, workshops, and conferences. Dr. Kumar is a member of the International Associations for Vegetation Science, USA, and Institution of Geospatial and Remote Sensing, Malaysia.
Dr. A.K. Pandey is currently Dean at the College of Horticulture and Forestry, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India. Prior to joining RLBCAU, Dr. Pandey served for almost six years as Dean, College of Horticulture and Forestry, Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh, under Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur, India. He is an ARS Scientist of 1985 batch. Dr. Pandey obtained his MSc (Ag.) and PhD. degrees in Horticulture from C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur. Dr. Pandey participated in the 1st International Post Graduate Course on Protected Agriculture in Arid and Semi‐arid Region at Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel. He has published more than 80 research papers, 167 popular articles and review articles in journals of national and international repute. Dr. Pandey has authored 14 books and has participated in more than 70 national conferences/seminars and symposia and in the position of Organizing Secretary, organized several national seminars/symposia and one International Symposium on Minor Fruits, Medicinal & Aromatic Plants (ISMF, M&AP) at Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh. Dr. A.K. Pandey has been conferred several awards and honors for his distinguished academic contributions. Hon'ble President of India has conferred on him the prestigious Rajiv Gandhi Gyan‐Vigyan Purskar for his book Dalhani Sabjiya during 2012. Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO) honored him four times for his significant contribution. Dr. Pandey is a prolific writer and for his significant contribution, Scientific and Applied Research Centre, Meerut, India has conferred on him the Outstanding Authorship in Science and Technology Award (2010). He was also awarded the Life Time Achievement Award (2016) by BSRD, Allahabad. Dr. Pandey is a board member of a number of Scientific Societies and Academic panels. He is a Fellow of Indian Society of Vegetable Science (ISVS), Varanasi and Society of Biological Sciences and Rural Development, Allahabad, India.
Dr. Susheel Kumar Singh is currently Assistant Professor at the College of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India. He obtained his PhD degrees from Faculty of Soil Sciences, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut (UP), India. He did a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture and Master of Science in Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry from Tilak Dhari Post Graduate College Jaunpur affiliated to Veer Bahadur Singh Purvanchal University, Jaunpur, UP, India. He was also awarded as Research Fellow through IRRI‐CSISA project during his PhD research program. Dr. Singh primarily works in the field of climate change, and related interdisciplinary fields with wider applications of Information Technology, Remote Sensing, and GIS tools with working experience of more than eight years. His current research interests include conservation agriculture and precision nutrient management studies. Dr. Singh has published several research papers including book chapters, as well as popular articles also.
Dr. S.S. Singh is the Director, Extension Education, Rani Laxmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India. He has served as Director, ICAR – Agricultural Technology Application Research Institute, Kolkata, WB (2017–2020). He was Head of Division, Crop Production at Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, UP (2014–2017) and Head, Crop Research Division at ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, Bihar (2009–2014). Dr. Singh has also worked in RWC‐ CIMMYT, India, from 2004 to 2006. Dr. Singh has served RAU Pusa, Bihar, from 1986 to 1998 as Junior Scientist cum Assistant Professor. He is BSc (Ag) from CSAUAT Kanpur and MSc (Ag.) and PhD (Agronomy) from NDUAT, Faizabad, UP, India. Dr. Singh has handled 16 foreign/external funded projects on Natural Resource Management, Crop Management, Livelihood Development and Crop Improvement funded by DFID, IFAD, USAID, BMGF, IRRI, CIMMYT, Ford Foundation, and European Union. As an agronomist, he has contributed to the development of five rice varieties, which have been released by CVRC and Bihar SVRC and are suitable for aerobic drought prone, late direct seeding, contingency cropping, and rainfed lowland conditions. He has also guided and monitored ICAR/DAC extension projects like ARYA, Farmers FIRST, Skill Development, MGMG, TSP, SCSP, CFLD Pulses & Oilseeds, NICRA TDC, DAMU, and Seed Hub program from 2017 to 2020. He has published 115 research papers, 6 books, 20 book chapters, 15 technical bulletins, 135 papers in proceedings/symposium/seminar, 50 popular articles, and 40 extension folders. He has visited USA, UK, Australia, Mexico, Thailand, Philippines, Bangladesh, and Nepal. He is recipient of Rajeev Gandhi Gyan Vigyan Award from Ministry of Home Affairs, FAI award, Senior Research Fellowship of ICAR, Excellent Team Research Award of ICAR in Social Science.
Dr. V.K. Singh is currently, Director, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India. Dr. Singh has made valuable contributions in the area of soil fertility appraisal and soil health restoration through site‐specific nutrient management (SSNM) and inclusion of legumes in intensive cropping systems. His effort on soil fertility appraisal using geo‐statistical tools in different agro‐ecologies revealed widespread multinutrient deficiencies. The extensive studies by him at cultivators' fields underlined the significance of SSNM for addressal of multinutrient deficiencies, improving yields, nutrient use efficiency, and profits under different cropping systems. He also explored different options for inclusion of legumes in rice–wheat system (RWS) to reduce subsoil compaction, enhanced organic matter accumulation, and minimized NO3‐N leaching. Dr. Singh has standardized conservation agriculture practices for improving soil health, nutrient and water use efficiency, and net returns. The Integrated Farming Systems models developed by him have great potential to raise the income and employment to small holders. Besides publishing research recognized peer‐reviewed journals, he also published his work in popular language for the advantage of farmers and extension personnel. He possesses an illustrious academic record, with several awards and distinctions, viz. Fellow of NAAS, ISNS, ISA, SEE; NAAS Young Scientist Award, NAAS Associate, PS Deshmukh Young Agronomist Award, UPCAR Young Agricultural Scientist Award, IPNI‐FAI award, FAI Golden Jubilee Award, PPIC‐FAI award, Dr. J.S.P. Yadav Memorial Award of ISSS, Sriram Award, and Dhiru Morarji Memorial Award for his outstanding contributions in the area of efficient agronomic input management research.
Foreword 1
Rani Lakshmi BaiCentral Agricultural UniversityJhansi, UP, India
Dr. Arvind KumarVice‐ChancellorSource: RLB Central Agricultural University
Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences. Agriculture not only contributes to overall growth of the economy but also reduces poverty by providing employment and food security to the majority of the population in the continent, and thus it is the most inclusive growth sectors of the economy. In addition, growth in agriculture significantly influences the growth of nonagriculture sectors, also. Within the agricultural sector, smallholder farmers remain central to agricultural development and continue to play important roles promoting an ecologically rational and socially available food system. The ultimate goal or the ends of sustainable agriculture is to develop farming systems that are productive and profitable, conserve the natural resource base, protect the environment, and enhance health and safety, and to do so over the long‐term. In recent past, satellite technologies available for agricultural applications promise to offer multiple benefits to the growers like estimating the timing of harvest, predicting in‐season yields, understanding water and nutrient status, planning crop nutrition programmes and informing in‐season irrigation, forecasting in diseases and pests, etc. Advances in satellite constellations, payloads, and launch are enabling increased connectivity and observational capability. Coupling these developments with “smarter” computing, data infrastructures, and analytics is increasing the possibilities for the use of satellite technologies for multiple uses in agriculture. While this creates new possibilities for products, services, and decision support, it also requires proper planning to ensure that the latest technology is linked appropriately with production challenges and, therefore, can be used to deliver the gains required to meet the societal, economic, political, and environmental needs.
The compiled text encircles updated information on sustainable agriculture systems and technologies addressing a variety of areas related to food security within context of sustainable practices, crop modeling, irrigation practices, micro‐irrigation, agricultural statistics, agricultural economics, climate change scenario, flood routing, spatial modeling, farmers income, and agricultural policy in the twenty‐first century. This book would serve as a hand book encompassing several scopes of interests on sustainable technologies toward reliable practices and income generation in areas agriculture, livestock, and fishery resources for sustainable agriculture as a whole.
This book would be beneficial for academics, scientists, environmentalists, meteorologists, environmental consultants, computing experts working in the areas of agricultural sciences.
Arvind Kumar
Foreword 2
Dr. Suresh Kumar ChaudhariIndian Council of Agricultural ResearchNew Delhi, IndiaDeputy Director General (Natural Resource Management)Source: Indian Council of Agricultural Research08.06.2021
Agriculture is not only a key driver for inclusive growth of the economy in Asian countries but also has become means to elevate poverty, employment generation, and food security to the millions of growers, consumers, and other stakeholders in the continent. In addition, the forward and backward linkage effects of agriculture growth have also scaled up the incomes in the nonagriculture enterprises. Within the agricultural sector, smallholder farmers remain central to agricultural development and continue to play important roles for promoting an ecologically rational and socially available food system.
The primary aim of this book on “Sustainable Agriculture Systems and Technologies” is to advance the scientific understanding and application of technologies addressing a variety of areas related to food security within the context of sustainable productivity, system diversification, irrigation practices, precision agriculture, climate change, crop modeling, big data analytics, farmer's livelihood, and agricultural policy framework in the twenty‐first century. This book will serve as a hand book encompassing several scopes of interests on sustainable agricultural technologies toward improved livelihoods, income generation and addressing sustainable development goals through agriculture, livestock, and fishery resources. A variety of scholars will also be benefited to explore risks and potential solutions in different agricultural systems under changing climate scenario, which can further be transmitted to the producers, policy makers, and other stakeholders. Further, this book will extend knowledge support for academics, researchers, and environmental consultant working within the framework of agricultural sciences.
I compliment the contributors and the editors for this worthy publication.
S.K. Chaudhari
Section 1Food Security and Agrarian Livelihood
1Agriculture and Nutritional Security in India
Shubhi Patel1, Anwesha Dey1, Rakesh Singh1, and Ramesh Chand2
1 Department of Agricultural Economics, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
2 Department of Plant Pathology and Mycology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Growth of Agriculture in India
1.2.1 Role of Agriculture in Nutrition
1.3 Dynamics of Under Nutrition in India
1.3.1 Trends Over Time
1.3.2 Association with Socioeconomic Indicators
1.4 Institutional Interventions to Cope Up with Malnutrition
1.5 Policy Implication
1.6 Conclusion
References
1.1 Introduction
India is a young nation with the advantage of demographic dividend. Demographic dividend is accompanied with economic growth, provided, good health, education, and employment opportunities exist (Bloom and Williamson 1998; Ross 2004). At present conditions, India will sustain demographic dividend for 37 more years and thus, the health of children is an important aspect as it tells about the past and also the future of the workforce (UNICEF 1998). In 2020, India ranked 94 out of 107 countries in Global Hunger Index, third economy out of 181 in GDP (PPP) and 131 out of 189 countries in Human Development Index. The level of hunger in India is categorized as serious (Global Hunger Index 2020). The child wasting rate is 17.3%, child stunting rate is 34.7%, and under‐five mortality rate is 3.7%; there is a 14% prevalence of undernourished children and a decreasing trend in the global hunger index score since 2000. Although, India ranked 71 out of 113 countries in food security index, and it is noteworthy that it was ranked 37 in food availability, 76 in affordability, 74 in quality and safety, and 98 in natural resources and resilience (Global Food Security Index 2020). Being a leading producer of food grains make it obvious to score well in availability of food but this merely is not enough as quality and safety are also important. Food security is composed of four dimensions, i.e. availability, access, utilization, and stability of the three dimensions over time (FAO 2008). Equitable distribution of food ensures that the good quality, available food reaches the table of every household in the nation. Failing to do so leads to hunger which means distress related to lack of sufficient calories (Global Hunger Index 2019). This leads up to another complex dimension that is malnutrition. Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person's intake of energy and/or nutrients (WHO 2021). The term malnutrition covers two broad groups of conditions one is “undernutrition” and other is overweight, obesity, and diet‐related noncommunicable diseases (WHO 2021). Undernutrition is defined as the outcome of insufficient food intake and repeated infectious diseases, it includes being underweight for one's age, too short for one's age (stunted), dangerously thin for one's height (wasted), and deficient in vitamins and minerals (micronutrient malnutrition) (UNICEF). Stunting is an indicator of chronic undernutrition, the result of prolonged food deprivation and/or disease or illness; wasting is an indicator of acute undernutrition, the result of more recent food deprivation or illness; underweight is used as a composite indicator to reflect both acute and chronic under nutrition, although it cannot distinguish between them (WHO 1995). Undernutrition has been a cause of health issues in developing countries (Rice et al. 2000; Schofield and Ashworth 1996; WHO 2002). This is a matter of concern because; stunting affects the mental development of the child and reduces their productive efficiency (Mendez and Adair 1999). Thus, posing a risk on the future of nations and emerging as a public health challenge. Not only this, the economic losses caused by malnutrition are 11% of GDP every year in Africa and Asia, whereas the rate of return on investment in prevention is $16 for each dollar invested (Global Nutrition Report 2016). Thus, preventing malnutrition is an economically viable option.
India is opting for a multipronged approach to tackle the burden of malnutrition through nutritional programmes like Mid‐day meals, Integrated Child Development Programme, Public Distribution System (PDS), National Nutrition Mission, Bio‐fortification, etc. Bio‐fortification is the process of using conventional plant breeding techniques to enrich staple food crops with higher level of vitamin A, zinc, and iron. PDS in India covers a large amount of beneficiaries who are unable to afford a minimum dietary requirement. Distribution of bio‐fortified wheat though PDS can help uplift the nutritional status of the majority. Sustainable development goals setup in 2012 have given a blueprint of actions needed to be taken for ensuring a safe and sound future for the upcoming generation. Zero hunger, as the second goal says, it targets to end hunger, ensure food security, and achieve sustainable agriculture development. And our performance in the SDG index is important on global scale as one‐sixth of world population resides in India. In the SDG India Index 2020, nutrition and gender equality have a long road to take to perform well in the score. Occurrence of pandemic like COVID‐19, where complete closure of economic activities has been witnessed, also threatens the nutrition security of the population (specially the unorganized sector). The slow economic growth rate due to COVID‐19 will lead to reduced aggregate demand, consumption expenditure, and hamper income as well as food security (IFPRI 2015). Thus, it becomes important to point out where we are at the nutritional level, how much have we have improved and what are the factors responsible and associated with the prevalence of under‐nutrition.
1.2 Growth of Agriculture in India
India is a leading producer of food grains, milk, wool, and other agricultural products. But what is the situation at present and how has India become what it is today, the journey to achieve this position was not a child's play. It began in the 1960s with the advent of the green revolution. During the independence period, India was left with own national governance and food insecurity. We were importing rice and wheat to feed the starving population. In 1966, India was the leading importer of rice and wheat. This was the time of introduction of green revolution. Introduction of dwarf wheat variety, subsidies on fertilizers, irrigation expansion, procurement at minimum support price, and chemicals for crop protection were done to increase the production (Mandal et al. 2020; Pandey et al. 2015). And the improved package of practice actually increased the production manifold. In 11 years, India’s wheat production increased 205% and rice production increased 72% (Table 1.1) bringing India among the leading exporters at the global level in 1977–1978. The productivity (kg/hectare) increased 79% in wheat between 1966–1967 and 1977–1978, which was a record increment. The increase in rice productivity (kg/hectare) was 51% between 1966 and 1977. Since then, the production of wheat has but rice has not seen a setback. Area under wheat grew at an annual rate of 1.68 while production speeded up with Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 4.3. Wheat has been a winner in green revolution with record increase in production and ensuring that the country is food secure. Area under rice grew at an annual rate of 0.55 while production speeded up with CAGR of 2.45.
Table 1.1 Percentage change in area production and productivity of wheat and rice in India.
Source: Indiastat.com,www.fao.org/faostat.
Year
Area
Production
Productivity
Wheat
Rice
Wheat
Rice
Wheat
Rice
1965–1966
17.7
13.4
29.6
8.4
10.3
−4.4
1977–1978
70.7
13.6
205.5
72.2
79.0
51.7
1989–1990
9.5
4.7
57.0
39.7
43.3
33.4
2001–2002
12.1
6.5
46.0
26.9
30.2
19.1
2013–2014
15.7
−1.7
31.7
14.3
13.9
16.2
Wheat and rice are among the staple food of the country. Apart from this the government of India procures wheat and rice at Minimum support price and distributes it to the below poverty line population at subsidized price under National food security programme (Bisht et al. 2014; Singh et al. 2013; Tomar et al. 2014; Yadav et al. 2014). It is known that wheat and rice have a lion's share in procurement under Minimum Support Price. This has led to cereal dominance in food grain production. Per capita availability of food grains has shown increase in rice, wheat, and cereals, while it has declined in the case of gram, pulses, and other cereals (Figure 1.1). This reveals that the advent of green revolution has shifted India from food insecure to food secure country. This raises up a question that whether being food secure ensures zero hunger?
1.2.1 Role of Agriculture in Nutrition
Agriculture plays a pivotal role in nutrition (Kadiyala et al. 2011). Agriculture provides the major food items required for the balanced dietary intake. As already discussed in the above section, India has made significant growth in agricultural production indicating that the availability of food is not a constraint in ensuring nutrition. But is this the only way through which agriculture ensures nutrition security? Nutrition security has three dimensions – access to adequate food, care and feeding practices, and sanitation and health (UNSCN). Here, the emphasis is on access to adequate food. The access to adequate food comes from the ability to pay for the demand of food. Source of livelihood here plays an important role in this ability to purchase apart from the subsidized food grains obtained from the NFSA. In 2020, agriculture employed around 58% of the Indian population and was the primary occupation of the country (IBEF 2021). In monetary terms, the Rs.19.48 lakh crores of Gross Value Added (GVA) was for agriculture, forestry, and fishing in 2020. Thus, a major source of income for a major section of Indian population. The year 2014 was recognized as the year of family farming emphasizing the role of agriculture in food and nutrition security. Moving to the care and feeding determinant of nutrition security it can be covered under agriculture by ensuring crop diversity and development of bio‐fortified food grains which have higher nutritional content, diversification of cropping pattern in order to ease the availability of a variety of food items at local level. And for the third determinant a model named “Farming System for Nutrition” model was developed (Das et al. 2014). This model suggested the location‐specific nutrition focused agriculture encompassing the diet need and surrounding environment development. Thus, it can be seen that the upliftment of nutritional security revolves around agriculture.
Figure 1.1 Per capita per day availability of food grains 1958–2018 in gm/day.
1.3 Dynamics of Under Nutrition in India
Hunger is measured considering children under five years who are under nourished, stunted, wasted, underweight, and under‐five mortality rate. Stunting means the percentage of children under five years who are stunted (height to age) is presented in Figure 1.2a from data obtained from National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 4. It shows that the highest prevalence of stunting is seen in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, and Madhya Pradesh with more than 40% of children stunted, while Kerala, Goa, and Tripura have less than 25% of children stunted. Lessons can be taken from these states to improve the status in other states. Also, regional disparities were observed with higher percentage of stunting in rural area as compared to urban area. This is subject to the reasons that sanitation, antenatal care, and literacy are higher in the urban side. This means, emphasis on improvement of these parameters can help uplift the children from malnutrition.
Child wasting means low weight for height and indicates the acute food shortage or prevalence of disease in children (UNICEF). As per NFHS 4 Jharkhand, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra, more than 23% of children are wasted (Figure 1.2b), while Mizoram and Manipur have less than 10% wasted children. The reasons can be similar to the reasons of stunting. There is 50% chance that a stunted child will also be wasted. The urban rural divide is prevalent in this case too. Hunger also leads to underweight children and if prolonged it leads to mortality of children. As seen in Figure 1.2c, in Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Bihar more than 40% of children are underweight, while Manipur, Mizoram, and Sikkim have less than 15% underweight population of children under five years. This shows strong association between stunting, wasting, and underweight of children as Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Bihar have the highest prevalence of all these parameters. Under five infant mortality is highest in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh, i.e. more than 60 deaths per 1000 lives (Figure 1.2d). This reveals that Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Jharkhand have the highest level of malnourishment in India. Combining all the four parameters, we see that Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Jharkhand have the highest level of undernourishment in India. An insight into the economy of these states shows that Madhya Pradesh has 62% of labor force participation in agriculture and agriculture contributes 45% to the Gross State Value Added (GSVA) (Madhya Pradesh Budget Analysis 2019–20 ). Uttar Pradesh, the most populous state of India (17.11%) is the leading producer of food grains in India (Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2018). Jharkhand is a rural state with 76% of its population living in rural area. And almost 49% of its population lives below poverty line. Bihar has 23% of its GSVA to the state's economy by agriculture (Bihar Budget Analysis 2019‐20). Apart from this out of total labor force the casual labor force of Bihar is 32.2%, Jharkhand 23.6%, Madhya Pradesh 28.2%, and Uttar Pradesh 21.3% and they are not able to find job after COVID‐19 outbreak. Percentage of population below poverty line of Bihar is 33.7%, Jharkhand 36.7%, Madhya Pradesh 31.7%, and Uttar Pradesh 29.4% and Uttar Pradesh has 17.12% of population, while Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Jharkhand comprise of 9, 6, and 3% of population, i.e., 35% of the population of India. These states are mainly agriculture dependent making the population more vulnerable. Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh being highly populous states in spite of having high number of beneficiaries under Integrated Child Development Scheme are still among the poor performers. This implies that unequal distribution of income might be the reason that despite economic growth and food production, prevalence of hunger is there.
Figure 1.2 Status of undernutrition in India. (a) Prevalence of stunted children. (b) Prevalence of child wasting. (c) Prevalence of underweight children. (d) Under‐five mortality rate.
Source: Based on NFHS 2015–16 .
(See insert for color representation of the figure.)
1.3.1 Trends Over Time
The performance of the states over two National Family Health Survey (NFHS) reveals that the situation has improved over the years in most of the cases (Figure 1.3). NFHS 3 conducted in 2005–2006 and NFHS 4 conducted in 2015–2016 although not strictly comparable, have substantial results to show. The reduction in percentage of children who are stunted was highest in Arunachal Pradesh (32%), Tripura was followed by Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. It is noteworthy that Tripura, Himachal Pradesh, and Punjab are among the top five states with the least percentage of stunted children. While Uttar Pradesh,
