Sustainable Membrane Technology for Energy, Water, and Environment E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 457

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

A detailed look at the most recent developments in sustainable membrane technology for use in energy, water, and the environment A collection of twenty-seven groundbreaking papers on important ideas about the development of membrane science and technology, Sustainable Membrane Technology for Energy, Water, and Environment brings together contributions from leading international experts in one comprehensive volume. Covering the latest developments and most innovative ideas in the field, this book is a unique resource for understanding the growing interest in using membranes across several industries. Divided into six chapters that cover new membrane materials and membrane development; membrane applications for gas and vapor separation; membrane applications in water treatment; environmental applications of membranes; energy applications of membranes; and other industrial membrane applications, the book looks at the current and emerging applications for membrane science and technology in detail. As the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Middle East emerge as the next generation of membrane research and development centers, in part due to their need for water and natural gas production technology, this book provides invaluable insights into the cutting-edge work taking place in these regions. Additional topics covered also include new membrane materials, membrane applications for food processing, and much more. Designed for engineers, scientists, professors, and graduate students who are engaged in membrane R&D activities, as well as for anyone interested in sustainable development, Sustainable Membrane Technology for Energy, Water, and Environment is a cutting-edge look at membrane applications.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

FOREWORD

PREFACE

CONTRIBUTORS

PART I: MEMBRANE MATERIAL AND MEMBRANE DEVELOPMENT

1 SPINNING EFFECT OF POLYETHERSULFONE HOLLOW FIBER MEMBRANE PREPARED BY WATER OR POLYVINYLPYRROLIDONE IN TERNARY FORMULATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 EXPERIMENTAL

1.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1.4 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

2 EFFECT OF INORGANIC PARTICLE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF POLYETHERSULFONE-CELLULOSE ACETATE ULTRAFILTRATION MEMBRANES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 EXPERIMENTAL

2.3 MEMBRANE CHARACTERIZATION

2.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

2.5 CONCLUSIONS

3 CHARACTERIZATIONS OF NEWLY DEVELOPED BACTERIAL CELLULOSE–CHITOSAN MEMBRANE WITH PYRROLINE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 METHODOLOGY

3.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.4 CONCLUSION

4 EFFECT OF POSTTREATMENT TO ENHANCE THE PERFORMANCE OF NANOFILTRATION ASYMMETRIC MEMBRANE IN ATRAZINE-HERBICIDE REMOVING PROCESS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 MATERIALS AND METHOD

4.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.4 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

5 POLYACRYLONITRILE NANOFIBER ASSEMBLED BY ELECTROSPINNING: EFFECT OF DOPE CONCENTRATIONS ON THE STRUCTURAL AND PORE CHARACTERIZATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 EXPERIMENTAL

5.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.4 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

PART II: APPLICATIONS IN GAS AND VAPOR TREATMENT

6 POLYMER STRUCTURES AND CARBON DIOXIDE PERMEATION PROPERTIES IN POLYMER MEMBRANES

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 BACKGROUND

6.3 CO2 PERMEATION PROPERTIES

6.4 CO2-INDUCED PLASTICIZATION

6.5 CONCLUSION

7 GAS PERMEABILITY AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF 6FDA-BASED POLYIMIDE MEMBRANES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 PHYSICAL AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

7.3 GAS AND VAPOR TRANSPORT PROPERTIES

7.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GAS TRANSPORT AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

7.5 CONCLUSION

8 POLYMERIC NANOCOMPOSITE MEMBRANES FOR GAS SEPARATION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

8.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

8.4 CONCLUSIONS

9 PREPARATION OF PEROVSKITE TITANIA CERAMIC MEMBRANE BY SOL-GEL METHOD

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 EXPERIMENTAL

9.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

9.4 CONCLUSION

PART III: APPLICATIONS IN WATER TREATMENT

10 FOULING CHARACTERISTICS AND CLEANING STRATEGIES OF A PVDF TUBULAR ULTRAFILTRATION MEMBRANE IN NATURAL RUBBER SKIM LATEX CONCENTRATION PROCESS

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 MATERIAL/THEORY

10.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

10.4 CONCLUSION

11 REMOVAL OF DIETHANOLAMINE (DEA) FROM WASTEWATER USING MEMBRANE SEPARATION PROCESSES

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

11.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

11.4 CONCLUSION

12 THE EFFECT OF CHITOSAN MEMBRANE PREPARATION PARAMETERS ON REMOVAL OF COPPER IONS

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2 EXPERIMENTS

12.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

12.4 CONCLUSION

13 ANALYSIS OF FOULING AND FLUX BEHAVIOR IN CROSS-FLOW MICROFILTRATION OF NONALCOHOLIC BEER BY CERAMIC MEMBRANE

13.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

13.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

13.4 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

14 COMPARISON AND UPGRADING OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS FOR WASTEWATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE BY MEANS OF MEMBRANE BIOREACTOR (MBR) TECHNOLOGY

14.1 INTRODUCTION

14.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

14.3 ANALYTICAL ITEMS AND METHODS

14.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

14.5 CONCLUSIONS

PART IV: APPLICATIONS IN ENVIRONMENT

15 SURFACE TREATMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYPROPYLENE HOLLOW FIBERS BY SOL-GEL METHOD FOR LIQUID PHASE MICROEXTRACTION

15.1 INTRODUCTION

15.2 METHODS

15.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

15.4 ANALYTICAL PERFORMANCES OF POLYPROPYLENE HOLLOW FIBER MEMBRANES

15.5 CONCLUSIONS

16 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ADDITIVES ON THE PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCE OF POROUS POLYSULFONE HOLLOW FIBER MEMBRANES FOR CO2 ABSORPTION

16.1 INTRODUCTION

16.2 EXPERIMENTAL

16.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

16.4 CONCLUSION

17 ABSORPTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE THROUGH FLAT-SHEET MEMBRANES USING VARIOUS AQUEOUS LIQUID ABSORBENTS

17.1 INTRODUCTION

17.2 METHODS/THEORY

17.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

17.4 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

18 PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF W/O EMULSION LIQUID MEMBRANE CONTAINING DIETHANOLAMINE (DEA) FOR CARBON DIOXIDE SEPARATION FROM GAS MIXTURES

18.1 INTRODUCTION

18.2 EXPERIMENTAL

18.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

18.4 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

19 REMOVAL OF DYES FROM LIQUID WASTE SOLUTION: STUDY ON LIQUID MEMBRANE COMPONENT SELECTION AND STABILITY

19.1 INTRODUCTION

19.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

19.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

19.4 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

PART V: APPLICATIONS IN ENERGY

20 MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF SOLAR-POWERED MEMBRANE DISTILLATION UNIT FOR SEAWATER DESALINATION

20.1 INTRODUCTION

20.2 METHODS/THEORY

20.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

20.4 CONCLUSIONS

21 POLYSTYRENE IONOMERS FUNCTIONALIZED WITH PARTIALLY FLUORINATED SHORT SIDE-CHAIN SULFONIC ACID FOR FUEL CELL MEMBRANE APPLICATIONS

21.1 INTRODUCTION

21.2 METHODS/THEORY

21.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

21.4 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

22 CONTRIBUTION OF NANOCLAYS TO THE BARRIER PROPERTIES OF SPEEK/CLOISITE15A® NANOCOMPOSITE MEMBRANE FOR DMFC APPLICATION

22.1 INTRODUCTION

22.2 METHODS/THEORY

22.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

22.4 CONCLUSIONS

23 PURIFICATION OF BIOGAS USING CARBON NANOTUBES MIXED MATRIX MEMBRANE: EFFECT OF FUNCTIONALIZATION OF CARBON NANOTUBES USING SILANE AGENT

23.1 INTRODUCTION

23.2 METHODS

23.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

23.4 CONCLUSION

24 SELECTIVITY OF POLYMERIC SOLVENT RESISTANT NANOFILTRATION MEMBRANES FOR BIODIESEL SEPARATION

24.1 INTRODUCTION

24.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

24.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

24.4 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

PART VI: OTHER INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

25 PERVAPORATION PERFORMANCE OF METHYL TERT BUTHYL ETHER/METHANOL MIXTURES THROUGH NATURAL RUBBER/POLYSTYRENE INTERPENETRATING POLYMER NETWORK MEMBRANES

25.1 INTRODUCTION

25.2 MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

25.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

26 P-XYLENE SEPARATION FROM TERNARY XYLENE MIXTURE OVER SILICALITE-1 MEMBRANE: PROCESS OPTIMIZATION

26.1 INTRODUCTION

26.2 METHODS/THEORY

26.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

26.4 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

27 AMMONIA REMOVAL FROM SALINE WATER BY DIRECT CONTACT MEMBRANE DISTILLATION

27.1 INTRODUCTION

27.2 METHODS/THEORY

27.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

27.4 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Index

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

International Conference on Membrane Science and Technology (7th : Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia : 2009)

 Sustainable membrane technology for energy, water, and environment / edited by Ahmad Fauzi Ismail and Takeshi Matsuura.

p. cm.

 Papers presented at the 7th International Conference on Membrane Science and Technology held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on May 13–15, 2009.

 Includes index.

 ISBN 978-1-118-02459-1 (cloth)

 1. Membranes (Technology)–Congresses. I. Ismail, A. F., 1966– II. Matsuura, Takeshi, 1936– III. Title.

 TP159.M4I5676 2009

 660'.283–dc23

2011035193

ISBN: 9781118024591

FOREWORD

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

—The Report of the U.N. Brundtland Commission, Our Common Future, 1987

To fulfill the mission of sustainable development, it is necessary to achieve economic growth without excessive demand on natural resources while little stress is imposed upon the environment. A significant technology shift is necessary to achieve the goal. Fortunately, it is also a fact that the technologies to be used for this purpose are already available. Membrane separation technology is nowadays recognized as one of such key technologies that can contribute to sustainable development by enhancing energy efficiency, producing clean water, and alleviating environmental contamination.

In the spirit of enhancing and promoting the roles of membrane, Advanced Membrane Technology Research Center (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, took the initiative to organize the 7th International Conference on Membrane Science and Technology (MST 2009) at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, with the main theme of “Sustainable Energy, Water, and Environment.”

To highlight advances and new findings in membrane science and technology and their impacts on technology development, the main aims were:

To promote interdisciplinary collaboration for the common goal to achieve sustainable development,To foster global collaborations and joint ventures,To promote and facilitate growth of scientific and technical development in the field of membrane technology development in Malaysia and the ASEAN region.

With a large population of the ASEAN nations (about 300 million) and rich natural resources, for example, agricultural products in Thailand, and petroleum, natural gas, and water in Indonesia and Malaysia, sustainable growth of the region based on sensible utilization of the valuable resources will have a strong impact on the growth of the entire global economy.

This book is unique in providing information to assess the quantity and quality of current research and development activities in the ASEAN region, especially on membrane science and technology. The book also reflects upon those in the Middle East region, where the sustainable development is equally important. It is believed that the book will open up a new avenue for the establishment of global collaborations to achieve our common goal of welfare of the human society.

PROF. DATO’ IR. DR. ZAINI UJANG

Vice Chancellor

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

PREFACE

This book consists of the papers selected from the 7th International Conference on Membrane Science and Technology 2009 (MST 2009) held on the theme of “Sustainable Technology for Energy, Water, and Environment” on May 13 to 15, 2009. MST has been held every year in different countries of the ASEAN region, such as Thailand (2003, 2008), Malaysia (2004), Indonesia (2005), and Singapore (2006). In the year 2009, MST was organized by the Advanced Membrane Technology Research Center (AMTEC), Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and held in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) with the support of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia, British Council and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. The conference enjoyed truly international flavor with more than 200 participants from 23 different countries. In particular, 13 eminent plenary and keynote speakers from all over the world delivered lectures on their fields of expertise. Papers of high quality were presented in 5 technical sessions and among those, 27 papers were specially chosen to be included in this book. In addition, focus was placed on the papers of the host country Malaysia, where strong membrane R&D activities are currently being conducted.

In particular, the book includes the following parts.

Part I covers new membrane material and membrane development: The topics cover hollow fiber spinning (Chapter 1), mixed matrix membrane for ultrafiltration (Chapter 2), composite membrane based on bacterial cellulose membrane as the substrate (Chapter 3), posttreatment of nanofiltration membrane (Chapter 4), and formation and characterization of electro-spun nanofiber membranes (Chapter 5).

Part II covers membrane applications for gas and vapor separation: The topics cover the through discussions on CO2 permeation-structure relationship for 6FDA-based polyimide membranes (Chapters 6 and 7), mixed matrix and nanocomposite membrane for gas separation (Chapter 8), and inorganic membranes for gas separation (Chapter 9).

Part III covers membrane applications in water treatment: Water treatment processes such as skim natural rubber latex concentration, removal of diethanolamine (DEA) from wastewater, removal of copper ions, microfiltration of nonalcoholic beer and wastewater reclamation are included in this chapter. In particular, membrane fouling is discussed in Chapters 10 and 13. Both commercial reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), and ultrafiltration (UF) tubular membranes (Chapter 11) and laboratory made membranes (chitosan [Chapter 12]) were used for water treatment. And, finally, membrane bioreactor was used in Chapter 14 for wastewater reclamation.

Part IV covers environmental applications: Three chapters in this part address CO2 capture, accomplished either by membrane contactor (Chapters 16 and 17) or by W/O emulsion liquid membrane (Chapter 18). Furthermore, this chapter covers topics such as surface treatment of polypropylene hollow fibers for liquid phase microextraction (Chapter 15) and the removal of dye from of liquid waste solutions (Chapter 19).

Part V covers energy applications: The topics cover combined solar energy—seawater desalination process (Chapter 20), development of polymeric membranes for fuel cell applications (Chapter 21), nanocomposite membranes for direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) (Chapter 22), membrane development for biogas purification (Chapter 23), and for biodiesel separation (Chapter 24).

Finally, Part VI covers other industrial applications, including methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) separation from methanol mixture by pervaporation (Chapter 25), fractionation of ternary xylene mixtures (Chapter 26), and ammonia removal from salty water by direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) (Chapter 27).

The editors believe that many innovative ideas on the development of membrane science and technology are assembled in this book. The readers may also have a glimpse into the rapidly growing R&D activities in the ASEAN and the Middle East regions that are emerging as the next-generation R&D centers of membrane technologies, especially owing to their need of water and natural gas production technology. As the table of contents indicates, the book addresses applications of membrane science and technology for energy, water, and environment. Hence, this book will be useful not only for the engineers, scientists, professors, and graduate students who are engaged in the R&D activities of the field, but also for those who are interested in the sustainable development of these particular regions.

The editors would like to express their sincere thanks to the staff of the Advanced Membrane Technology Research Center (AMTEC), UniversitiTeknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia for their support, encouragement, and their understanding during the period of the book’s writing. The relationship and friendship between authors and AMTEC members have created a very conducive environment which motivated us and ensured the completion of this book despite many hardships. Among them are Dr. Muhammad Noorul Anam, Mohd. Suhaimi Abdullah, Dr. Lau Woei Jye, Ng Be Cheer, Goh Pei Sean, Dr. Suhaila Sanip, Dayang Salyani, Dr. Nurmin Bolong, Dr. Hatijah Basri, Erna Yuliwati, Dr. Azeman Mustafa, Dr. Abdel Latif Hashemifard, Agung Mataram, Dr. Juhana Jaafar, Norhaniza Yusof, Farhana Aziz, Mohd Razis, Dr. Amir Mansourizadeh, Dr. Mohd Ali Aroon, and Dr. Gholamreza Bakeri just to name a few. T. Matsuura would like to thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for his appointment to Distinguished Visiting Professor during the years 2009 and 2010, which enabled him to dedicate his time to the edition of the book.

AHMAD FAUZI ISMAIL

TAKESHI MATSUURA

CONTRIBUTORS

Jamal Aalaei (Dr.), Polymer Science and Technology Division, Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, West Blvd., Azadi Sport Complex, Tehran, Iran

Nurbaiti Abdul Hanid (Ms.), Department of Engineering Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Mengabang Telipot, 21030, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

Ahmad Zuhairi Abdullah (Dr.), School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Seberang Perai Selatan, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

Sani N.A. Abdullah, School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, S.P.S, Penang, Malaysia

Ahmedy Abu Naim (Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Separation Science and Technology Group, IbnuSina Institute for Fundamental Science Studies, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Malaysia; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Abdul Latif Ahmad (Prof. Dr.), School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, S.P.S, Penang, Malaysia

Asmadi Ali (Mr.), Department of Engineering Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Mengabang Telipot, 21030, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

Nora’aini Ali (Dr.), Department of Engineering Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Mengabang Telipot, 21030, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

Mohammed Al-Jarrah (Eng.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Jordan University of Science and Technology, PO Box 3030, Irbid-Jordan

Marinah Ariffin (Dr.), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Mengabang Telipot, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

Mohammad Ali Aroon (Dr.), Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Gangasalam Arthanareeswaran (Dr.), Membrane Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli 620015, India

Chulsung Bae (Prof. Dr.), Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Box 454003, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154-4003, USA

Fawzi Banat (Prof.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Jordan University of Science and Technology, PO Box 3030, Irbid-Jordan

Jalal Barzin (Dr.), Department of Biomaterials, Iran Polymer and Petrochemical Institute, P.O. Box 14965/115, Tehran, Iran

Subhash Bhatia (Prof. Dr.), School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Seberang Perai Selatan, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

Inamullah Bhatti, Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering, University Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Nurmin Bolong (Dr.), Civil Engineering Programme, School of Engineering & IT, Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), 88999 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Budiyono (Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Faculty of Engineering, University of Diponegoro, Jl. Prof. Sudharto Tembalang, Semarang, Indonesia

Abdullah Busairi (Prof. Dr.), Faculty of Engineering, University of Diponegoro, Jl. Prof. Sudharto Tembalang, Semarang, Indonesia

Ying Chang (Dr.), Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Box 454003, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154-4003, USA

Chel-Ken Chiam (Mr., M.Sc.), Membrane Technology Research Group, Centre of Materials and Minerals, School of Engineering and Information Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

W. James Noel Fernando (Prof. Assoc.), School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

Luc Fillaudeau (Dr.), Laboratoire d’Ingénierie des Systèmes Biologiques et des Procédés, CNRS UMR5504, INRA UMR792, INSA, 135, Avenue de Rangueil F-31077 Toulouse, France

Azadeh Ghaee (Mrs.), Faculty of New Science and Technology, University of Tehran, PO Box 14399-55941, Tehran, Iran

Gagik Badalians Gholikandi, Faculty of Water Engineering, Power and Water University of Technology (PWUT) and Water Research Institute (WRI), Tehran, Iran

Ani Idris (Prof. Dr.), Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor

Ahmad Fauzi Ismail (Prof. Dr.), Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Manal Ismail (Dr.), Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Juhana Jaafar (Ms.),Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Skudai, Johor Malaysia

Ahmad Jusoh (Prof. Ir. Dr.), Department of Engineering Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Mengabang Telipot, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu

Khairul Sozana Nor Kamarudin, Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering, University Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Shinji Kanehashi (Mr.), Department of Applied Chemistry, Meiji University, Higashi-mita, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, 214-8571, Japan

Ghader Khanbabaei (Dr.), Polymer Science and Technology Division, Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, West Blvd., Azadi Sport Complex, Tehran, Iran

Mahdi Khosravi, Faculty of Water Engineering, Power and Water University of Technology (PWUT), Hakimieh, Tehranpars, Shahid Abbaspour Blvd., PO Code 16589-54381, PO Box 16765-313, Tehran, Iran

Tutuk Joko Kusworo (Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Faculty of Engineering, University of Diponegoro, Jl. Prof. Sudharto Tembalang, Semarang, Indonesia

Kok Keong Lau (Dr.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia

Amir Mansourizadeh (Dr.), Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Agung Mataram (Mr.), Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Universiti Technologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia, and Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sriwijaya University, Sumatera Selatan, Indonesia

Takeshi Matsuura, Industrial Membrane Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5 Canada

Norlisa Mili (Ms.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor

Mazidatulakmam Miskam (Ms.), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Sou Miyata (Dr.), Department of Applied Chemistry, Meiji University, 1-1-1 Higashi-mita, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, 214-8571, Japan

Siti Nur Hidayah Mohamad (Ms.), Food and Biomaterial Eng. Group, Bioprocess Eng. Department, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor. Malaysia

Abdul Wahab Mohammad (Prof. Dr. Ir.), Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Ida Idayu Muhamad (Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Food and Biomaterial Eng. Group, Bioprocess Engineering Department, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Hilmi Mukhtar (Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia

Azeman Mustafa (Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Advanced Membrane Technology Research Center (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Kazukiyo Nagai (Prof.), Department of Applied Chemistry, Meiji University 1-1-1 Higashi-mita, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, 214-8571, Japan

Mohd Ghazali Mohd Nawawi (Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Zairossani Mohd Nor (Dr.), Technology and Engineering Division, Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, Malaysian Rubber Board, 47000 Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia

Norasikin Othman (Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Rahimah Othman (Ms.), Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Norhayati Pa’e (Ms.), Food and Biomaterial Eng. Group, Bioprocess Eng. Department, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai, Johor. Malaysia

Yanuardi Raharjo (Mr.), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science,Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Sunarti Abd Rahman (Mrs.), Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 25000 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia

Ali Rahmatpour (Dr.), Polymer Science and Technology Division, Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, West Blvd., Azadi Sport Complex, Tehran, Iran

Nur Azrini Ramlee (Ms.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Rosalam Sarbatly (Assoc. Prof. Dr.), Membrane Technology Research Group, Centre of Materials and Minerals, School of Engineering and Information Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Mohd Razman Salim (Prof. Dr.), Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Skudai, Johor Malaysia

Jumat Salimon (Prof. Dr.), Department of Chemical Science and Food Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Syairah Salleh (Ms.), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Mohd Marsin Sanagi (Prof. Dr.), Separation Science and Technology Group, IbnuSina Institute for Fundamental Science Studies, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM JohorBahru, Malaysia, and Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science,Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Shuichi Sato (Mr.), Department of Applied Chemistry, Meiji University, Higashi-mita, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, 214-8571, Japan

Binyam Seyoum (Mr.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia

Mojtaba Shariaty-Niassar (Prof.), Department of Chemical Engineering, University College of Engineering, Tehran University, PO Box 11365-4563, Tehran, Iran

Mohammad Soltanieh (Prof.), Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

Seyyed Ali Reza Tabatabaei Nejad (Dr.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz, Iran

Hamid Reza Tashaouei, National Water and Wastewater Company (NWWC), Iran

Radhe Shyam Thakur (Mr.), Membrane Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli 620015, India

Wan Aini Wan Ibrahim (Prof. Dr.), Separation Science and Technology Group, IbnuSina Institute for Fundamental Science Studies, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Malaysia, and Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Devaraj Veerasamy (Dr.), Technology and Engineering Division, Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, Malaysian Rubber Board, 47000 Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia, and Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Skudai, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

Mehdi Yazdanshenas (Dr.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz, Iran

Yin Fong Yeong (Dr.), School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Seberang Perai Selatan, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

Abdul Halim Mohammad Yusof (Dr.), Food and Biomaterial Eng. Group, Bioprocess Eng. Department, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor. Malaysia

Siti Nazrah Zailani (Ms.), Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Fathie Ahmad Zakil (Ms.), Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, LebuhrayaTunRazak, 26300 Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia

Sharif Hussein Sharif Zein (Prof. Assoc.), School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, S.P.S, Penang, Malaysia

2

EFFECT OF INORGANIC PARTICLE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF POLYETHERSULFONE-CELLULOSE ACETATE ULTRAFILTRATION MEMBRANES

Gangasalam Arthanareeswaran and Radhe Shyam Thakur

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Membrane separation processes offer a number of advantages in terms of low energy use and capital investments. Membrane-based separation processes, such as reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), ultrafiltration (UF), microfiltration (MF), electrodialysis (ED), pervaporation (PV), and gas separation have been developed for various applications [1]. UF, an intermediate between NF and MF, is a pressure-driven process used for removing solutes, such as oils, particulate matters, bacteria, suspended solids, large macromolecules, and proteins, and UF membranes have pore sizes ranging from 0.005 to 0.1 µm [2]. Both polymeric and inorganic materials have been used for the preparation of UF membranes. A familiar method for the preparation of polymeric membranes is the phase inversion process [1, 2]. Since Loeb and Sourirajan first introduced the phase inversion method [3], much investigation has been made to know the mechanism of membrane formation with asymmetric structure using polymers. In a phase inversion process, the cast solution film on a substrate is immersed and is precipitated in a nonsolvent coagulation bath. During the process, the solvent in the casting solution film is exchanged with a nonsolvent, and phase separation occurs in the film. Generally, polymeric membranes are ineffective to their physical integrity in solvents because of their tendency to swell or dissolve. Polymer blending is a possibility of modifying and improving membrane material properties. This modification holds for membrane preparation to tailor a specific separation performance [4]. Blending of two polymeric materials is also intrinsically limited by a trade-off between their compatibility and their heterogeneity, they have been difficult to form homogenous membranes for high-performance separation applications. According to the literature [5–9], cellulose acetate (CA) has been blended with additional polymers such as polyethyleneglycol (PEG), polyethyleneimine, polysulfone (PSf), sulfonated PSf, and epoxy resin for their improved performance. Chen et al. [6] reported that CA as a matrix polymer was blended with polyethyleneimine in a mixture of solvents to prepare a modified MF membrane. Synthesis of a polymer blend membrane is motivated by the necessity to superimpose requisite properties upon the basic transport properties of base polymer. Thus, the hydrophilic–hydrophobic balance as well as properties of a membrane system can be easily altered if the membrane is prepared from multicomponent polymer blends [8]. Malaisamy et al. [8] reported that the beyond 25% of sulfonated PSf content in CA resulted in phase separation of the blend, due to incompatibility between CA and sulfonated PSf. Furthermore, according to Mahendran et al. [9], at a higher blend ratio of CA and epoxy resin, it was unable to form membrane because of incompatibility. Although there have been works reported [10–14] using PEG and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as additives, those works involved mostly polymeric blend systems such as PSf/sulfonated polyetheretherketone (SPEEK), CA/polyethersulfone (CA/PES), CA/polycarbonate, CA/sulfonated poly(ether imide), and CA/PSf except for the use of inorganic particles as modifier. There is yet no report regarding the effect of inorganic particles on the performance of polymer blend UF membranes. In view of this, an attempt is made to investigate the effect of Al2O3 particles as modifier for PES/CA blend UF membranes. PES has repeating phenylene rings which enhance physical and mechanical stability. However, the use of PES for aqueous phase is restricted due to its hydrophobicity and may be improved by modification of PES, through blending.

In recent years, organic–inorganic composite membranes where inorganic particles are dispersed inside organic (polymer) membrane matrix have been of great interest due to their intrinsic advantages over pure polymeric–inorganic membranes [15]. These membranes are often called mixed-matrix membranes. In these mixed-matrix membranes, membrane materials involve various fundamental tasks, such as polymer-chain rigidity, free volume, and the altered interface which influences transport of solutes through the membrane [16]. In studies of organic–inorganic membranes, the mineral fillers used are mainly silica, zirconia, titanium (IV) oxide, bentonite, aerosil, carbon, clay, zeolite, and alumina [17–23].

Bottino et al. [17] prepared and characterized the novel organic–inorganic composite membranes by adding fine silica particles in the porous matrix of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF). According to Bottino et al. [18], incorporation of inorganic particles into polymer materials leads to increased membrane permeability and control of membrane-surface properties. Genne et al. [19] prepared a PSf/ZrO2 composite membrane and reported that the permeability increases and the rejection of dextran decreases upon addition of increasing amounts of ZrO2 to the membrane casting solution. Oh et al. [20] modified the surfaces of UF membranes by dispersing nano-sized titanium (IV) oxide (TiO2) particles in a PVDF solution. Finken [21] reported the incorporation of modified bentonite into casting solutions of cellulose di acetate/cellulose tri acetate blend membranes. Adoor et al. [22] fabricated poly(vinyl alcohol)-based mixed-matrix membranes loaded with 5 and 10 wt % of sodium montmorillonite (Na + MMT) clay particles by solvent casting method. Qiu et al. [23] developed UF membrane by blending PSf and functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) with different compositions dissolved in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) using a classical phase inversion method. It was found that the MWNT’s concentration was an important factor influencing the morphology and permeation properties of the blend membranes.

Fe3O4 as a mineral filler was recently investigated by Jian et al. [24], to improve the UF performance of PSf membrane. Yan et al. [16] prepared PVDF/nano-sized alumina membranes by phase inversion process and characterized the membranes by UF experiments in terms of water flux and molecular weight cutoff, and reported that water flux and surface hydrophilicity increased by adding the hydrophilic inorganic nano-sized Al2O3 particles. Further, Maximous et al. [25] investigated the effect of Al2O3 nanoparticles on the membrane fouling characteristics by preparing membranes from casting dopes with different weight ratios (0.01, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2) of Al2O3 to PES. In this investigation, an attempt has been made to prepare PES/CA blend UF membranes composed of Al2O3 particles using phase inversion process. The effects of the addition of Al2O3 particles to PES/CA blend polymer on the membrane properties were investigated by examining the UF performances such as pure water flux, pore size distribution, membrane resistance, and morphological structure.

2.2 EXPERIMENTAL

2.2.1 Materials

Commercial-grade PES (Gafone 3300) was obtained as a gift sample from Gharda Chemicals Pvt., Ltd (India) and was used as supplied. Commercial grade MYCEL Cellulose Acetate CDA 5770 (acetyl content 39.99 wt %) was procured from Mysore Acetate and Chemicals Company Ltd., India. DMF from Qualigens Fine Chemicals, Glaxo India Ltd. was sieved through molecular sieves (Type-4 Å ) to remove moisture and stored in dry conditions prior to use. Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) of analar grade was obtained from Qualigens Fine Chemicals Ltd., India and was used as surfactant. The commercial Al2O3 particle in the average particle size of 100 µm was obtained from SRL India Ltd. Proteins, viz, bovine serum albumin (69 kDa), pepsin (35 kDa), and trypsin (20 kDa) were purchased for the measurement of the pore size distribution from SRL Pvt. Ltd., India. Egg albumin (45 kDa) was obtained from CDH Ltd., India.

2.2.2 Preparation of Solution Blend of Polymers

The PES and CA polymers were first dissolved in DMF at a total polymer concentration of 20 wt % and then thoroughly mixed with the Al2O3 particles under constant mechanical stirring at a moderate speed of rotation in a round bottom flask for 3–4 hours at 40°C. Special care was taken to ensure homogeneous dispersion of the Al2O3 particles. The homogeneous solution obtained was allowed to stand for at least 3 hours in an airtight condition to get rid of air bubbles. A series of such polymer solutions were prepared by varying the composition of PES/CA with an increment of Al2O3 particles, as shown in Table 2.1. It has been shown that the introduction of CA beyond 25% in the total polymer composition (20 wt %) of PES/CA resulted in heterogeneous solution leading to phase separation during membrane formation. Hence, we selected an optimum of 25% of CA in the PES/CA blend composition and introduced 10, 20, and 30% of Al2O3 particles into PES/CA blend by reducing the composition of PES as 70, 60, and 50%, respectively.

TABLE 2.1. Compositions of PES/CA Membrane with Different Concentrations of Al2O3 Particles

Membrane casting conditions: casting solution temperature 42 ± 2°C; casting temperature 25 ± 1°C; casting relative humidity 50 ± 2%; solvent evaporation time 30 seconds.

2.2.3 Membrane Preparation

UF membranes were prepared by dry-wet phase inversion technique from PES/CA/DMF solution blended with Al2O3 particles. The polymer solution was poured over a smooth glass plate and spread with a film applicator with side runners to produce 0.22 mm thickness of the membrane. The casting environment, namely, relative humidity (50%) and temperature (25°C), were standardized and maintained for the preparation of membranes with better physical properties such as homogeneity, thickness, and morphology. The nonsolvent of DMF/SLS was prepared from 2 L water consisting of 2.5% (v/v) DMF and 0.2 wt % SLS in distilled water and was maintained to 4°C. The solvent was evaporated at 30 seconds in the casting chamber and then the glass plate along with the polymer film was immersed in the nonsolvent bath. The wet phase inversion was carried out by immersing the polymer film into a nonsolvent bath containing water and SLS/DMF mixture as nonsolvents. The formed membranes were eventually peeled from the glass plate and after the gelation, membranes were stored at 5°C in distilled water until they were tested. Every membrane sheet was inspected with a lightbox to detect defects, such as thin spots and pinholes, and defective membranes were discarded. Prepared membranes (76 mm diameter) were cut from the flat sheets for the UF experiments.

2.2.4 Experimental Setup

The UF experiments were carried out in a 400 mL batch type stirred cell (UF cell XFUF 076 01, Millipore, India) fitted with a Teflon-coated magnetic paddle. The effective membrane area available for UF was 38.5 cm2. The feed solution or pure water filled in the cell was stirred at 400 rpm using a magnetic stirrer. All the experiments were carried out at 30 ± 2°C and compaction at 414 kPa transmembrane pressure while other permeation studies were at 345 kPa transmembrane pressure. The pure water was collected from the bottom of the cell.

2.3 MEMBRANE CHARACTERIZATION

2.3.1 Pure Water Flux

Membranes were subjected to pure water flux estimation at a transmembrane pressure of 414 kPa. The permeability was measured under steady-state flow. The pure water flux was calculated using Equation 2.1:

(2.1)

where Q is the quantity of permeate collected (L), Jw is water flux (Lm−2/h), T is the sampling time (h), and A is the membrane area (m2).

2.3.2 Water Content

The membranes were soaked in water for 24 hours and weighed after mopping with blotting paper. These wet membranes were placed in a vacuum oven at 75°C for 48 hours, and the dry weights were determined. From these two values, the percent water content was derived using Equation 2.2:

(2.2)

2.3.3 Membrane Resistance (Rm)

To determine membrane resistance (Rm), the pure water flux of membranes was measured at different transmembrane pressures (ΔP) namely at 69, 138, 207, 276, 345, and 414 kPa. The resistance of the membrane was evaluated from the slope of water flux versus transmembrane pressure difference (ΔP) plot, using Equation 2.3:

(2.3)

2.3.4 Pore Size Distribution

The pore size distribution was determined using the protein solutions of different molecular weights. From the feed and permeate concentrations, the percentage rejection was calculated using the equation reported in the literature [8, 10]. The molecular weight of the solute that has a solute rejection (SR) above 80% was used to evaluate the average pore size, , of the membranes by the following equation [26]:

(2.4)

where is the average pore size (radius) of the membrane (Å), and α is the average solute radius (Å). The average solute radii, also known as the Stoke radii, were obtained from the plot of solute molecular weight versus solute radius in aqueous solution, which was developed by Sarbolouki [26].

The surface porosity, ε, of the membrane was calculated by the orifice model given below, assuming that only the skin layer of the membrane is effective in separation [27]:

(2.5)

where ε is the surface porosity; ηw is the viscosity of the deionized water (g/cm s); Jw is the pure water flux (cm/s), and ΔP is the applied pressure (dyn/cm2). From the values of ε and (cm), the pore density in the membrane surface was calculated using Equation 2.6:

(2.6)

where n is number of pores/cm2.

2.3.5 Morphological Studies

The top surface and cross section of membranes with 75/25% of PES/CA blend and Al2O3 in 10 and 30% were studied with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Hitachi S-3000H, Japan). The membranes were cut into pieces of various sizes and mopped with filter paper. These samples were gold sputtered for producing electric conductivity, and photomicrographs were taken in very high vacuum conditions operating between 15 and 25 kV.

2.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

2.4.1 Effect of Al2O3 Concentration on

Pure water permeation experiments are one of the most important methods for finding the permeability of the membranes. Pure water flux is affected by membrane formation variables such as nonsolvent condition, gelation bath temperature, and solvent evaporation time. After compaction of the membranes for 4–5 hours at 414 kPa, the membranes were studied their water permeability under 345 kPa. The pure water flux of all the membranes was measured after an initial stabilization period of 30–60 minutes, and the results are presented in Table 2.2. The pure PES membrane showed a low flux of 5.98 L/m2/h. The pure CA membrane exhibited a pure water flux value of 29.87 L/m2/h. It can be clearly observed that the hydrophilic membrane (CA) experienced a higher flux compared to the hydrophobic membrane (PES). This observation indicates that membrane properties, especially hydrophilicity, play an important role in the UF process. The continuation of sulfonyl groups with ring structure provides stiffness as well as dense structure, relative hydrophobicity, and high thermal stability [28], which led to a low flux of the pure water. The high hydrophobicity of membranes could also lead to adsorption of molecules on the membrane surface [29, 30]. When CA is blended with PES, the pure water flux increases to 33.87 L/m2/h. On the other hand, the CA membrane has carbonyl groups (C=O), stretching, which appear as hydrophilic branches in the structure. In contrast, the CA membranes have two or more hydroxyl groups. In the present work, Al2O3 particle was added into PES/CA blend casting solution playing the role of membrane surface modifier. PES/CA/Al2O3 blend membranes prepared from 30% of Al2O3 have considerably higher flux compared to all the other membranes studied. The results indicate that the pure water flux of PES/CA (75/25%) blend membranes can be increased by the addition of increasinvg Al2O3 concentration from 10% to 30% in place of CA. Further, its hydrophilicity can be improved due to the addition of Al2O3 particles, which have some characteristics such as hydrophilic and bigger surface area [31]. Thus, water fluxes were increased. It was reported that the membrane performance was influenced by the formation of pores on the surface, and the pore formation was affected by the interfacial intension between solvent/nonsolvent mixtures and the polymer matrix [32]. When the coagulation bath was used as SLS/DMF mixture, the pure water flux of all the prepared membranes was improved substantially. The explanation for this improving trend could be ascribed to the diffusion rate of the solvent–nonsolvent (here the effect of DMF/SLS) and the increase of the Al2O3 particle concentration in the casting solution. Genne et al. [19] reported that on adding small amount of inorganic ZrO2 particles into PSf polymer, the permeability was increased. Sikder et al. [33] studied the effect of pure water flux on CA/PSf blend MF membranes by using water and glycerin–water mixture as a nonsolvent in the membrane formation.

TABLE 2.2. Pure Water Flux of PES/CA Membrane with Different Concentrations of Al2O3 Particles at 414 kPa

2.4.2 Effect of Al2O3 Concentration on Water Content

Water content is a vital parameter in membrane characterization as it is closely related to porosity of membranes. Water content of the formed membranes was calculated as shown in Table 2.3. It is seen that the water contents of the PES/CA membranes with addition of Al2O3 particles are higher than that of the neat PES membrane. Further, the water content was increased with an increase of Al2O3 amount in the PES/CA blend. When concentration of Al2O3 was increased from 10% to 30% in the PES/CA blend, water content increased from 82.1% to 86%. This increasing trend confirms the presence of increasing number of pores in the membrane with the increase of Al2O3 amount. The hydrophilic and porous properties of Al2O3