Sustainable Separation Engineering E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Sustainable Separation Engineering Explore an insightful collection of resources exploring conventional and emerging materials and techniques for separations In Sustainable Separation Engineering: Materials, Techniques and Process Development, a team of distinguished chemical engineers delivers a comprehensive discussion of the latest trends in sustainable separation engineering. Designed to facilitate understanding and knowledge transfer between materials scientists and chemical engineers, the book is beneficial for scientists, practitioners, technologists, and industrial managers. Written from a sustainability perspective, the status and need for more emphasis on sustainable separations in the chemical engineering curriculum is highlighted. The accomplished editors have included contributions that explore a variety of conventional and emerging materials and techniques for efficient separations, as well as the prospects for the use of artificial intelligence in separation science and technology. Case studies round out the included material, discussing a broad range of separation applications, like battery recycling, carbon sequestration, and biofuel production. This edited volume also provides: * Thorough introductions to green materials for sustainable separations, as well as advanced materials for sustainable oil and water separation * Comprehensive explorations of the recycling of lithium batteries and ionic liquids for sustainable separation processes * Practical discussions of carbon sequestration, the recycling of polymer materials, and AI for the development of separation materials and processes * In-depth examinations of membranes for sustainable separations, green extraction processes, and adsorption processes for sustainable separations Perfect for academic and industrial researchers interested in the green and sustainable aspects of separation science, Sustainable Separation Engineering: Materials, Techniques and Process Development is an indispensable resource for chemical engineers, materials scientists, polymer scientists, and renewable energy professionals.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Volume I
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Electrochemically Mediated Sustainable Separations in Water
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Separation Processes
1.3 Electrochemical Theory
1.4 Electrochemical Separation Methods
1.5 Conventional Electrochemical Separation Methods
1.6 Electrochemically Mediated Sustainable Separation Methods
1.7 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
2 Green and Sustainable Extraction of High‐Value Compounds: Protein from Food Supply Chain Waste
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Protein Extraction Methods from Waste: Current Trends and Perspectives
2.3 Final Considerations
References
3 Separation Processes for Sustainable Produced Water Treatment and Management
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Produced Water Treatment Technologies
3.3 New Directions for Produced Water Treatment – Toward Sustainable Produced Water Management
Acknowledgments
References
4 Applications of Ultrasound in Separation Processes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sonocrystallization
4.3 Application of US in Extraction
4.4 Membrane Cleaning and Filtration
4.5 Emulsion Breaking
4.6 Desorption of Resins
4.7 Separation of Azeotropic Mixtures
4.8 Ultrasonic Cleaning of Delicate Articles (Jewellery, Watches, Electronic Parts, and Optical Lenses)
4.9 Summary and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
5 The Role of Chemical Looping in Industrial Gas Separation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Case Studies
5.3 Potential for Process Intensification, Sustainability, and Challenges
5.4 Conclusion
References
6 Flow Technologies for Efficient Separations
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Background on Flow Chemistry
6.3 Typical Methods for Flow Separation
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 Sustainable Features of Centrifugal Partition Chromatography
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Centrifugal Partition Chromatography
7.3 Strategies for Making CPC‐Based Separation Processes Sustainable
7.4 Conclusions and Future Trends
Abbreviations
References
8 Liquid Membrane Technology for Sustainable Separations
8.1 Introduction to Liquid Membrane (LM) Technology
8.2 Fundamental Aspects of Liquid Membranes
8.3 Sustainable Separations with Liquid Membranes
8.4 Conclusions
References
9 Membrane‐Enabled Sustainable Biofuel Production
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Novel Approaches for Biomass Selection, Pretreatment, and Utilization
9.3 Traditional Routes for the Production of Biofuels (Biodiesel)
9.4 Traditional Downstream Purification (DSP) of Biodiesel
9.5 Membrane‐Based Technologies for Biodiesel Production
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 Janus Membranes for Water Purification and Gas Separation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Nexus Between Membrane Materials Science and Interfacial Science
10.3 Janus Membrane Materials
10.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Volume 2
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
11 Adsorption Processes for Seawater Desalination
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Adsorption Theory and Modeling
11.3 Application of Adsorption in Water Treatment
11.4 Conclusion
References
12 Sustainable Distillation Processes
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sustainable Distillation for Single Splits
12.3 Sustainable Multiproduct Distillation Processes
12.4 Separation of Close‐Boiling and Azeotropic Mixtures
12.5 Summary
References
13 Recovery of Solvents and Fine Chemicals
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Challenge
13.3 Waste Minimization and Solvent Recovery
13.4 Distillation Process for Recovery of Solvent and Fine Chemicals
13.5 Adsorption Method for Recovery of Waste Organic Solvents
13.6 Membrane Technology in Solvent Recovery
References
14 Toward Green Extraction Processes
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Green Extraction Processes
14.3 Green Solvents: Selection and Application in Extractions
14.4 Case Studies Related to Zero Waste, Low Carbon Emission, Clean Label, and Other Sustainable Values
14.5 Conclusion and Future Trends
Acknowledgments
References
15 Cellulose Nanofibers for Sustainable Separations
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Synthesis, Properties, and Application of NOCNF
15.3 Preparation, Characterization, and Application of Nanocellulose‐derived TFNC Membrane
15.4 Preparation, Characterization, and Applications of Cationic Dialdehyde Cellulose (c‐DAC)
15.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
16 Recycling of Lithium Batteries
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The Lithium Battery Recycling Industry
16.3 Toward Zero‐Emission Lithium Battery Recycling
16.4 Outlook and Perspectives
Author ORCID information
Conflict of Interest
References
17 Deep Eutectic Solvents for Sustainable Separation Processes
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES)
17.3 Scope of the Chapter
17.4 Extraction and Separation of Aromatic Compounds from Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
17.5 Extraction and Separation of Bioactive Compounds
17.6 Extraction and Separation of Metals
17.7 Conclusions
Abbreviations
Acknowledgments
References
18 Microfluidic Platforms for Cell Sorting
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Passive Microfluidic Cell Sorting Systems
18.3 Active Microfluidic Cell Sorting Systems
18.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
19 Sustainable Separations Using Organic Solvent Nanofiltration
19.1 Introduction to Organic Solvent Nanofiltration
19.2 Green Membrane Materials for Organic Solvent Nanofiltration
19.3 Green Organic Solvent Nanofiltration Processes
19.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
20 Sustainable Separations in the Chemical Engineering Curriculum
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Current Approaches to Teaching Separations
20.3 Current Approaches to Teaching Sustainability
20.4 Perspective, Future Directions, and Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Electrochemical separation methods.
Table 1.2 Applications of traditional and augmented electrodialysis process...
Table 1.3 Applications of electrocoagulation processes.
Table 1.4 Applications of electrodeposition processes.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Overview of FSCW of plants in recent (2010–2020) studies, accordi...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Typical physical and chemical properties of oil and gas field pro...
Table 3.2 Typical concentrations of inorganic ions in oil and gas field pro...
Table 3.3 Injection water quality characterization.
Table 3.4 Particle size removal capabilities.
Table 3.5 Comparison of IGF and DGF.
Table 3.6 Summary of de‐oiling/degassing/filtration technologies for each c...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 US‐assisted extraction of commercially important biomolecules.
Table 4.2 Effect of US frequency on membrane filtration.
Table 4.3 Effect of US intensity on membrane filtration.
Table 4.4 Effect of filtration pressure on US‐assisted membrane filtration....
Table 4.5 Effect of temperature on US‐assisted membrane filtration.
Table 4.6 Summary of effect of US parameters on membrane filtration and cle...
Table 4.7 Cavitation‐assisted demulsification.
Table 4.8 Cavitation‐assisted desorption.
Table 4.9 Application of US in the separation of different azeotropic mixtu...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Advantages and limitations of the three carbon capture approaches...
Table 5.2 Major developments in chemical looping technology.
Table 5.3 Comparing the two modes of reducer operation in a CLC process.
Table 5.4 Summary of different scaled‐up calcium looping processes for sele...
Table 5.5 Comparison amongst different air separation technologies.
Table 5.6 Minimum decomposition temperature and oxygen transport capacity (...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Theoretical estimations of the extraction efficiency for differen...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Comprehensive summary of commercially available CPC instruments....
Table 7.2 Commonly used classical solvent systems and green alternatives in...
Table 7.3 The CHEM21 selection guide, combining previous ranking guides for...
Table 7.4 Physicochemical properties of
n
‐heptane, methanol, and their green...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Strengths and limitations of the three main liquid membrane config...
Table 8.2 Summary of recent liquid membrane studies for the recovery of com...
Table 8.3 Summary of recent liquid membrane studies for the recovery of amin...
Table 8.4 Summary of recent liquid membrane studies for wastewater treatment...
Table 8.5 Summary of recent liquid membrane studies for the removal of heavy...
Table 8.6 Summary of recent liquid membrane studies for nuclear waste treatm...
Table 8.7 Summary of recent liquid membrane studies for the recovery of RE ...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 The properties of biodiesel as international standards as suggeste...
Table 9.2 Advantages of membrane‐based DSP during biodiesel production in co...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Summary of Janus membrane performance for oil/water separation.
Table 10.2 Comparison of NF, RO, FO, and MD processes [46, 124, 128–130].
Table 10.3 Separation performance of Janus NF membranes.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Process and geometrical specifications of the pilot MEDAD hybrid ...
Table 11.2 States of streams for an evaporative crystallizer.
Table 11.3 States of streams for an evaporative crystallizer integrated with...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Overall constraints for optimization of conventional distillatio...
Table 13.2 Binary interaction parameters of UNIQUAC‐HOC used in simulation....
Table 13.3 Energy and economic performances of the process configurations s...
Table 13.4 Optimization result for a simpler route.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Metrics of interest for green extraction processes.
Table 14.2 Crude oil yield obtained from Soxhlet extraction, accelerated so...
Table 14.3 Crude extract (%) and brazilin content obtained using maceration...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 CHNS elemental analysis result of Delig_SC and c‐DAC [46].
Table 15.2 Calculated Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm model parameters est...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Economic analysis for recycling 1 tonne of spent LFP batteries i...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Equation of selectivity, capacity, and performance index at infi...
Table 17.2 Distribution coefficients (D) of metal cations and chloride anio...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Some of the commonly used chemicals and materials in OSN membran...
Table 19.2 The latest research on green TFC and TFN membrane fabrications f...
Table 19.3 Chemical structures of commonly used polymers for OSN membrane f...
Table 19.4 The latest research on green MMM and ISA membrane fabrications f...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Some Separations as classified by the general method.
Table 20.2 Sectoral breakdown of EU‐28 chemical sales in 2018. Base, specia...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Visual representations of the (a) Helmholtz, (b) Gouy‐Chapman, an...
Figure 1.2 Examples of direct approaches for electrochemical separation: (a)...
Figure 1.3 A conventional electrodialysis stack setup.
Figure 1.4 The shock electrodialysis process as depicted in two different fl...
Figure 1.5 (a) A cationic EIX process for reversible copper anion removal vi...
Figure 1.6 Setup and operation of a typical two‐electrode electrocoagulation...
Figure 1.7 (a) EMAR cycle for the reversible complexation of copper and CO
2
...
Figure 1.8 A desalination battery framework for chloride anion removal via t...
Figure 1.9 The electrochemical ion separation processes of (a) CDI,(b) F...
Figure 1.10 An electrochemically mediated binding process for the reversible...
Figure 1.11 Proposed structural changes for describing the variation in elec...
Figure 1.12 (a) A solution process for the preparation of conductive PVFc‐CN...
Figure 1.13 (a) DFT‐optimized structure of the ferrocenium‐chromate ion pair...
Figure 1.14 (a) Electrochemically mediated reversible reaction between anthr...
Figure 1.15 (a) Examples of conducting polymers and (b) the electrochemical ...
Figure 1.16 (a) Crystalline structure of NiHCF with vacant A sites for catio...
Figure 1.17 (a) A hybrid organic–inorganic α‐ZrP/PANI redox‐active composite...
Figure 1.18 (a) An asymmetric PVFc//NiHCF scheme that leverages dual redox‐a...
Figure 1.19 Electrochemically mediated binding schemes for heterogeneous sep...
Figure 1.20 (a) Hybrid PVFc/PPy material for ETAS via the redox activity of ...
Figure 1.21 Electrochemical reactive separation processes for (a) simultaneo...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Scheme of proposed circularity in FSC applying biorefinery concep...
Figure 2.2 The main groups of compounds obtainable from FSCW, its applicatio...
Figure 2.3 The four protein structures.
Figure 2.4 Cell disruption method classification: conventional and novel tec...
Figure 2.5 Conventional extraction method mechanisms.
Figure 2.6 Mechanisms behind novel protein extraction techniques.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Conventional and unconventional oil and gas wells. Not to scale....
Figure 3.2 Water life cycle for unconventional oil and gas production.
Figure 3.3 Characterization of produced water.
Figure 3.4 Current strategies for produced water management.
Figure 3.5 Process for produced water treatment by removal of dispersed/susp...
Figure 3.6 Typical onshore oil and gas production facility with two stages (...
Figure 3.7 Typical offshore oil and gas production facility with three stage...
Figure 3.8 API separator.
Figure 3.9 Water–oil separator (WOSEP) vessel. IPPT – intermediate pressure ...
Figure 3.10 CFD simulation of produced water flow in a WOSEP illustrated by ...
Figure 3.11 Schematic diagram of the process of oil removal and silt removal...
Figure 3.12 Corrugated plate impactor (CPI) oil–water separator.
Figure 3.13 Typical Gunbarrel settling tank.
Figure 3.14 Operating principle of the de‐oiling hydrocyclone represented in...
Figure 3.15 De‐oiling hydrocyclone unit with multiple liners.
Figure 3.16 Schematic diagram of a mechanical‐type IGF cell.Milton Beych...
Figure 3.17 Schematic diagram of a hydraulic‐type IGF unit.
Figure 3.18 Vertical dissolved gas flotation system [71].
Figure 3.19 Horizontal dissolved gas flotation system [71].
Figure 3.20 Compact flotation column.
Figure 3.21 Coalescer with resin media bed for produced water treatment.
Figure 3.22 Nutshell filter operation (top) and backwash cycle (bottom).
Figure 3.23 Ceramic nanofiltration (NF) membrane elements with 559 channels ...
Figure 3.24 CFD simulation of a membrane filtration process illustrating the...
Figure 3.25 Technologies for oil and suspended solids removal and the oil re...
Figure 3.26 Mechanical vapor compression (MVC) process for desalination.
Figure 3.27 The most common membrane distillation (MD) system designs.
Figure 3.28 Different membrane types and their separation characteristics....
Figure 3.29 Produced water management challenges for reuse outside the oil a...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Application of US in different separation processes, operating pa...
Figure 4.2 Typical solubility diagram showing solubility as a function of te...
Figure 4.3 NaCl crystals made in anti‐solvent crystallization using mixing (...
Figure 4.4 US‐assisted membrane filtration and cleaning (a) membrane filtrat...
Figure 4.5 Application of US in the cleaning of delicate articles (a) US bat...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Sector‐wise industrial energy consumption in the United States in...
Figure 5.2 Cost‐effectiveness and preparedness of the different CO
2
capture ...
Figure 5.3 Generic configuration of (a) Redox chemical looping and (b) Calci...
Figure 5.4 Different chemical looping schemes using varied looping media for...
Figure 5.5 Post‐combustion CO
2
capture using monoethanolamine (MEA)‐based ab...
Figure 5.6 (a) Schematic representation of a CLC process and (b) heat integr...
Figure 5.7 (a) Design 1 (fluidized bed) and (b) Design 2 (packed moving bed)...
Figure 5.8 CLC process enhancement for (a) hydrogen production and (b) liqui...
Figure 5.9 A schematic illustrating the process flow in the Fischer–Tropsch ...
Figure 5.10 Schematic of the 3‐step carbonation–calcination reaction (CCR) p...
Figure 5.11 Reaction scheme of the CCR process depicting the hydration‐assis...
Figure 5.12 Schematic of the chemical looping air separation (CLAS) process ...
Figure 5.13 EPP of O
2
as a function of temperature.
Figure 5.14 Reducer steam demand as a function of temperature.
Figure 5.15 Simplified flow diagram for chemical looping‐assisted H
2
S splitt...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Flow adsorption using silica cartridge in different flow synthesi...
Figure 6.2 Silica gel cartridge was used to catch amine products during the ...
Figure 6.3 Two main flow purification strategies via the use of functionaliz...
Figure 6.4 A diagram of countercurrent multistage extraction.
Figure 6.5 A drawing of a membrane separator with an integrated mechanical c...
Figure 6.6 Zaiput
®
membrane separators for different flow capacities. ...
Figure 6.7 Sketch of how a membrane‐based separator deals with emulsions. Pr...
Figure 6.8 A platform of countercurrent extraction (five‐stage) enabled by m...
Figure 6.9 An example of mixer‐settler (1) agitation motor, (2) mixing chamb...
Figure 6.10 A cascade of mixer‐settlers for multistage purification.
Figure 6.11 A milli‐structured, stirred‐pulsed column for intensified contin...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Number of publications by year for the search terms “chromatograp...
Figure 7.2 Different commercially available cell types utilized in CPC instr...
Figure 7.3 Typical workflow of a CPC separation process presenting possible ...
Figure 7.4 Chemical structures of green solvents and additives utilized in C...
Figure 7.5 Demonstrating high similarity between ternary plots of Limonene/M...
Figure 7.6 Typical phase diagram of eutectic solvents. Mp stands for melting...
Figure 7.7 Process diagram of the recirculation of CCC mobile phases using O...
Figure 7.8 Schematic representation of the purification of five phenolic com...
Figure 7.9 Schematic representation of the solvent system recirculation proc...
Figure 7.10 General scheme of the industrial‐scale implementation of the des...
Figure 7.11 Biomass waste transformation into its different uses and product...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Fields where liquid membranes (LMs) are applied and main features...
Figure 8.2 Liquid membrane system scheme.
Figure 8.3 Main liquid membrane configurations. (a) Bulk liquid membrane; (b...
Figure 8.4 Other liquid membrane arrangement schemes: (a) Taylor flow LM; (b...
Figure 8.5 Solute chemical potential,
μ
i
/kJ/mol, profile through a liqu...
Figure 8.6 Solute concentration,
C
i
/mol/m
3
, profile through a liquid membra...
Figure 8.7 Transport mechanisms in liquid membrane: (a) simple transport; (b...
Figure 8.8 Schematic typical behavior in the LM extraction process: (a) phas...
Figure 8.9 Total liquid membrane publications’ number per year given by the ...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Schematic diagram of two‐phase membrane reactor [78].
Figure 9.2 Schematic diagram of the experimental set‐up of hollow fiber memb...
Figure 9.3 Experimental set‐up of rectangular configuration membrane cell in...
Figure 9.4 Schematic diagram of a multichannel tubular type ceramic membrane...
Figure 9.5 Experimental set‐up of semi‐batch filtration of the dead‐end‐type...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Water purification membranes vs. pore size: MF, UF, NF, and RO....
Figure 10.2 (a) Surfaces with various wettability,(b) schematic diagrams...
Figure 10.3 Schematic diagram of a membrane separating oil‐in‐water emulsion...
Figure 10.4 Switchable transport membranes: water‐removal vs. oil‐removal mo...
Figure 10.5 Janus membranes exhibiting switchable transport. (a) “A to B” co...
Figure 10.6 Force analysis of an oil droplet on (a) thick and (b) thin oleop...
Figure 10.7 Image of oil (petroleum ether, dyed red) collection experiments ...
Figure 10.8 Ion rejection mechanism by a Janus polyamide (PA) membrane prepa...
Figure 10.9 Three membranes used in MD. (a) Hydrophobic membrane, (b) Hydrop...
Figure 10.10 CO
2
/CH
4
separation performance of Janus nanomembranes based on ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Desalination technology market shares [16–18].
Figure 11.2 Complex heterogeneous porous surface.
Figure 11.3 Comparison of predicted isotherms with experimental measurements...
Figure 11.4 (a) The schematic of a four‐bed adsorption desalination and cool...
Figure 11.5 The temperature profiles of the major component of the TSAD cycl...
Figure 11.6 Water production rate of a 4‐bed TSAD desalination plant.
Figure 11.7 Freshwater productivity of adsorption desalination at different ...
Figure 11.8 Schematic diagram of the designed TVC‐AD.
Figure 11.9 Temperature profiles of adsorbent beds in PS‐AD cycle.
Figure 11.10 Pressure profiles of adsorbent beds in the PS‐AD cycle.
Figure 11.11 Distillate productivity in the PS‐AD cycle.
Figure 11.12 Temperature profiles of the chilled water in the evaporator.
Figure 11.13 The conventional MED system [43].
Figure 11.14 Four effect MED and AD hybrid system schematic.
Figure 11.15 Pilot MEDAD hybrid plant installed at KAUST.
Figure 11.16 Temperature trend of MEDAD systems.
Figure 11.17 Water production at different heat source temperatures.
Figure 11.18 Rationale thermodynamic limit‐based comparison of different des...
Figure 11.19 Schematic of a zero‐liquid‐discharge desalination system.
Figure 11.20 Schematic of an evaporative crystallizer.
Figure 11.21 Evaporative crystallization process in the temperature‐solubili...
Figure 11.22 Schematic of an evaporative crystallizer integrated with adsorp...
Figure 11.23 Recirculation flowrate under different vapor temperatures at a ...
Figure 11.24 Recirculation flowrate under different feed brine salinities at...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Illustration of simple flash distillation (left) and respective ...
Figure 12.2 Illustration of countercurrent multistage distillation (top) and...
Figure 12.3 Illustration of technological maturity and application of fluid ...
Figure 12.4 Illustration of binary distillation of low boiling component A a...
Figure 12.5 Concept of a mechanically driven heat pump (left), a vapor‐compr...
Figure 12.6 Selected major concepts for heat pump‐assisted distillation: (a)...
Figure 12.7 Illustration of the HIDiC concept: (a) HIDiC with separate strip...
Figure 12.8 Illustration of the process flow diagram (left) and an image of ...
Figure 12.9 Illustration of basic distillation configurations and side‐strea...
Figure 12.10 Illustration of direct split sequence without (left) and with h...
Figure 12.11 Illustration of direct heat integration options for the separat...
Figure 12.12 Illustration of heat integration for the direct split sequence ...
Figure 12.13 Transformation of the simple sloppy split to the corresponding ...
Figure 12.14 Exemplary
V
min
diagram for a ternary separation [102].
Figure 12.15 Derivation of the fully thermally coupled LOT configuration and...
Figure 12.16 Illustration of prominent four‐product DWC: (a) Kaibel or 2–4 c...
Figure 12.17 Heat pump‐assisted extractive DWC with an intermediate reboiler...
Figure 12.18 Exemplary process flow sheets for extractive distillation (left...
Figure 12.19 Residue curve map (left) and pseudo binary equilibrium curve (r...
Figure 12.20 Illustration of the results of an optimization‐based design of ...
Figure 12.21 Heteroazeotropic distillation process (left) and Gibbs triangle...
Figure 12.22 Total annualized costs (TAC) for the optimized processes for th...
Figure 12.23 General process flow sheet of a liquid–liquid extraction–distil...
Figure 12.24: Minimum energy demand and minimum amount of solvent for 1439 v...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Number of articles per year with the keywords “solvent recovery”...
Figure 13.2 Modified direct distillation sequence of waste SR, where P is pr...
Figure 13.3 Recommended design, improved by heat integration and heat pump‐a...
Figure 13.4 Ternary map with direct sequence line for water + PGME + PGMEA i...
Figure 13.5 HA‐DWC (with and without thermal integration). The red‐dotted li...
Figure 13.6 The simpler sequence for separation of quaternary mixture HBM+PG...
Figure 13.7 Complete sequence of rigorous columns of the simpler route.
Figure 13.8 Schematic diagram of packed activated carbon fiber adsorption of...
Figure 13.9 Process schematic for the drying and recovery of the cathode sol...
Figure 13.10 Schematic process scheme for the continuous isolation of OR fro...
Figure 13.11 Process of THF recovery through CVD‐PV.
Figure 13.12 OSFO process for organic SR and product concentration.
Figure 13.13 Schematic piping and instrumentation diagram for the continuous...
Figure 13.14 Economic sustainability for waste (left columns) and emitted CO
Figure 13.15 Process configuration and conditions for the start‐up (a) and c...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 A great example is given in overview in the JRC report “
Mapping
...
Figure 14.2 Development from conventional to alternative solvents based on g...
Figure 14.3 The COSMO‐RS schematic diagram: (a) the transformation of the 2D...
Figure 14.4 Comparison of the percentage oil yield and percentage oil recove...
Figure 14.5 Schematic representation of the HPH treatment of tomato peel sus...
Figure 14.6 Schematics of the total use of HPH‐treated agri‐food residues.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 (a) FTIR of untreated jute fibers and extracted NOCNF (Copyright...
Figure 15.2 (a) Photograph showing the pure lead acetate solution (109,000 p...
Figure 15.3 (a) Photographs of two samples, left: solution of cadmium nitrat...
Figure 15.4 (a) Photographs of a 0.02 wt% uranyl acetate solution (2120 ppm)...
Figure 15.5 (a) TEM image of the floc formed between the interactions of NOC...
Figure 15.6 (a) Membrane zeta potential values of the 0.85 DO, 1.35 DO, and ...
Figure 15.7 Fouling and flux recovery behavior of a commercial PVDF membrane...
Figure 15.8 Schematic illustration for the synthesis of c‐DAC adsorbent/coag...
Figure 15.9 SEM images, corresponding EDX spectra and TEM images of c‐DAC ad...
Figure 15.10 FTIR spectra of Delig_SC, DAC, and c‐DAC and the enlarged regio...
Figure 15.11 Cr(VI) isotherm adsorption by c‐DAC adsorbent and the correlati...
Figure 15.12 The effect of the zeta potential on the adsorption of Cr(VI) as...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Citizens of Endicott, State of New York, protesting against a ne...
Scheme 16.1 Material recovery with the Duesenfeld recycling process.
Scheme 16.2 Flowsheet of the process for treating entire spent LiFePO
4
batte...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 The 12 principles of Green Chemistry proposed by Paul Anastas an...
Figure 17.2 Schematic representation of deep eutectic solvent formation. An ...
Figure 17.3 Structure of some HBA (e.g. halide salts) and HBD used in the pr...
Figure 17.4 Tie‐lines for ternary mixtures of: (a)
n
‐heptane + toluene + [Ch...
Figure 17.5 Influence on (a) selectivity S and (b) distribution ratio (D) fo...
Figure 17.6 Flow diagram of the proposed dearomatization process of reformer...
Figure 17.7 Separation of phenol from model oil by
in situ
DES formation ([C...
Figure 17.8 Phenol extraction efficiencies by
in situ
DES formation with [Ch...
Figure 17.9 Integrated desulfurization and denitrogenation process using DES...
Figure 17.10 Comparison between single and simultaneous removal of thiophene...
Figure 17.11 Reusability of [TBP]Br:Sulf (1:4) in the extraction of thiophen...
Figure 17.12 Total extraction of phenolic compounds with: (a) Bet‐based DES;...
Figure 17.13 Scanning electron micrographs of mulberry leaves before (a) and...
Figure 17.14 A proposed process for ursolic acid extraction, separation, and...
Figure 17.15 Leaching efficiency of the goethite residue using different DES...
Figure 17.16 (a) XRD spectra and (b–d) SEM imagery of soil before and after ...
Figure 17.17 A proposed process for spent LIB recycling with DES.
Figure 17.18 Separation of Cu(II) (0.01 M, blue) from 0.1 M solution of Co(I...
Figure 17.19 The representation of gold extraction process with HDES based o...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 (a) First, PFF design is depicted. Depending on the size, partic...
Figure 18.2 (a) Different parameters important for DLD design. Lateral shift...
Figure 18.3 Schematic illustration of (a) membrane‐based, (b) weir‐based, an...
Figure 18.4 Inertial migration of particles in (a) straight circular, (b) sq...
Figure 18.5
(
a) Schematic illustration of traveling surface acoustic waves (...
Figure 18.6 (a) Utilizing a multistage acoustic microfluidic device for CTCs...
Figure 18.7 (a) Electrophoresis‐based separation of particles based on their...
Figure 18.8 (a) Using two frequencies for capturing and releasing polarizabl...
Figure 18.9 (a) Positive magnetophoresis manipulation of particles with intr...
Figure 18.10 (a) i: Using a long channel as a viscoelastic flow‐focusing mod...
Figure 18.11 (a) Particles are deflected if scattering forces exceed gradien...
Figure 18.12 (a) Using opposite impinging streams for reducing Stokes force ...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Filtration process by using a nanofiltration membrane. (a) Illus...
Figure 19.2 Schematic showing the typical configuration of a dead‐end cell....
Figure 19.3 Schematic showing the configuration of a cross‐flow cell.
Figure 19.4 Schematic showing concentration polarization during a filtration...
Figure 19.5 Three main green strategies to achieve a sustainable OSN membran...
Figure 19.6 Schematic showing the structure of (a) ISA membrane and (b) TFC ...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Search for “Chemical Engineering” articles through Web of Scienc...
Figure 20.2 Summary of named separation techniques listed by name in courses...
Figure 20.3 Approx. 4 m pilot‐scale absorption column based within the Depar...
Figure 20.4 Screenshot of LLTernary web‐app on which graphic methods can be ...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Volume 1
Sustainable Separation Engineering
Materials, Techniques and Process Development
Volume 1
Edited by
Gyorgy Szekely
KAUST
Advanced Membranes and Porous Materials Center
Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Dan Zhao
National University of Singapore
Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
Singapore, Singapore
This edition first published 2022© 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. All rights reserved.
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About the Editors
Gyorgy Szekely
Gyorgy Szekely received his MSc degree in Chemical Engineering from the Technical University of Budapest, Hungary. He subsequently earned his PhD degree in Chemistry from the Technical University of Dortmund, Germany, under Marie Curie Actions. Gyorgy worked as an Early Stage Researcher in the Pharmaceutical Research and Development Centre of Hovione PharmaScience Ltd. in Portugal and as an IAESTE Fellow at the University of Tokyo, Japan. He was a visiting researcher at Biotage MIP Technologies AB in Sweden. Gyorgy was a Postdoctoral Research Associate working with Prof. Andrew Livingston in Imperial College London, UK. He was appointed as a Lecturer in Chemical Engineering at The University of Manchester, UK, between 2014 and 2019, where he received the Distinguished Visiting Fellowship of the Royal Academy of Engineering. Gyorgy also served as an Adjunct Faculty Member at Saveetha University between 2016 and 2018. He is currently an Assistant Professor in Chemical Engineering at the Advanced Membranes & Porous Materials Center at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Saudi Arabia, and has been a Visiting Academic at The University of Manchester, 2019–2022. His multidisciplinary professional background covers green process engineering, green solvents and materials, continuous reactions, and membrane separations. He serves as an Academic Editor for the journals Advances in Polymer Technology, Advanced Materials Letters; as an Associate Editor for the Separation Processes section of Frontiers in Chemical Engineering; he is a member of the Editorial Advisory Board for ACS Applied Polymer Materials, and a member of the Early Career Editorial Board of the Journal of Membrane Science. He is a Member of the Royal Society of Chemistry and a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy in the UK. Gyorgy has been designing novel materials and processes for molecular level separations, which has resulted in several articles, industrial collaborations and consultancy works, books, patents, and invited keynote lectures. To learn more about Gyorgy, follow him on Twitter @SzekelyGroup and through his group's website at www.szekelygroup.com.
Dan Zhao
Dan Zhao received his MS degree in Polymer Chemistry and Physics from Zhejiang University, China. He went on to obtain his PhD degree in Chemistry (Inorganic Division) from Texas A&M University, USA, under Prof. Hong‐Cai Zhou in 2010. Following this, he worked with Dr. Di‐Jia Liu at Argonne National Laboratory as a Postdoctoral Fellow between 2010 and 2012. Dan was appointed as an Assistant Professor in Chemical Engineering at the National University of Singapore between 2012 and 2018, where he received multiple local and global accolades for his outstanding academic contributions and commendable teaching dedications. He has been an Associate Professor in Chemical Engineering at the National University of Singapore since 2019. Dan is highly interested in interdisciplinary research in advanced porous materials and hybrid membranes for applications in clean energy and environmental sustainability. His work has generated multiple highly cited papers, industrial collaboration and translation, patents, book chapters, and invited presentations. He is the Clarivate Analytics' Highly Cited Researcher (Cross‐Field) for 2019–2020 and was appointed as the Dean's Chair of the Faculty of Engineering at the National University of Singapore in 2021. Dan served as a Member of the Editorial Advisory Board for Inorganic Chemistry from 2018 to 2020. He is currently serving as the Associate Editor for Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, an Advisory Board Member of Aggregate, and an Early Career Advisory Board Member of ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering and Chemistry – An Asian Journal. He is an Executive Committee Member of the Materials Research Society of Singapore and a Membrane of the Membrane Society of Singapore. To learn more about Dan, follow him on Twitter @ZhaoGroupNUS and through his group's website at https://blog.nus.edu.sg/dzhao/.
List of Contributors
Andrea AdamoZaiput Flow TechnologiesWaltham, MA, USA
Elaf A. AhmedResearch & Development CenterSaudi AramcoDhahran, Saudi Arabia
Faheem Hassan AkhtarBiological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE)Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC)King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Hasan A. Al AbdulgaderResearch & Development CenterSaudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
T. Alan HattonDepartment of Chemical EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA, USA
Sajad Razavi BazazSchool of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Technology SydneySydney, Australia
Muhammad BurhanBiological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE)Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC)King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Yus Donald ChaniagoUlsan National Institute of Science and TechnologyUlsan, South Korea
Farid ChematGREEN Extraction Team, INRAEAvignon UniversityAvignon, France
Qian ChenBiological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE)Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC)King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Young Chul ChoiResearch & Development CenterSaudi AramcoDhahran, Saudi Arabia
Mariana C. da CostaSchool of Chemical Engineering (FEQ)University of Campinas (UNICAMP)Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
André M. da Costa LopesCICECO – Aveiro Institute of MaterialsDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of AveiroAveiro, PortugalCECOLAB – Collaborative Laboratory Towards Circular EconomyR. Nossa Senhora da ConceiçãoOliveira do HospitalCoimbra, Portugal
Gergo˝DargóRotaChrom Technologies LLCDabas, Hungary
Gaurav G. DastaneDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitute of Chemical TechnologyMumbai, India
Jing DengSchool of Chemical, Biological, and Materials EngineeringUniversity of OklahomaNorman, OK, USA
Ketan S. DesaiDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitute of Chemical TechnologyMumbai, India
Francesco DonsiDepartment of Industrial EngineeringUniversity of SalernoFisciano, Italy
Eric FalascinoWilliam G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH, USA
Liang‐Shih FanWilliam G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH, USA
Michele GaliziaSchool of Chemical, Biological, and Materials EngineeringUniversity of OklahomaNorman, OK, USA
María González‐MiquelDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Analytical SciencesThe University of ManchesterManchester, UKDepartamento de Ingeniería Química Industrial y del MedioambienteETS Ingenieros IndustrialesUniversidad Politécnica de MadridMadrid, Spain
Patricia GorgojoDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Analytical SciencesThe University of ManchesterManchester, UKNanoscience and Materials Institute of Aragón (INMA)CSIC‐Universidad de Zaragoza Zaragoza, SpainChemical and Environmental Engineering DepartmentUniversidad de ZaragozaZaragoza, Spain
Benjamin S. HsiaoDepartment of ChemistryStony Brook UniversityStony Brook, NY, USA
Xiangyu HuangDepartment of ChemistryStony Brook UniversityStony Brook, NY, USA
Ananda J. JadhavDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitute of Chemical TechnologyMumbai, India
Anet Režek JambrakFaculty of Food Technology and BiotechnologyUniversity of ZagrebZagreb, Croatia
Muhammad Ahmad JamilMechanical & Construction Engineering DepartmentNorthumbria UniversityNewcastle Upon Tyne, UK
Kalyani JangamWilliam G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH, USA
Anuj JoshiWilliam G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH, USA
Shankar B. KausleyTCS Research Physical Sciences Research AreaTata Consultancy ServicesPune, India
Chetsada KhositanonDepartment of Chemical EngineeringBurapha UniversityMuang, Chonburi, Thailand
Árpád KönczölRotaChrom Technologies LLCDabas, Hungary
Kai Fabian KruberInstitute of Process Systems EngineeringHamburg University of TechnologyHamburg, Germany
Ramesh KumarDepartment of Earth Resources & Environmental EngineeringHanyang UniversitySeoul, Republic of Korea
M. KumjaBiological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE)Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC)King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Moonyong LeeYeungnam UniversityGyeongsan, South Korea
Ki Min LimSchool of Chemical and Energy EngineeringUniversiti Teknologi MalaysiaJohor Bahru, Malaysia
Pablo López‐PorfiriDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Analytical SciencesThe University of ManchesterManchester, UK
Ali Abouei MehriziDepartment of Life Sciences EngineeringUniversity of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Francesco MeneguzzoIstituto per la BioeconomiaCNR, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
Fateme MirakhorliSchool of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Technology SydneySydney, AustraliaClimate Change ClusterUniversity of Technology SydneyAustralia
Pinak MohapatraWilliam G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH, USA
Seyed Sepehr MohseniDepartment of Life Sciences EngineeringUniversity of TehranTehran, Iran
Rattana MuangratFaculty of Agro‐IndustryChiang Mai UniversityChiang Mai, Thailand
Trevor MurrayZaiput Flow TechnologiesWaltham, MA, USA
Kim Choon NgBiological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE)Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC)King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Marinela NutrizioFaculty of Food Technology and BiotechnologyUniversity of ZagrebZagreb, Croatia
Lanre M. OshinowoResearch & Development CenterSaudi AramcoDhahran, Saudi Arabia
Parimal PalChemical Engineering DepartmentNational Institute of TechnologyDurgapur, India
Mario PagliaroIstituto per lo Studio dei Materiali NanostrutturatiCNR, Palermo, Italy
Aniruddha B. PanditDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitute of Chemical TechnologyMumbai, India
Rajshree A. PatilDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitute of Chemical TechnologyMumbai, India
Yuthana PhimolsiripolFaculty of Agro‐IndustryChiang Mai UniversityChiang Mai, Thailand
Peter J. RalphClimate Change ClusterUniversity of Technology SydneyAustralia
Sepideh RazaviSchool of Chemical, Biological, and Materials EngineeringUniversity of OklahomaNorman, OK, USA
Thomas RodgersDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Analytical ScienceThe University of ManchesterManchester, UK
Phisit SeesuriyachanFaculty of Agro‐IndustryChiang Mai UniversityChiang Mai, Thailand
Mateus Lodi SegattoDepartment of ChemistryFederal University of São CarlosSão Paulo, Brazil
Vedant ShahWilliam G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular EngineeringThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH, USA
Muhammad Wakil ShahzadMechanical & Construction Engineering DepartmentNorthumbria UniversityNewcastle Upon Tyne, UK
Priyanka R. SharmaDepartment of ChemistryStony Brook UniversityStony Brook, NY, USA
Sunil K. SharmaDepartment of ChemistryStony Brook UniversityStony Brook, NY, USA
Armando J. D. SilvestreCICECO – Aveiro Institute of MaterialsDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of AveiroAveiro, Portugal
Mirko SkiborowskiInstitute of Process Systems EngineeringHamburg University of TechnologyHamburg, Germany
Filipe H. B. SosaSchool of Chemical Engineering (FEQ)University of Campinas (UNICAMP)Campinas, São Paulo, BrazilCICECO – Aveiro Institute of MaterialsDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of AveiroAveiro, Portugal
Aylon Matheus StahlDepartment of ChemistryFederal University of São CarlosSão Paulo, Brazil
Kai‐Jher TanDepartment of Chemical EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA, USA
Thomas WaltermannCovestro Deutschland AGProcess Technology – Digital ProcessLeverkusen, Germany
Majid Ebrahimi WarkianiSchool of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Technology SydneySydney, AustraliaInstitute of Molecular MedicineSechenov UniversityMoscow, Russia
Nazlee Faisal GhazaliSchool of Chemical and Energy EngineeringUniversiti Teknologi MalaysiaJohor Bahru, Malaysia
Nopphon WeeranoppanantDepartment of Chemical EngineeringBurapha UniversityMuang, Chonburi, ThailandSchool of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE)Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC)Wangchan, Rayong, Thailand
Mengying YangDepartment of ChemistryStony Brook UniversityStony Brook, NY, USA
Doskhan YbyraiymkulBiological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE)Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC)King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Karine ZanottiDepartment of ChemistryFederal University of São CarlosSão Paulo, Brazil
Vânia Gomes ZuinDepartment of ChemistryFederal University of São CarlosSão Paulo, BrazilGreen Chemistry Centre of ExcellenceUniversity of York, York, UKInstitute of Sustainable and Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana UniversityLüneburg, Germany
Preface
Welcome to the first edition of our book Sustainable Separation Engineering. This is the brainchild of our academic and industrial research, as well as our university teachings on advanced separations and green engineering. You will find this two‐volume book both as an engaging and exciting reference guide on the latest materials, techniques, and processes related to sustainable separations and as a textbook that builds a solid theoretical foundation for sustainable separations. Our main objective is to present an overview of the fundamentals underlying the conventional and emerging separation processes, with an emphasis on sustainability. Gone are the days when separation engineering was the exclusive domain of chemical engineers. Modern sustainable separation engineering is highly interdisciplinary, with significant contributions ranging from chemical engineering to materials and polymer sciences to renewable energy sciences. Therefore, this book is intended for a broad audience to provide a bird's‐eye view of the interplay among these disciplinaries to design sustainable solutions. An up‐to‐date reference index is also provided for easy lookup of the most relevant literature for a more detailed description of each topic.
One of the aims of sustainability is to manufacture products in the most environmentally benign, economic, and socially beneficial way through the optimization of resource utilization and the conservation of materials, energy, and natural resources. The Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations crafted a blueprint through which a thriving and more sustainable future can be achieved for all. These goals target the global challenges we face, and most of them are directly or indirectly linked to material separations. During the manufacturing of products, separation steps are undesired yet unavoidable. Owing to the high energy demand and considerable waste produced during separation processes, there is a need to develop advanced materials and processes that minimize the associated environmental burden. Academic and industrial researchers are making great efforts to design greener processes and products. The authors of the 21 chapters in this book aimed to develop a holistic view of various types of separations covering microscale (chemistry, materials), mesoscale (unit operations), and macroscale (processes). Discussion is also extended to the role of sustainable separations in the chemical engineering curriculum.
This book gives a contemporary and inclusive account of the sustainability aspects of separation engineering. It will be a useful resource for students of separation engineering and experts alike, as well as prospective learners who wish to broaden their horizons and discover other topics related to their core discipline.
Gyorgy SzekelyJeddah, Saudi ArabiaAdvanced Membranes and Porous Materials CenterKing Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)
Dan ZhaoSingaporeChemical and Biomolecular EngineeringNational University of Singapore (NUS)
1 Electrochemically Mediated Sustainable Separations in Water
Kai-Jher Tan and T. Alan Hatton
Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
1.1 Introduction
With the continuing growth of economic development and resource requirements by the expanding world population, separation processes continue to be critical and ubiquitously present in every aspect of human society [1, 2], and are effectively applied in areas ranging from chemical production to environmental remediation. The latter is especially important as it directly pertains to human livelihood, with the pressing issue of insufficient water availability affecting billions of people around the world [3]. Rising constraints on freshwater resulting from increasing water demand and decreasing water supply have been identified as a crucial challenge for the twenty‐first century, necessitating improvements in aspects such as water policy, as well as technologies for water use and treatment [4–6].
Electrochemically mediated processes have emerged as promising tools for water‐based separations due to their high potential for compact design [7, 8], low‐energy operations [9–11], and molecularly selective removal [12–14]. These attractive features are well‐suited to tackle challenges associated with the current state of separation science, which include the needs for improving the removal of species at dilute concentrations, and furthering understanding of interfacial phenomena [15]. The innate tunability of electrochemical frameworks renders them suitable for targeting desirable aqueous species in industrial purification processes, and a myriad of contaminants arising from other anthropogenic sources such as pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) [16], and agricultural and manufacturing activities. Judiciously designed electrochemically mediated systems can potentially take on a pivotal role in water purification trains as an individual treatment step, or even as a plug‐and‐play portable unit for remote use on‐site, providing a strong alternative in the future for efficient and high‐throughput new‐generation water‐phase separations. While cheaper and less energy‐intensive water purification technologies will undoubtedly assist in attenuating the impact of water scarcity, their development may also enable the extension of the aqueous phase for use as a medium to facilitate separations of other compounds like carbon dioxide.
This chapter will provide a brief introduction to some applicable electrochemical theory and a general overview of aqueous electrochemical separation methods, followed by a more detailed discussion of recent advances in the area of electrochemically mediated sustainable separations in water using heterogeneous redox‐active materials.
1.2 Separation Processes
Separation processes are unit operations that distinguish materials based on their molecular, thermodynamic, or transport properties. A separation process can be conducted via addition of mass or energy separating agents, and can be operated under equilibrium or rate‐limiting conditions. To quantify the efficacy of a separation process, a variety of performance indicators can be used. One of the most important is analyte selectivity, which can be evaluated through the separation factor (Eq. 1.1) [17, 18]:
where SA/B is the separation factor of species A relative to B (or the selectivity for species A relative to B), CA is the concentration of species A, CB is the concentration of species B, CA_initial is the initial concentration of species A, and CB_initial is the initial concentration of species B. A separation factor of unity would indicate that the process has no selectivity for either of the two species. Other useful metrics for separation processes include efficiency, capacity, and throughput [15]. Common separation techniques found in chemical industries include distillation, crystallization, and adsorption, and are employed to perform tasks such as species purification and recovery, gas production, product drying, and contaminant removal [19, 20]. However, one of the greatest drawbacks of these processes is their high energy requirement, which has been estimated to make up as much as 15% of energy usage around the world [21, 22]. To address this, key areas for improvement have been highlighted within current separation technologies and frameworks, which include reducing energetic footprints, boosting key performance indicators (i.e. selectivity, capacity, and throughput), as well as targeted development in many water‐related applications such as uranium recovery from seawater and other trace contaminant removal from dilute streams [2, 15].
1.3 Electrochemical Theory
1.3.1 Thermodynamics
Electrochemical processes operate by means of electron transfer and a chemical change and can be expressed via the generic half‐cell equation for a redox reaction (Eq. 1.2): [23, 24]
where Ox is the oxidized species, n is the number of electrons, Red is the reduced species, kf is the rate constant of the forward reaction, and kb is the rate constant of the backward reaction. Applying thermodynamic relationships to Eq. 1.2 results in the derivation of the Nernst equation, which describes the properties of a redox half‐cell reaction at equilibrium (Eq. 1.3): [23, 24]
where E is the half‐cell potential of the redox reaction, E0′ is the formal potential of the redox reaction, R is the gas constant, T is the temperature, n is the number of electrons transferred, F is Faraday’s constant, CRed and COx are the concentrations of the reduced and oxidized species, respectively, at equilibrium [24]
