Sustainable Surface Water Management E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 864

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Sustainable Surface Water Management: a handbook for SUDS addresses issues as diverse as flooding, water quality, amenity and biodiversity but also mitigation of, and adaptation to, global climate change, human health benefits and reduction in energy use. Chapters are included to cover issues from around the world, but they also address particular designs associated with the implementation of SUDS in tropical areas, problems with retrofitting SUDS devices, SUDS modelling, water harvesting in drought-stricken countries using SUDS and the inclusion of SUDS in the climate change strategies of such cities as Tokyo, New York and Strasbourg.

Leseprobe

Sustainable Surface Water Management

A Handbook for SuDS

Edited by

Susanne M. Charlesworth

Professor, Urban Physical Geography, Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, UK

Colin A. Booth

Associate Head of Research and Scholarship for the School of Architecture and the Built Environment, and Deputy Director of the Centre for Floods, Communities and Resilience, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

This edition first published 2017© 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Charlesworth, Susanne. | Booth, Colin (Colin A.)Title: Sustainable surface water management : a handbook for SUDS / edited by Susanne M. Charlesworth, reader in urban physical geography, and director of sustainable drainage applied research, Department of Geography, Environment and Disaster Management Coventry University, Colin A. Booth, associate professor of sustainability, and associate head of research and scholarship, Construction and Property Research Centre, University of the West of EnglandDescription: Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016023163 (print) | LCCN 2016029925 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118897706 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118897676 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118897683 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Urban runoff. | Watershed management. | Water quality management.Classification: LCC TD657 .S868 2016 (print) | LCC TD657 (ebook) | DDC 628.1/6–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016023163

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Cover image: Gettyimages/Mara Palmen/EyeEm

May the thrill of jumping up and down in muddy puddles never be replaced by the misery of flooding!

This book is dedicated to

Douglas Ella–Rose, Aidan and Rónán Esmée, Edryd and Efren

List of Contributors

Valerio C. Andrés‐ValeriConstruction Technology Applied Research Group, Department of Transports, Projects and Processes Technology, Universidad de Cantabria, ETSICCP, Avenida de los Castros 44, 39005 Santander, Cantabria, Spain

Ignacio Andrés‐DoménechInstituto Universitario de Investigación de Ingeniería del Agua y Medio Ambiente (IIAMA). Universitat Politècnica de València. Spain

Stella ApostolakiDepartment of Science, Technology and Mathematics, The American College of Greece – DEREE, 6 Gravias street, GR‐153 42 Aghia, Paraskevi, Greece

Neil BerwickUrban Water Technology Centre, University of Abertay Dundee, DD1 1HG, UK

Elena Blanco‐FernándezConstruction Technology Applied Research Group, Department of Transports, Projects and Processes Technology, Universidad de Cantabria, ETSICCP, Avenida de los Castros 44, 39005 Santander, Cantabria, Spain

Colin A. BoothSchool of Architecture and the Built Environment, and the Centre for Floods, Communities and Resilience, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

David ButlerCentre for Water Systems, University of Exeter, North Park Road, Exeter, EX6 7HS, UK

Jaime Carpio‐Garcia.Construction Technology Applied Research Group, Department of Transports, Projects and Processes Technology, Universidad de Cantabria, ETSICCP, Avenida de los Castros 44, 39005 Santander, Cantabria, Spain

Daniel Castro‐FresnoConstruction Technology Applied Research Group, Department of Transports, Projects and Processes Technology, Universidad de Cantabria, ETSICCP, Avenida de los Castros 44, 39005 Santander, Cantabria, Spain

Susanne M. CharlesworthCentre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Stephen J. CoupeCentre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Alison DuffyUrban Water Technology Centre, School of Science Engineering and Technology, Abertay University, Dundee, DD1 1HG, UK

Ignacio Escuder‐BuenoInstituto Universitario de Investigación de Ingeniería del Agua y Medio Ambiente (IIAMA). Universitat Politècnica de València. Spain

Mark EverardGeography and Environmental Management, Faculty of Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK

Glyn EverettCentre for Floods, Communities and Resilience, Faculty of Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK

Amal Faraj‐LloydCoventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Bruce K. FergusonCollege of Environment and Design, University of Georgia, 285 Jackson Street, Athens GA 30602, USA

Andy GrahamWildfowl & Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire, GL2 7BT, UK

Hazem GoudaGeography and Environmental Management, Faculty of Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK

Jessica E. LamondArchitecture and the Built Environment, Faculty of Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK

Craig LashfordFaculty of Engineering and Computing, School of Energy, Construction and Environment, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Tom LaversCentre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Lian LundySchool of Science and Technology, Natural Sciences, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, London, NW4 4BT, UK

Larry W. MaysCivil, Environmental, and Sustainable Engineering Group, School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA

Robert J. McInnesRM Wetlands and Environment Ltd., 6 Ladman Villas, Littleworth, Oxfordshire, SN7 8EQ, UK

Anne‐Marie McLaughlinCentre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Neil McLeanMWH, Eastfield House, Associate WSP‐Parsons Brinckerhoff, Newbridge, Edinburgh, EH28 8LS, UK

Peter Melville‐ShreeveCentre for Water Systems, University of Exeter, North Park Road, Exeter, EX6 7HS, UK

Margaret MezueCentre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Marcelo Gomes MiguezPolytechnic School and COPPE – Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Alan P. NewmanFaculty of Health and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Sara Perales‐MomparlerGreen Blue Management, Avda. del Puerto, 180 pta. 1B, 46023 Valencia, Spain

David G. ProverbsFaculty of Computing, Engineering and the Built Environment, Birmingham City University, Millennium Point, Curzon Street, Birmingham B4 7XG, UK

Jorge Rodriguez HernandezConstruction Technology Applied Research Group, Department of Transports, Projects and Processes Technology, Universidad de Cantabria, ETSICCP, Avenida de los Castros 44, 39005 Santander, Cantabria, Spain

Brad RoweMichigan State University, Department of Horticulture, A212 Plant and Soil Sciences Building, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA

Luis Angel Sañudo FontanedaCentre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Robyn SimcockLandcare Research, Auckland, Private Bag 92170, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland 1142, New Zealand

Aline Pires VerólFaculty of Architecture and Urbanism – Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Sarah WardCentre for Water Systems, University of Exeter, North Park Road, Exeter, EX6 7HS, UK

Frank WarwickFaculty of Engineering and Computing, School of Energy, Construction and Environment, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK

Sara WilkinsonFaculty of Design Architecture and Building, University of Technology Sydney, POB 123 Broadway, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia

Kevin WinterUniversity of Cape Town, Environmental and Geographical Science, Cape Town, South Africa.

About the Editors

Susanne M. Charlesworth is Professor of Urban Physical Geography at Coventry University in the Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience.

Colin A. Booth is Associate Head of Research and Scholarship for the School of Architecture and the Built Environment and is Deputy Director of the Centre for Floods, Communities and Resilience at the University of the West of England, Bristol.

Section 1Introduction to the Book

1An Overture of Sustainable Surface Water Management

Colin A. Booth and Susanne M. Charlesworth

1.1 Introduction

With more than 80% of the global population living on land that is prone to flooding, the devastation and disruption that flooding can cause will undoubtedly worsen with climate change (Lamond et al., 2011). The built environment has become more susceptible to flooding because urbanisation has meant that landscapes, which were once porous and allowed surface water to infiltrate, have been stripped of vegetation and soil and have been covered with impermeable roads, pavements and buildings, as shown in Figure 1.1 (Booth and Charlesworth, 2014).

Figure 1.1 An example of a flooded car park where the impermeable asphalt surface is retaining stormwater runoff.

Surface water policy, to address flooding‐related issues, differs widely across various regions and countries. For instance, in the UK, which is made up of four individual countries (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), Scotland has policies that have enabled sustainable drainage to be implemented as a surface water management strategy for about the past 20 years; whereas, England, Wales and Northern Ireland have yet to completely embrace sustainable drainage devices in their planning policies and guidance, and hence it is not yet widely implemented (Charlesworth, 2010).

1.2 Surface Water Management

The Victorians (1837–1901 in Britain) undoubtedly made remarkable strides towards innovative approaches to the water resource challenges of their day. Facing the dual contests of addressing rapid population expansion and industrial urbanisation, a need developed for high capacity systems to deal with societal water supply and treatment. Comparable approaches were exported or developed independently across the globe, as other nations faced similar challenges. In the UK, by a combination of philanthropy, public subscription and corporate vision, the infrastructure that would provide the vastly increased urban areas with sufficient clean water and the ability to discharge the surplus was put in place; and with it came the notion of the management of water as a single problem with one overarching solution: the provision of drains. However, while the solutions created by the Victorian engineers were magnificent in their day, the legacy of putting water underground seems to have created a collective mental block for many (Watkins and Charlesworth, 2014).

Nowadays, as mentioned earlier, urbanisation has had a transforming effect on the water cycle, whereby hard infrastructure (e.g. buildings, paving, roads) has effectively sealed the urbanised area (Davies and Charlesworth, 2014). As a consequence, excessive surface water runoff now exacerbates river water levels and overloads the capacity of traditional underground ‘piped’ drainage systems; this in turn contributes to unnecessary pluvial flooding. To many people, the solution is simply to replace the existing pipes with higher capacity ones. However, as Water UK (2008) states, bigger pipes are not the solution for bigger storms. Therefore, society should be encouraged to look towards more sustainable solutions.

1.3 Sustainable Surface Water Management

‘Sustainable drainage’ means managing rainwater (including snow and other precipitation) with the aim of: (a) reducing damage from flooding; (b) improving water quality; (c) protecting and improving the environment; (d) protecting health and safety; and (e) ensuring the stability and durability of drainage systems (Flood and Water Management Act, 2010).

Based on an understanding of the movement of water in the natural environment, sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) can be designed to restore or mimic natural infiltration patterns, so that they can reduce the risk of urban flooding by decreasing runoff volumes and attenuating peak flows. The choice of phrase or term that is applied to describe the approaches used can vary between countries, contexts and time. In the UK, for instance, SuDS is the most widely used term; whereas elsewhere in the world other relevant terms include surface water management measures (SWMMs), green infrastructure, green building design, stormwater control measures (SCMs), best management practices (BMPs), low impact development (LID) and water sensitive urban design (WSUD) (Lamond et al., 2015). However, whichever term is used, the benefits and challenges are similar (Tables 1.1 and 1.2).

Table 1.1 Examples of the benefits offered by sustainable drainage systems.

Source: List of benefits derived from CIRIA (2001).

Sustainability

SuDS can provide an important contribution to sustainable development.

SuDS are more efficient than conventional drainage systems.

SuDS help to control and identify flooding and pollution at source.

SuDS help to promote subsidiarity.

SuDS can help to minimise the environmental footprint of a development.

SuDS are a clear demonstration of commitment to the environment.

Water quantity

SuDS can help to reduce flood risk by reducing and slowing runoff from a catchment.

SuDS can help to maintain groundwater levels and help to prevent low river flows in summer.

SuDS help to reduce erosion and pollution, as well as attenuating flow rates and temperature by increasing the amount of interflow.

SuDS can reduce the need to upgrade sewer systems to meet the demands of new developments.

SuDS can help to reduce the use of potable water by harvesting rainwater for some domestic uses.

Water quality

SuDS can reduce pollution in rivers and lakes by reducing the amount of contaminants carried by runoff.

SuDS can help to reduce the amount of wastewater produced by urban areas.

SuDS can reduce erosion and thus decrease the amount of suspended solids in river water.

SuDS can help to improve water quality by reducing the incidence of misconnection to foul sewers.

SuDS can help to reduce the need to use chemicals to maintain paved surfaces.

SuDS can prevent pollution by reducing overflows from sewers.

Natural environment

SuDS can help to restore the natural complexity of a drainage system and as a result promote ecological diversity.

SuDS help to maintain urban trees.

SuDS help to conserve and promote biodiversity.

SuDS can provide valuable habitats and amenity features.

SuDS help to conserve river ecology.

SuDS help to maintain natural river morphology.

SuDS help to maintain natural resources.

Built environment

SuDS can greatly improve the visual appearance and amenity value of a development.

SuDS help to maintain consistent soil moisture levels.

Cost reductions

SuDS can save money in drainage system construction.

SuDS can save money in the longer term.

SuDS can allow property owners to save money through differential charging.

SuDS can help to save money by reducing the need to negotiate wayleaves and easements.

SuDS can save money through the use of simpler building techniques.

Table 1.2 Examples of the challenges posed by sustainable drainage systems.

Source: List of challenges derived from CIRIA (2001).

Operational issues

There is no consensus on who benefits from SuDS.

There is a belief that SuDS may present maintenance challenges.

There may be concerns that the colonisation of SuDS may be too successful.

SuDS may present a target for vandals.

Design and standards

SuDS are not promoted by the Building Regulations.

There are no standards for the construction of SuDS.

SuDS require input from too many specialists.

SuDS may be seen as untried technology.

The guidance on how to build SuDS is limited or unclear.

It is difficult to predict the runoff from a site.

SuDS can be difficult to retrofit to an existing development.

Management/operational framework

SuDS require new approaches to enable full participation.

Planning, design and construction of SuDs will require better coordination.

SuDS can require multi‐party agreements that may be difficult to set up.

SuDS present challenges in setting up long‐term management and ownership agreements.

SuDS can be difficult to implement because of the variability of roles and responsibilities within local authorities and other bodies.

Sewerage undertakers may be reluctant to adopt foul sewers when they are only sewers serving developments using SuDS.

The typical design of any SuD system follows a step‐wise hierarchy of various measures, commonly known as the ‘surface water management train’ (Figure 1.2), which minimises stormwater runoff and pollution via a series of devices/processes that store and convey stormwater at different scales: (i) prevention (e.g. land use planning); (ii) source control (e.g. green roofs, rainwater harvesting, permeable paving); (iii) site control (e.g. vegetation or gravel filtration); and (iv) regional control (e.g. retention ponds, wetlands) (Woods Ballard et al., 2007, 2015). The primary goals of the original SuDS train placed equal emphasis on water quality and water quantity, together with amenity and biodiversity, which enabled the creation of the SuDS triangle (Figure 1.3a) (CIRIA, 2001). Subsequent iterations of the goals has enabled the creation of the SuDS square (Figure 1.3b) and, with much wider recognition of the role that SuDS can play in adapting to climate change challenges, the creation of the SuDS rocket (Figure 1.3c). The flexibility and multi‐functional nature of SuDS are the main drivers pursued in the chapters of this book.

Figure 1.2 The SuDS surface water management train.

(adapted from CIRIA, 2001)

Figure 1.3 Goals of the SuDS management train (a) the SuDS triangle (CIRIA, 2001); (b) the SuDS square (Woods Ballard et al., 2015); (c) the SuDS rocket (Charlesworth, 2010).

1.4 Organisation of the Book

This book emphasises the SuDS philosophy and elaborates the sustainable surface water management agenda with a wealth of insights that are brought together through the experts who have contributed. By integrating physical and environmental sciences, and combining social, economic and political considerations, the book provides a unique resource of interest to a wide range of policy specialists, scientists, engineers and subject enthusiasts.

The book comprises seven sections, which are collated into 29 chapters. Section 1 provides an introduction to the book and offers an initial background into surface water management issues and challenges (Chapter 1). Section 2 places sustainable surface water management in context, through its historical context, contemporary surface water strategy, policy and legislation and operations and maintenance (Chapters 2–4). Section 3 utilises the facets of the functions of sustainable drainage systems, to explore quantity and quality issues, together with biodegradation, geosynthetics, biodiversity and amenity, (Chapters 5–11). Section 4 attempts to untangle the complex relationship of the multiple benefits of surface water drainage systems, through natural floodwater management, energy generation and reduction, carbon sequestration and storage, plus the use of rainwater harvesting as a water saving device and its use in ecosystem services (Chapters 12–16). Section 5 announces the implementation of integrating sustainable surface water management into the built environment, through an interesting scrutiny of the cost benefits that can be derived, the possibility of sustainable drainage retrofit and conversion opportunities, and their use in the landscapes of motorway service areas, alongside human attitudes and behaviours towards sustainable drainage systems (Chapters 17–21). Section 6 contextualises global sustainable surface water management, through the use of examples from Brazil, New Zealand, South Africa and the USA, among others (Chapters 22–28). Section 7 congregates various aspects detailed in the earlier chapters by offering a summary of the book and propositioning many insights of the teachings that can be learnt for the future of sustainable surface water management (Chapter 29).

References

Booth, C.A. and Charlesworth, S.M. (2014)

Water Resources in the Built Environment: Management Issues and Solutions

, Wiley‐Blackwell, Oxford.

Charlesworth, S.M. (2010) A review of the adaptation and mitigation of global climate change using sustainable drainage in cities.

Journal of Water and Climate Change

, 1, 165–180.

CIRIA (2001)

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems: Best Practice Manual

. CIRIA Report C523, London.

Davies, J. and Charlesworth, S.M. (2014) Urbanisation and Stormwater. In: Booth, C.A. and Charlesworth, S.M. (eds)

Water Resources in the Built Environment: Management Issues and Solutions

, Wiley‐Blackwell, Oxford, 211–222.

Lamond, J.E., Booth, C.A., Hammond, F.N. and Proverbs, D.G. (2011)

Flood Hazards: Impacts and Responses for the Built Environment

. CRC Press – Taylor and Francis Group, London.

Lamond, J.E., Rose, C.B. and Booth, C.A. (2015) Evidence for improved urban flood resilience by sustainable drainage retrofit.

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Urban Design and Planning

, 168, 101–111.

Watkins, S. and Charlesworth, S.M. (2014) Sustainable Drainage Systems – Features and Design. In: Booth, C.A. and Charlesworth, S.M. (eds)

Water Resources in the Built Environment: Management Issues and Solutions

, Wiley‐Blackwell, Oxford, 283–301.

Woods Ballard, B., Kellagher, R., Martin, P., Jefferies, C., Bray, R. and Shaffer, P. (2007)

The SuDS Manual

. CIRIA Report C69, London.

Woods Ballard, B., Wilson, S., Udale‐Clarke, H., Illman, S., Ashley, R. and Kellagher, R. (2015)

The SuDS Manual

. CIRIA, London.

Section 2Sustainable Surface Water Management in Context

2Back to the Future? History and Contemporary Application of Sustainable Drainage Techniques

Susanne M. Charlesworth, Luis Angel Sañudo Fontaneda and Larry W. Mays

History “provides lessons from the past from which we can learn”

Lucero et al. (2011)

2.1 Introduction

The early Babylonians and Mesopotamians in Iraq (4000–2500 BC) had surface water drainage systems, and regarded urban runoff as a nuisance, but also realised that it carried waste off with it and, for some, it was a resource (De Feo et al., 2014). As these drainage systems developed, they relied mostly on hard infrastructure, for example, the Minoans (3200–1100 BC) used terracotta pipes to convey stormwater out of their settlements. However, these ancient civilisations also used water management techniques, which are included in the sustainable drainage suite of interventions and thus, as acknowledged in Chapter 1, SuDS as a technique is not new; it may not have been called ‘sustainable drainage’ in the past but, for example, water harvesting, storage and conveyance were all well‐known and efficiently carried out by ancient cultures as long ago as the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3500–2150 BC, Myers et al., 1992) in Crete. In the Mediterranean and Near East region, infrastructure for the collection and storage of rainwater was developed in the third millennium BC (Mays et al., 2013). Water resource management dates back to the beginnings of early agriculture, whereby water was controlled in order to provide irrigation to enable crops to be grown in arid and semi‐arid regions whose rainfall amount would not normally have supported it. As is stated by Lucero et al. (2011), rainfall extremes, too much or too little, result in failed crops and famine – water management was therefore a case of life or death in many instances, leading to the rise or fall of civilisations. While the majority of this chapter focuses on ancient rainwater harvesting techniques, since this was used extensively in antiquity, other ‘sustainable urban water practices’ were utilised (Koutsoyiannis et al., 2008), such as constructed wetlands, infiltration and non‐structural approaches. For example, Ancient Greece had to develop water resource management techniques due to the lack of water and high evaporation rates, particularly during summer. They therefore had to efficiently capture what rain fell, provide for its safe storage with minimal losses, have the means to convey it for long distances and also bring in government structures and institutions to ensure its effective management (Angelakis and Koutsoyiannis, 2003). In fact, Apt (2011) compared the Inca drainage of Machu Picchu (built ca. 1400 AD) to that of present‐day low impact development as described in Chapter 25. This chapter begins by considering the ‘sustainable’ part of drainage systems and goes on to explore whether the SuDS represented in this book is simply a case of history repeating itself, and whether techniques used in the past have any relevance today.

2.2 ‘Sustainability’?

Mays (2007a) defines water resources sustainability as: ‘the ability to use water in sufficient quantities and quality from the local to the global scale to meet the needs of humans and ecosystems for the present and the future to sustain life and to protect humans from the damages brought about by natural and human caused disasters that affect sustaining life’. Sustainable drainage uses the term to reflect its ability to mimic nature by managing surface water, such that the urban environment has minimal to no impact on the path of water through it, thus avoiding the ‘human disasters’, i.e. flooding caused by construction and impermeability. This section therefore considers the longevity of ancient drainage and whether it could be considered to be ‘sustainable’ and what lessons contemporary society could learn.

Street drainage was first used in the Mesopotamian Empire, Iraq (4000–2500 BC), but it was in Crete with the Minoan and Harappan civilisations that sewer and drainage systems were first developed which were well designed, organised and operated (De Feo et al., 2014). Basic hydraulics was well understood, and great importance was given to the provision of sanitation in cities. While the Romans and Hellenes further refined these techniques, there was minimal further progress made during the ‘Dark Ages’ post 300 AD.