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Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
Kategorie: Fachliteratur
Sprache: Englisch

Beschreibung

The first and only comprehensive guide to best practices in winter road operations Winter maintenance operations are essential to ensure the safety, mobility, and productivity of transportation systems, especially in cold-weather climates, and responsible agencies are continually challenged to provide a high level of service in a fiscally and environmentally responsible manner. Sustainable Winter Road Operations bridges the knowledge gaps, providing the first up-to-date, authoritative, single-source overview and guide to best practices in winter road operations that considers the triple bottom line of sustainability. With contributions from experts in the field from around the world, this book takes a holistic approach to the subject. The authors address the many negative impacts on regional economies and the environment of poorly planned and inadequate winter road operations, and they make a strong case for the myriad benefits of environmentally sustainable concepts and practices. Best practice applications of materials, processes, equipment, and associated technologies and how they can improve the effectiveness and efficiency of winter operations, optimize materials usage, and minimize cost, corrosion, and environmental impacts are all covered in depth. * Provides the first up-to-date, authoritative and comprehensive overview of best practices in sustainable winter road operations currently in use around the world * Covers materials, processes, equipment, and associated technologies for sustainable winter road operations * Brings together contributions by an international all-star team of experts with extensive experience in designing, implementing, and managing sustainable winter road operations * Designed to bring professionals involved in transportation and highway maintenance and control up to speed with current best practice Sustainable Winter Road Operations is essential reading for maintenance professionals dealing with snow and ice control operations on highways, motorways and local roads. It is a valuable source of information and guidance for decision makers, researchers, and engineers in transportation engineering involved in transportation and highway maintenance. And it is an ideal textbook for advanced-level courses in transportation engineering.

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Cover

Title Page

List of Contributors

Foreword

1 Introduction to Sustainable Winter Road Maintenance

1.1 Introduction

1.2 How the Chapters and Topics Are Organized

References

2 A Framework for Life‐Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Road Salt Used in Winter Maintenance Operations

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Concepts of LCSA

2.3 Complexities and Caveats in the LCSA of Road Salt

2.4 A Preliminary LCSA Framework of Road Salt

2.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Questions

References

3 Winter Road Operations

3.1 Overview

3.2 Pre‐Strategic Highway Research Program (Prior to 1987)

3.3 The Strategic Highway Research Program (1987–1991)

3.4 Post Strategic Highway Research Program (After 1991)

3.5 Other Major Efforts Contributing to “Sustainable Winter Road Maintenance Operations”

References

4 Societal and User Considerations for Sustainable Winter Road Operations

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Societal/User Expectations Related to Winter Maintenance Operations

4.3 Traveler Decision‐Making

4.4 Agency Performance Measures in Use

4.5 Summary

Questions and Answers

References

5 Weather Services for Sustainable Winter Road Operations

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Road Weather Basics

5.3 The Meteorology of Road Weather

5.4 Road Weather Forecasting Operations

5.5 Road Weather Information Systems (RWIS)

5.6 Concluding Remarks

List of Acronyms

References

List of Tables

Chapter 06

Table 6.1 Description of highway moisture. (Raukola, 1993. Reproduced with permission of Transportation Research.

Chapter 07

Table 7.1 Effects of weather‐related factors on collision frequency.

Table 7.2 Effects of weather‐related factors on collision severity.

Table 7.3 Data used for case studies.

Table 7.4 Benefit calculation for Target RSI.

Chapter 08

Table 8.1 Pavement conditions and associated speed reduction factors. (Ye, 2013. Reproduced with permission of National Research Council).

Table 8.2 Traffic volume distribution over the event.

Table 8.3 Traffic volume distribution over the event.

Table 8.4 Travel Time Savings for Scenarios A (with WRM) and B (without WRM).

Chapter 09

Table 9.1 RWIS benefit and cost inputs.

Table 9.2 Laser Guide benefit and cost inputs, results.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Colorado DOT‐ and PNS‐defined heavy metals of interest and their total allowable limits in deicer products. (Fay and Shi 2012. Reproduced with permission of Springer).

Table 10.2 A summary of test methods for deicer toxicity.

Table 10.3 Summary of environmental impacts of abrasives.

Table 10.4 Summary of the measured chloride concentrations from various aquatic environments.

Table 10.5 Summary of the environmental impacts of chloride deicers.

Table 10.6 Summary of the environmental impacts of acetate‐ and formate‐based deicers.

Table 10.7 Summary of the environmental impacts of glycols and urea.

Table 10.8 Summary of the environmental impacts of agro‐based deicers.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Eutectic and effective temperature comparison.

Table 11.2 Cost of concrete bridge corrosion.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Estimated risk of equipment corrosion due to deicer exposure alone and annual costs of estimated equipment corrosion risks due to deicer exposure (Shi

et al.

, 2013).

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Ratios and distances for each cycle shown in Figure 13.1.

Table 13.2 Ontario Ministry of Transportation Maintenance Standards. (Government of Ontario 2013, Ontario Ministry of Transportation 2016).

Table 13.3 Event category, City of Toronto.

Table 13.4 RWIS‐enabled winter maintenance practices and associated benefits. (Reproduced from Boon and Cluett 2002).

Table 13.5 Traffic and weather attributes for each cell.

Table 13.6 Salt management plan, sample goals. Derived from the City of Toronto’s Salt Management Plan, 2004.

Table 13.7 Sample level of service policy. Derived from the City of Toronto’s Salt Management Plan, 2004.

Table 13.8 Sample deicing level of service policy. Derived from the City of Toronto’s Salt Management Plan.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Summary of influent and effluent statistics for total suspended solids (mg/L). (Adapted from Clary, J., Jones, J., Leisenring, M., and Strecker, E., 2017. International Stormwater BMP Database 2016 Summary Statistics. WE&RF: Alexandria, VA. EMCs denote Event Mean Concentrations).

Table 15.2 Summary of selection criteria for structural BMPs.

Table 15.3 A BMP selection tool by the Oregon Department of Transportation. (ODOT 2008).

Table 15.4 Risk, compliance issues, and management examples for highway‐generated wastes. (adapted from Leisenring

et al.

2014).

Table 15.5 Summary of reactive mitigation measures.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Decision matrix example for tow‐behind plow utilization scenarios.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Normalized assessment of deicers and sand by the selected 18 parameters.

Table 17.2 Normalized assessment of deicers and sand by the select four dimensions and the composite indices calculated from them.

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Cost estimates for various heating systems for snow and ice control. (Zhang

et al.

2009).

Table 18.2 Pavement heating system costs per season, in 1972 USD. (Murray and Eigerman 1972).

Table 18.3 Cost data of a geothermal heating system in Virginia, in 2000 USD. (Hoppe 2000).

Table 18.4 Materials costs of conductive concrete versus conventional concrete, in 1998 USD. (Yehia and Tuan 1999).

Table 18.5 Comparison of different deicing systems. (Tuan 2008).

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Available information from the 10 depots.

Table 19.2 Calculating the Weather Normalization Factor.

Table 19.3 Calculating the Mile Normalization Factor.

Table 19.4 Reconfiguring the table to include Inputs, Outputs, Outcomes, and Normalization Factors.

Table 19.5 Computation of “Normalized Cost”.

Chapter 20

Table 20.1 Snow control strategies and methods and LOS expectations. (Blackburn 2004. reproduced with permission of Transportation Research Board).

Table 20.2 Model to estimate pavement surface temperature from weather variables.

Table 20.3 Description of pavement snow and ice condition. Reproduced from NCHRP‐525.

Table 20.4 Recommended application rates for salts. (Blackburn 2004. Reproduced with permission of Transportation Research Board).

Table 20.5 Dilution rates. (Blackburn 2004. Reproduced with permission of Transportation Research Board).

Table 20.6 Application rate conversion factors for different salt types. (Blackburn 2004. Reproduced with permission of Transportation Research Board).

Table 20.7 Application rate. (Reproduced with permission of Raukola 2001).

Table 20.8 Application rates for pedestrian and parking lot facilities.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01

Figure 1.1 U.S. areas affected by snow and ice

Figure 1.2 Key components and processes in winter transportation operations

Figure 1.3 WRM operations are vital to economy and society.

Figure 1.4 Relationship between individual book chapters.

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Harvey’s LCC procedure (Harvey, 1976).

Figure 2.2 The LCA framework based on the ISO 14040 standard.

Figure 2.3 Five simplified stakeholder categories in the production system.

Figure 2.4 The interactions between LCC, LCA, SLCA and LCSA.

Figure 2.5 The interactions considered in the LCSA of road salt.

Figure 2.6 The LCSA fishbone diagram of road salt used in WRM operations.

Chapter 03

Figure 3.1 Phase I illustration of highway maintenance concept vehicle.

Figure 3.2 Phase II highway maintenance concept vehicle.

Figure 3.3 Phase IV highway maintenance concept vehicle.

Figure 3.4 European snow plows with snow plow shields.

Figure 3.5 Snow plow truck plowing with snow plow shield.

Figure 3.6 Rear‐mounted air deflector (truck on right) and snow‐covered tail gate and lights (truck on left) without air deflector.

Chapter 04

Figure 4.1 Example of an LOS D condition, moderate pavement snow cover.

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1 Cross‐section of road and atmosphere representing the approximate size of the near‐surface atmosphere, within which we assume conditions are relatively the same.

Figure 5.2 For the United States East Coast Blizzard of 22–24 January 2016: (a) Surface analysis including surface observations, surface wind speed and direction (wind barbs), pressure isobars (lines), low‐pressure center (“L”), cold front (triangles), and warm front (semicircles) at 23 January 0300 GMT; and (b) visible satellite image of the cyclone at 23 January 0312 GMT.

Figure 5.3 Graphical representation of forecast time scales.

Figure 5.4 Screenshots of pavement condition and temperature forecasts for a fictional roadway.

Figure 5.5 METRo model output examples showing (a) map view of natural (not accounting for mitigation efforts) road snow accumulation expected from a storm in France and (b) graphical view of model output parameters related to atmospheric, road surface and subsurface conditions. Both outputs shown here have been combined with other forecasting models in order to produce the desired result.

Figure 5.6 Screenshot of Iteris’s MDSS (version 13.00) graphical user interface in map view.

Figure 5.7 Diagram showing an RWIS‐ESS and representative instrumentation.

Chapter 06

Figure 6.1 Factors affecting the pavement surface conditions.

Figure 6.2 The main elements of a snow plow.

Figure 6.3 The effect of plowing speed on the snow clearance performance.

Figure 6.4 Retractable rubber elements mounted behind the cutter edge for improved slush removal.

Figure 6.5 Phase diagram of sodium chloride in water.

Figure 6.6 Measurement of the amount of water on the pavement.

Figure 6.7 Illustration of the freezing process of saline water on a molecular level. As freezing progresses, salt is expelled and concentrated in the remaining liquid. This decreases the freezing point.

Figure 6.8 Illustration of the bond process between snow crystals.

Figure 6.9 Illustration of the equilibrium between ice and water.

Figure 6.10 Melting ice with salt. The salt lowers the freezing point and prevents the molecules freezing, while the melting still continues.

Figure 6.11 The calculated melting capacity of solid NaCl and NaCl brine.

Figure 6.12 Illustration of the adhesion mechanism at molecular level with bonds being formed, stretched until breakage and reformed.

Figure 6.13 Rubber‐pavement interlocking occurs on different levels of magnification.

Figure 6.14 Top view of a compacted snow layer, after compaction by traffic. The material is very porous, providing significant surface roughness.

Figure 6.15 Sand particles embedded in an ice layer after passage of a braking aircraft tire. All sand particles visible in the track are firmly frozen/embedded into the ice.

Figure 6.16 A sanded, iced runway showing scratch marks (thin white stripes running vertically in the picture). These scratch marks were caused by sand particles entrapped by braking aircraft tires.

Chapter 07

Figure 7.1 Factors influencing highway performance under winter conditions.

Figure 7.2 Roadway safety management process.

Figure 7.3 Road Surface Classes and Road Surface Index.

Figure 7.4 Road surface conditions and definition of snowstorm event.

Figure 7.5 RSI profile for different BPRTs.

Figure 7.6 Road Surface Conditions vs. Maintenance Timing.

Figure 7.7 Safety benefit vs. maintenance timing.

Figure 7.8 Additional safety benefit for achieving a given LOS target.

Chapter 08

Figure 8.1 Interactions between multiple factors and their influences on mobility.

Figure 8.2 Traffic stream models (FFS and Capacity) and effect of road weather conditions.

Figure 8.3 Schematic of WRM benefit calculation for a single weather event using

macroscopic

analysis.

Figure 8.4 Schematic of WRM benefit calculation for a single weather event using

microscopic

simulation analysis.

Figure 8.5 Simulated traffic network using INTEGRATION and loop‐detector locations.

Figure 8.6 Calibration results for (a) speed and (b) capacity.

Figure 8.7 Mobility benefits of achieving bare pavement as a percentage of travel time of snow‐covered scenario.

Figure 8.8 A graphical illustration of the event and two WRM scenarios considered.

Figure 8.9 A graphical illustration of the two scenarios considered.

Figure 8.10 Mobility benefit vs. maintenance timing.

Figure 8.11 Mobility benefit of WRM vs. WRM LOS standard for Ontario Provincial Network.

Chapter 09

Figure 9.1 Costs and benefits associated with winter maintenance.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Atmospheric and pavement condition parameters to be considered to determine the appropriate application rate of deicers.

Figure 10.2 Schematic of deicer migration off the roadway into various environments where it can exert impacts.

Figure 10.3 Pathways of snow and ice control material transport in the environment.

Figure 10.4 Sodium and chloride aquatic toxicity for selected fish species.

Figure 10.5 Typical symptoms of road plants with different degrees of injury caused by deicing salt pollution.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Damage pattern of salt scaling on concrete surface.

Figure 11.2 Thickness distribution of scaled‐off materials.

Figure 11.3 Results indicated that maximum damage occurs at a solute concentration of ~3%, and that this trend is independent of solute type.

Figure 11.4 Weight loss of cement concrete specimens following SHRP H205.8 test in various solutions (Shi

et al.

, 2009b).

Figure 11.5 Smart pebbles concept (Watters

et al.

, 2003).

Figure 11.6 Corrosion of a steel cable barrier (photo taken by Xianming Shi).

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Pitting corrosion diagram on stainless steel.

Figure 12.2 General corrosion.

Figure 12.3 Pitting corrosion.

Figure 12.4 Crevice corrosion.

Figure 12.5 Galvanic corrosion.

Figure 12.6 Filiform corrosion.

Figure 12.7 Intergranular corrosion.

Figure 12.8 Stress corrosion cracking.

Figure 12.9 Corrosion fatigue.

Figure 12.10 Erosion corrosion in a pipeline with a T‐shape geometry (a), corroded metallic cap (b), and pitted zone (c) (Hernández‐Rodríguez

et al.

, 2016; with permission from Elsevier).

Figure 12.11 Fretting corrosion.

Figure 12.12 Microbiologically influenced corrosion.

Figure 12.13 Allocation of corrosion‐related repair costs among WSDOT equipment (Shi

et al.

, 2013).

Figure 12.14 Images of corrosion damage on winter maintenance vehicles.

Figure 12.15 Temporal evolution of polarization resistance of carbon steel coupons (C1010, A), stainless steel coupons (SS304L, B) and aluminum alloy coupons (Al1100) in 30 wt.% MgCl

solution.

Figure 12.16 Digital photos of pressure‐washed samples exposed to 10% MgCl

containing 5% sugar beet by‐product (a) and 10% MgCl

(b) after a six‐day dip‐dry test.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Sample partitioning of a small network into elementary cycles.

Figure 13.2 Major components of an RWIS station (Reproduced from Kwon

et al.

2014).

Figure 13.3 (a) VST, (b) SWE, (c) WAR, and (d) HT.

Figure 13.4 Proposed RWIS station locations – Ontario, Canada.

Figure 13.5 Implementation of the CB‐based method.

Figure 13.6 Implementation of the CB‐based method.

Figure 13.7 Implementation of the CB‐based method.

Figure 13.8 A comparison of RWIS density charts – per unit area (10,000 km

Figure 13.9 A linear relationship of correlation range vs. area (km

Figure 13.10 A simple network with ten potential RWIS station locations.

Figure 13.11 The three selected RWIS sites using the SI‐based approach.

Figure 13.12 Main components of salt management plan.

Figure 13.13 (Top) A change in gradient can cause snow to accumulate, possibly blocking a roadway. (Bottom) Obstructions such as trees, fencerows, or buildings can also cause snow to accumulate, possibly blocking a roadway.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 The fetch concept used to estimate snow transport.

Figure 14.2 Schematic design of an LSF (Wyatt

et al.

, 2012).

Figure 14.3 Details of typical landscape layout of an LSF.

Figure 14.4 An example ground profile required to generate the snowdrift profile in the region of interest.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Process showing the combined use of various BMPs to provide flow control, courtesy of E. Strecker. TSCs denote Temporary Sediment Controls.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Advantages and disadvantages of traditional and innovative equipment. (Note that Figure 16.1 contains general statements and all may not apply in their entirety to all traditional and innovative equipment.)

Figure 16.2 Feasibility of innovative equipment.

Figure 16.3 Areas of innovative equipment.

Figure 16.4 Road treating equipment components.

Figure 16.5 Hopper with increased spreading capacity for chemical treatment.

Figure 16.6 Tanker for liquid treatment.

Figure 16.7 Trucks with higher plowing capacity.

Figure 16.8 Monitoring equipment options.

Figure 16.9 Examples of asset management and its purpose.

Figure 16.10 Costs associated with winter maintenance.

Figure 16.11 Data fusion for innovative equipment evaluation.

Figure 16.12 Example of data fusion.

Figure 16.13 Determining ideal areas for implementation of a tow‐behind plow.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Process for developing “green” deicers.

Figure 17.2 DSC thermograms for 23% NaCl solution, Mix 3, and Mix 22.

Figure 17.3 Ice‐melting performance after 60 min at −1.1 °C (30 °F). Error bars were calculated from triplicates.

Figure 17.4 Ice‐melting performance after 60 min at −9.4 °C (15 °F). Error bars were calculated from triplicates.

Figure 17.5 Ice‐melting performance at −6.7 °C (20 °F), 60 min.

Figure 17.6 Temporal evolution of ice melt of various liquid deicers at −6.7 °C (20 °F).

Figure 17.7 Results of the NACE TM0169–95 PNS Modified Dip Test.

Figure 17.8 Weight loss results of half‐air‐entrained mortar specimens following the SHRP H205.8 freeze–thaw test.

Figure 17.9 STS and weight loss following the SHRP H205.8 freeze/thaw test.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Photos of the first snow‐melting observation. (a) Asphalt mixture containing MF; (b) Asphalt mixture containing Mg

/Al‐Ac

−

LDH; (c) Asphalt mixture containing Cl

−

DIA; (d) Asphalt mixture containing MF after 4 hrs; (e) Asphalt mixture containing Mg

/Al‐Ac

−

LDH after 4 hrs; (f) Asphalt mixture containing Cl

−

DIA after 4 hrs (Peng

et al.

2015).

Figure 18.2 Photos of the second snow‐melting observation. (a) Asphalt mixture containing MF; (b) Asphalt mixture containing Mg

/Al‐Ac

−

LDH; (c) Asphalt mixture containing Cl

−

DIA; (d) Asphalt mixture containing MF after 4 hrs; (e) Asphalt mixture containing Mg

/Al‐Ac

−

LDH after 4 hrs; (f) Asphalt mixture containing Cl

−

DIA after 4 hrs (Peng

et al.

2015).

Figure 18.3 Typical pavement section of a hydronic snow‐melting system (a) plan view, (b) cross‐section view (Yu

et al.

2016).

Figure 18.4 Heat transfer mechanisms: (a) conventional bridge; (b) heated bridge (Yu

et al.

2016).

Figure 18.5 Schematic principle of thermochromic‐based asphalt (UV = ultraviolet) (Hu 2016).

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Logic model conceptual diagram.

Figure 19.2 Scatterplot of prewet rate vs. normalized cost.

Figure 19.3 Iowa Department of Transportation Salt Dashboard. The graphs and time‐menu are interactive and allow users to zoom the data to their desired resolution.

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Percent of bare pavement and temperatures over time (hrs) from salting.

Figure 20.2 Phase diagram of aqueous salt binary solution.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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Sustainable Winter Road Operations

Edited by

Xianming Shi

Washington State UniversityPullman

Liping Fu

University of WaterlooWaterloo

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Xianming Shi and Liping Fu to be identified as the authors of the editorial work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered OfficesJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Shi, Xianming, 1974– editor. | Fu, Liping, editor.Title: Sustainable winter road operations / edited by Xianming Shi, Liping Fu.Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018. | Includes index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2017051511 (print) | LCCN 2017055953 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119185147 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119185154 (epub) | ISBN 9781119185062 (hardback)Subjects: LCSH: Roads–Snow and ice control–Environmental aspects. | Roads–Maintenance and repair.Classification: LCC TE220.5 (ebook) | LCC TE220.5 .S87 2018 (print) | DDC 625.7/63–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017051511

List of Contributors

Chris AlbrechtThe Narwhal GroupPO Box 567, Salt Lake City, Utah 84110 USA

Mallory J. CrowGraduate AssistantThe University of Akron224 Sumner St. ASEC 210, Akron OH 44325

Na CuiAssociate ProfessorSchool of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Jinan,Jinan, Shandong, China 250022

Rune DalenSales representative & product developerAebi‐Schmidt Norway ASGjerstadveien 171NO‐4993 SundebruNorway

Sen DuGraduate Research AssistantDepartment of Civil & Environmental EngineeringWashington State UniversityPullman, WA 99164‐2910

Laura FayWestern Transportation Institute Montana State UniversityPO Box 174250Bozeman, MT 59717

Liping FuProfessorDepartment of Civil & Environmental EngineeringUniversity of WaterlooWaterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada

Tina GreenfieldIowa Department of Transportation800 Lincoln WayAmes IA, 50010

William A. HolikAssistant Research Scientist, Texas A&M Transportation Institute1100 NW Loop 410, Suite 400 San Antonio, TX 78213

S. M. Kamal HossainAssistant Professor Pavement EngineeringDepartment of Civil EngineeringMemorial University of NewfoundlandSt. John’s, NL, A1B 3X5, Canada

Jiang Huang3465 S. Shortleaf AvenueBoise, ID 83716

Scott JungwirthAdvanced Engineering and Environmental Services, Inc.1050 East Main Street Suite 2Bozeman, MT 59715

Alex Klein‐PasteAssociate ProfessorInst. of Civil and Transport EngineeringNorwegian University of Science and TechnologyHøgskoleringen 7a7491 TrondheimNorway

Tae J. KwonAssistant ProfessorDepartment of Civil & Environmental EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada

Matthew MuresanPhD CandidateDepartment of Civil & Environmental EngineeringUniversity of WaterlooWaterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada

Mehdi Honarvar NazariGraduate Research AssistantDepartment of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Washington State UniversityPullman, WA 99164‐2910

Ralph PattersonThe Narwhal GroupPO Box 567, Salt Lake City, Utah 84110 USA

William H. Schneider IVAssociate ProfessorThe University of Akron224 Sumner St. ASEC 210, Akron OH 44325

Xianming ShiAssociate ProfessorDepartment of Civil & Environmental EngineeringWashington State UniversityP. O. Box 642910Pullman, WA 99164‐2910

Leland D. Smithson1817 Northcrest CourtAmes, IA 50010

Eric StreckerGeosyntec Consultants621 SW Morrison St., Suite 600Portland, OR 97205

Leigh SturgesThe Narwhal GroupPO Box 567, Salt Lake City, Utah 84110 USATaimur UsmanPostdoctoral FellowDepartment of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of WaterlooWaterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada

David VenezianoInstitute for Transportation Iowa State University2711 South Loop DriveSuite 4700Ames, Iowa 50010‐8664

Ning XieProfessorShandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Preparation and Measurement of Building Materials,University of Jinan, Jinan, Shandong, China 250022

Gang XuGraduate Research AssistantDepartment of Civil & Environmental EngineeringWashington State UniversityPullman, WA 99164‐2910

Zhengxian YangAssistant Research ProfessorDepartment of Civil & Environmental EngineeringP. O. Box 642910Washington State UniversityPullman, WA 99164‐2910

Foreword

Wilfrid Nixon

Mobility is a critical part of modern society. Economies depend on the ability to move goods in a reliable and predictable manner and without this ability, economic output is severely degraded. People want to be able to move freely and thus require an effective and efficient transportation infrastructure to do so. Unfortunately, weather sometimes impacts the transportation system in such a way that it does not provide mobility and safety for goods and the traveling public. Transportation agencies, who are tasked with providing safety and mobility on the transportation system, thus undertake a variety of operations to maintain the safety and mobility of the transportation system even when the weather is less than ideal.

The economic impacts of a snow storm can be substantial. A variety of studies have considered the economic impacts of roads being closed (by, for example, a winter storm) across a state, and indicate that the economic cost of such a closure are between $300 and $700 million per day. And each year winter weather is a factor in crashes killing about 1,300 people. So good winter maintenance can clearly play an important role in providing safety and mobility for the traveling public.

This book aims to collect in one place all the information and understanding pertinent to conducting operations intended to ensure safety and mobility on the transportation system when that system is impacted by winter weather of all types. This foreword attempts to set this information and understanding in some sort of broad‐brush context. Obviously, the details are in the main chapters of the book itself. The foreword is an enticement to dip into the chapters!

Over the past thirty years there have been significant advances in the practice of winter operations, and in our understanding of how those practices can be made more effective. A key part of this advancement has been the understanding, which has grown in the past decade, that the practice of winter operations not only has to be sustainable, but has to be seen to be sustainable. For the most part, those involved in the practice of winter operations have inevitably balanced societal, economic, and environmental needs. The goals of winter operations almost require that such a balance be sought after and achieved. However, while the practice has been sustainable, the language describing that practice has been less so. It is important that both the practice and the language of the practice be seen to be grounded in sustainable processes.

Given the focus of this text on sustainability it is important to consider what exactly sustainability means and how applicable it is to winter maintenance. The standard definition of sustainable practices is as follows:

Sustainable operations meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Unfortunately, this is not particularly helpful when it comes to winter maintenance operations. For example, snow plows are not mentioned at all! The definition does not touch upon some of the very important research done on materials we use in winter maintenance, such as NCHRP Report 577. And quite frankly, the definition is sufficiently vague that it could mean almost anything depending on what you want it to mean. For example, what do we mean by “needs?” And what will “compromise the ability of future generations?” The danger with the vagueness is that not only does it lack guidance but it allows interpretation that can vary hugely.

One particular aspect of sustainability that is especially pertinent to winter operations is the so‐called triple bottom line. This approach suggests that rather than simply consider cost as the driving concern in operations, we should also consider societal needs and environmental impacts as having, if not equal weight, a similar weight in importance to budgetary concerns. In our field societal concerns relate to providing safety and mobility for the traveling public. Our environmental concerns relate to minimizing impacts on the environment. The latter is interesting because while, for example, using materials such as road salt does create a loading on the environment, so too does NOT using road salt. We know from a variety of studies that a well‐designed and implemented winter maintenance operations program will reduce crashes by between 85 and 90%. And each and every crash is a small‐scale environmental disaster – not only will various liquids (gasoline, diesel, engine oil, coolants and so forth) be spilled, but we will also have to replace the vehicles involved (not all the time, but it seems that even a small‐scale crash can lead to a vehicle being written off), which carries material and energy costs with their own environmental issues. So, good environmental stewardship may require us to use road salt (in suitable amounts and under the correct conditions).

Another aspect of sustainability that is not captured by the standard definition is what I call the “one size does NOT fit all” consideration. Not every community has the same needs and expectations when it comes to winter maintenance. Not every agency needs to plow residential streets for example. Many cities and towns in Colorado do not plow residential streets unless there is a large snow accumulation (in some cases, as much as ten inches) because in most winter events the snow is melted by the following day. It is a truism that the weather is different all across North America, so having the same approach to winter maintenance in Toronto and in Atlanta does not make much sense.

This book deals with the various aspects of winter maintenance operations and of course does so on a chapter‐by‐chapter basis. While each chapter is to some degree a stand‐alone document, it is not the intent of the book to suggest that there is no interaction between the various issues addressed within. Another aspect of sustainability when it comes to operations is to recognize that operations are part of a system and that each part of the system can impact other parts. Thus, by way of a simple example, the weather forecast should impact material application rates, but so too should the current pavement condition, and the traffic levels on a given segment of road. If the book becomes a collection of “silos” of knowledge, it will have not succeeded in its aims.

In conclusion, winter maintenance operations are critical to the safety and mobility of our transportation systems. Equally, those operations must be conducted in a safe and sustainable manner. This book aims to detail how such operations can be conducted in such a way.

1Introduction to Sustainable Winter Road Maintenance

Xianming Shi1 and Liping Fu2

1 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164‐2910

2 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Motivation for This Book

This book is motivated by the opportunities made possible by leveraging recent advances and significant knowledge accumulated in various aspects related to winter road maintenance (WRM), such as weather forecasting, sensor and equipment technologies, operational practices and materials, and performance measurement, to achieve sustainable winter operations. These opportunities enable new perspectives on and holistic approaches to achieving sustainability of WRM operations by minimizing physical and chemical impacts, economic costs, and societal vulnerabilities and risks of winter storms, and maximizing the synergies across multiple modes and jurisdictions.

Investing in WRM operations is essential and beneficial to the public and the economy. In many northerly countries and regions, WRM operations are essential to ensure the safety, mobility and productivity of transportation systems. The U.S. economy cannot afford the cost of shutting down the transportation system, such as highways and airports, during wintery weather. According to the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), “over 70 percent of the nation’s roads are located in snowy regions, which receive more than five inches average snowfall annually … Nearly 70 percent of the U.S. population lives in these snowy regions” (Figure 1.1). Transportation agencies are under increasing pressure to provide a high level of service (LOS) and to improve safety and mobility in a fiscally and environmentally responsible manner. It is therefore desirable to be able to make full use of best practices in the application of materials, strategies, equipment and other technologies. Such best practices are expected to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of winter operations, to optimize material usage, and to reduce associated annual spending and corrosion and environmental impacts. As described in Nixon et al. (2012), WRM operations include six interrelated components and processes where improvements for sustainability can be made, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.1 U.S. areas affected by snow and ice

(Adapted from: FHWA 2016).

Figure 1.2 Key components and processes in winter transportation operations

(Adapted from: Nixon et al. 2012).

WRM operations can greatly contribute to a safe and efficient transportation system and thus facilitate economic development by reducing logistics costs of firms and individuals. The U.S. alone spends $2.3 billion annually to keep highways clear of snow and ice, with another $5 billion estimated damage to the transportation infrastructure and natural environment (FHWA 2005). WRM operations have lasting economic, social and environmental impacts. They offer such benefits to the public and society as: fewer accidents, improved mobility, reduced travel costs, reduced fuel usage, sustained economic productivity, continued emergency services, etc. (Figure 1.3). An example of a winter storm hindering the U.S. economy occurred in 1996 when a blizzard shut down much of the northeastern U.S. for four days. The loss in production and in sales was estimated to be approximately $10 billion and $7 billion, respectively, without taking account of accidents, injuries or other associated costs (Salt Institute, 1999). A recent study for the National Research Council estimated the quantifiable benefits of winter highway maintenance by the Minnesota Department of Transportation (DOT) to be about $220 million per winter season, even without considering the risk of highway closures in the absence of winter operations (Ye et al. 2013).

Figure 1.3 WRM operations are vital to economy and society.

Sustainability in WRM operations has become a growing consideration over the past decade. Since a consensus has been reached that the principles of sustainability should guide all transportation design and operations, a variety of efforts have been conducted to follow this recognition. The U.S. FHWA has developed a practical, web‐based collection of best practices that would assist state Departments of Transportation (DOTs) with integrating sustainability into their transportation system practices. Winter maintenance has emerged as a critical area for transportation sustainability (Nixon 2012; Nixon and Mark 2012; Nixon et al. 2012; Shi et al. 2013).

1.1.2 The Need for This Book

Winter road maintenance has always been an integral part of transportation operations for agencies that must deal with the impacts of adverse winter weather. Significant advances have been made in the various aspects of WRM operations, such as deicing/anti‐icing materials, maintenance practices, equipment, and road weather and surface‐condition monitoring. Most of these developments have been motivated by the need to provide a high level of service (LOS) and improve safety and mobility in a sustainable manner. However, currently there are no professional societies or scientific journals or textbooks dedicated solely to sustainable winter road operations and the key information is scattered across a variety of disciplines and in various forms of publications. As more agencies are exploring the impacts of WRM operations, including voluntary and regulatory controls to reduce their impacts, the development of a comprehensive book is timely to consolidate best practices and recent advances in sustainable WRM operations and to help reduce the cost and environmental footprint associated with WRM operations.

In this context, this book aims to bridge a significant knowledge gap and to address the pressing need for such a book for both education and workforce development. It will be the first book to provide a holistic perspective on the benefits and potential negative impacts of WRM operations while promoting environmental sustainability concepts and practices. This book will serve as essential reading for maintenance professionals in charge of snow and ice control operations on highways, local roads, etc. It will also serve as a textbook for senior elective or graduate‐level courses, with outstanding potential for online education. Webinars and training modules could be developed using this book as the blueprint.

1.2 How the Chapters and Topics Are Organized

Following this introductory chapter, the rest of the book tackles the multiple dimensions of sustainable WRM operations. The individual chapters, while covering different topics related to WRM, are interrelated, with some serving as input to the others, as schematically illustrated in Figure 1.4. Chapter 2 provides a framework for assessing the life‐cycle sustainability of salt application in winter maintenance operations. The framework integrates the triple bottom line of sustainability, i.e., economics, environmental stewardship and social progress in accounting for the direct and indirect costs, benefits and impacts over the entire life cycle of road salt. Chapter 3 provides a historical perspective detailing the important developments and evolutions in materials, maintenance strategies, and equipment over the past three decades in advancing sustainable WRM operations. Chapter 4 discusses the societal and user expectations of WRM operations, as well as how agencies establish their LOS standards.

Figure 1.4 Relationship between individual book chapters.

Chapter 5 provides an overview on how road weather services can greatly contribute to sustainable WRM operations. Chapter 6 discusses the fundamentals of plowing, anti‐icing, deicing, and sanding operations, laying out the foundation for developing ways to improve the performance and sustainability of various maintenance treatments. Chapter 7 and Chapter 8 provide an overview of the methodologies that can be applied to understanding and quantifying the effects of winter weather and maintenance operations on road safety and mobility, respectively. Chapter 9 discusses the economic benefits of WRM operations and examines how they can be used in cost‐benefit analysis of maintenance policies, programs and technology investment. Chapter 10 provides an overview of the environmental risks that some commonly used deicing/anti‐icing materials may pose. Chapter 11 and Chapter 12 discuss the risks of WRM operations to the transportation infrastructure and motor vehicles, respectively, as well as the corresponding best practices to manage such risks.

Chapter 13 focuses on planning and management strategies for achieving sustainable WRM, such as network partitioning or districting, fleet sizing and mixing, siting of RWIS stations, and salt management. Chapter 14 discusses sustainability practices in the domain of source control tactics, including innovative snow fences for drift control, anti‐icing, deicing and pre‐wetting practices, maintenance decision support systems (MDSS), fixed automated spray technology (FAST), equipment maintenance and calibration, advanced snowplows and spreaders, and material and snow storage. Chapter 15 discusses reactive approaches to reducing the environmental impacts of snow and ice control materials after their application on pavement. Chapter 16 focuses on the decision‐making process for selecting the appropriate types of innovative equipment for WRM. Chapter 17 discusses the search for “greener” materials for WRM operations, with a focus on the development and evaluation of deicers. Chapter 18 provides an overview of pavement innovations that can reduce the need for chemicals or abrasives for WRM operations.

Chapter 19 describes the benefit of performance measurement in responsible and sustainable winter maintenance management, an overview of common performance measures, and how to overcome the challenges associated with analyzing winter operations performance. Chapter 20 presents a review of current snow and ice control methods and a guide for selecting an optimal application rate for specific weather, treatment and LOS requirements. Chapter 21 concludes the book with a look into the future in terms of the main challenges and opportunities and future research and development in sustainable WRM operations.

References

FHWA (2005).

How Do Weather Events Impact Roads

. Federal Highway Administration. Available at

http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/Weather/q1_roadimpact.htm

, accessed 3 May 2005.

FHWA (2016).

Snow and Ice

. Federal Highway Administration. Available at

http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/Weather/weather_events/snow_ice.htm

, accessed 1 Nov. 2016.

Nixon, W.A. (2012). Measuring sustainability in winter operations.

Proceedings of the 2012 Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting

, Washington, D.C.

Nixon, W.A., Mark, D.R. (2012). Sustainable winter maintenance and a 22‐in. blizzard: Case study.

Proceedings of the International Conference on Winter Maintenance and Surface Transportation Weather

, Coralville, Iowa, April 30 to May 3, 2012: Transportation Research E‐Circular E‐C162.

Nixon, W.A., Nelson, R., DeVries, R.M., Smithson, L. (2012). Sustainability in winter maintenance operations: A checklist. In

Transportation Research Board 91st Annual Meeting

, Washington, D.C. (No. 12–3485).

Salt Institute (1999).

Billions at Risk during Snow Emergencies: Snowfighting Investment Pays Big Dividends

. Alexandria, VA.

Shi, X., Veneziano, D., Xie, N., Gong, J. (2013). Use of chloride‐based ice control products for sustainable winter maintenance: A balanced perspective.

Cold Regions Science and Technology

, 86, 104–112.

Ye, Z., Veneziano, D., Shi, X. (2013). Estimating statewide benefits of winter maintenance operations.

Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board

, (2329), 17–23.

2A Framework for Life‐Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Road Salt Used in Winter Maintenance Operations

Na Cui,1 Ning Xie,2 and Xianming Shi3

1 School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Jinan, Jinan, Shandong, China 250022

2 Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Preparation and Measurement of Building Materials, University of Jinan, Jinan, Shandong, China 250022

3 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164–2910

2.1 Introduction

One of the basic requirements for successful implementation of a winter road maintenance (WRM) program is the appropriate selection of deicers (Shi et al., 2013). Traditionally, nominal cost and effectiveness are the major criteria used by roadway professionals when making such selection. However, there is growing concern over the negative impacts of such chemicals on the natural environment (Levelton Consultants, 2007; Corsi et al., 2010; Fay and Shi, 2012), transportation infrastructure (Pan et al., 2008; Shi et al., 2010; Xie et al., 2016), and motor vehicles (Shi et al., 2009; Dean et al., 2012). To tackle these risks, some endeavors have been made to find alternatives to regular road salt, e.g., agro‐based and complex chlorides/minerals‐based products (Hossain et al., 2015; Muthumani and Shi, 2016). These have triggered the need to adopt sustainability principles for WRM operations, so as to ensure that any cost savings of winter maintenance practices would not be at the expense of deteriorated infrastructure, impaired environment, or jeopardized traveler safety.

The principles of sustainability generally put emphasis on the “triple bottom line”: economy, environment and society, and these have yet to be applied to WRM operations. Over the past decade, addressing sustainability in WRM operations has attracted more attention (Nixon, 2012). To assess the life‐cycle sustainability of chloride‐based deicers for WRM operations, it is not sufficient to estimate only the economic savings from enhanced winter roadway safety and mobility; the indirect costs and benefits associated with infrastructure degradation, vehicle corrosion, etc. must also be investigated. Furthermore, efforts should be made to quantify the life‐cycle footprint of each deicer for the natural environment and for society. It should be cautioned that many of the items regarding costs (or benefits), environmental impacts, and social impacts can be intangible, hard to quantify, and inherently stochastic, making it difficult to conduct a reliable life‐cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA).

Since a consensus has been reached that the principles of sustainability should guide all transportation designs and operations, a variety of relevant efforts have been made towards adopting them in WRM operations. An example is the development of a practical, web‐based collection of best practices by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), aimed to assist state departments of transportation (DOTs) with integrating sustainability into their practices in managing the transportation system. A FHWA tool, INVEST (Infrastructure Voluntary Evaluation Sustainability Tool), provides a segment on winter maintenance, including a road weather information system (RWIS), a materials management plan, and a maintenance decision support system (MDSS), and shows the implementation of standards of practice for snow and ice control (Shi et al., 2013). These endeavors have been useful in promoting sustainability in WRM operations, but do not provide any framework to enable reliable quantification of life‐cycle sustainability of deicers or other WRM practices.

The multiple dimensions of deicer selection demand an integrated sustainability assessment framework, which is currently non‐existent in the published literature. Yet this framework is much needed by agencies so that they can appropriately assess the related social–economic costs and benefits of a deicer and comprehensively account for its environmental impacts, and thus make more informed decisions based on comparisons of different deicer products and improve their operations (Fitch et al., 2013). For instance, depending on the design and manufacturing technique of products used for snow and ice control, the mining, production, distribution, storage, and application of these compounds unavoidably contribute to the environmental footprint of WRM operations. The negative impacts of deicers on vehicles and infrastructure also induce secondary environmental impacts. As such, it is important to consider the entire life cycle of deicers, from mining/extraction, processing, storage, distribution, roadway application to eventual fate and transport in the environment, or recycling. These considerations should be examined with a life‐cycle approach and a balanced perspective among all relevant stakeholders.

A LCSA framework would help produce a full picture of the impacts of each step in the use of deicers and thus facilitate more balanced decisions. As such, this chapter anatomizes the LCSA framework of road salt (the most commonly used deicer for anti‐icing, deicing and pre‐wetting practices), through analyses based on the triple bottom line. This reflects the current state of thinking on the structure of the LCSA framework for road salt, including concepts, complexities and caveats, and considerations in each of the three branches of LCSA (economic, environmental, and social aspects). While this framework is the first step in the right direction, we envision that it will be improved and enriched by continued research and may serve as a template for the LCSA of other WRM products, technologies, and practices.

2.2 Concepts of LCSA

LCSA represents a new philosophy that has been widely discussed in recent years (Zamagni, 2012). Based on the definition in the context of sustainable development, the “triple bottom line” or the “three pillars” mode forms the basis of expression for LCSA in its measurement. This can be overly simplified as a linear equation (2.1) as follows.

(2.1)

where LCC, LCA, and SLCA denote life‐cycle costing, environmental life‐cycle assessment, and societal life‐cycle assessment, respectively. They respond to the economic, environmental, and societal aspects of sustainability assessment, respectively, and jointly constitute the systematic structure of LCSA (Zamagni, 2012; Kloepffer, 2008).

LCC works to capture the economic effects of an industrial product or activity throughout its life‐cycle stages. Usually it starts from calculating the direct cost, from extraction of resources, to production and usage of the product, to the cost management of product reuse, recycling, and disposal. Benefit accrued during any of the life‐cycle stages can be considered a negative cost. Woodward defined the life‐cycle cost of an industrial product or activity as: “the sum of all funds expended in support of the item from its conception and fabrication through its operation to the end of its useful life” (Woodward, 1997). Harvey (1976) proposed a general LCC procedure, summarized in Figure 2.1, in which the step “Define the cost elements of interest” entails the estimation of the direct cost that occurs during the service life of an industrial product or activity; “Define the cost structure to be used” entails the grouping of costs to identify potential trade‐offs in the optimization of LCC; “Establish the cost‐estimating relationships” entails a mathematical expression that estimates the cost of an industrial product or activity as a function of different variables; and “Establish the method of LCC formulation” entails the process to finalize an appropriate approach to evaluate the life‐cycle cost of an industrial product or activity.

Figure 2.1 Harvey’s LCC procedure (Harvey, 1976).

LCA was developed as an analytical tool to assess the environmental impacts of an industrial product or activity. The International Standards Organization (ISO) initiated a global standardization process for LCA, including the development of four standards (goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation), as well as a definition and basic requirements, as shown in Figure 2.2. In the ISO 14040 standard, LCA was defined as “the compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle” (Guinee et al

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