Terrestrial Radiation Effects in ULSI Devices and Electronic Systems E-Book

Eishi H. Ibe

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley - IEEE
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 403

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

This book provides the reader with knowledge on a wide variety of radiation fields and their effects on the electronic devices and systems. The author covers faults and failures in ULSI devices induced by a wide variety of radiation fields, including electrons, alpha-rays, muons, gamma rays, neutrons and heavy ions. Readers will learn how to make numerical models from physical insights, to determine the kind of mathematical approaches that should be implemented to analyze radiation effects. A wide variety of prediction, detection, characterization and mitigation techniques against soft-errors are reviewed and discussed. The author shows how to model sophisticated radiation effects in condensed matter in order to quantify and control them, and explains how electronic systems including servers and routers are shut down due to environmental radiation. * Provides an understanding of how electronic systems are shut down due to environmental radiation by constructing physical models and numerical algorithms * Covers both terrestrial and avionic-level conditions * Logically presented with each chapter explaining the background physics to the topic followed by various modelling techniques, and chapter summary * Written by a widely-recognized authority in soft-errors in electronic devices * Code samples available for download from the Companion Website This book is targeted at researchers and graduate students in nuclear and space radiation, semiconductor physics and electron devices, as well as other areas of applied physics modelling. Researchers and students interested in how a variety of physical phenomena can be modelled and numerically treated will also find this book to present helpful methods.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

About the Author

Preface

Acknowledgements

Acronyms

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Basic Knowledge on Terrestrial Secondary Particles

1.2 CMOS Semiconductor Devices and Systems

1.3 Two Major Fault Modes: Charge Collection and Bipolar Action

1.4 Four Hierarchies in Faulty Conditions in Electronic Systems: Fault – Error – Hazard – Failure

1.5 Historical Background of Soft-Error Research

1.6 General Scope of This Book

References

Chapter 2: Terrestrial Radiation Fields

2.1 General Sources of Radiation

2.2 Backgrounds for Selection of Terrestrial High-Energy Particles

2.3 Spectra at the Avionics Altitude

2.4 Radioisotopes in the Field

2.5 Summary of Chapter 2

References

Chapter 3: Fundamentals of Radiation Effects

3.1 General Description of Radiation Effects

3.2 Definition of Cross Section

3.3 Radiation Effects by Photons (Gamma-ray and X-ray)

3.4 Radiation Effects by Electrons (Beta-ray)

3.5 Radiation Effects by Muons

3.6 Radiation Effects by Protons

3.7 Radiation Effects by Alpha-Particles

3.8 Radiation Effects by Low-Energy Neutrons

3.9 Radiation Effects by High-Energy Neutrons

3.10 Radiation Effects by Heavy Ions

3.11 Summary of Chapter 3

References

Chapter 4: Fundamentals of Electronic Devices and Systems

4.1 Fundamentals of Electronic Components

4.2 Fundamentals of Electronic Systems

4.3 Summary of Chapter 4

References

Chapter 5: Irradiation Test Methods for Single Event Effects

5.1 Field Test

5.2 Alpha Ray SEE Test

5.3 Heavy Ion Particle Irradiation Test

5.4 Proton Beam Test

5.5 Muon Test Method

5.6 Thermal/Cold Neutron Test Methods

5.7 High-Energy Neutron Test

5.8 Testing Conditions and Matters That Require Attention

5.9 Summary of Chapter 5

References

Chapter 6: Integrated Device Level Simulation Techniques

6.1 Overall Multi-scale and Multi-physics Soft-Error Analysis System

6.2 Relativistic Binary Collision and Nuclear Reaction Models

6.3 Intra-nuclear Cascade (INC) Model for High-Energy Neutrons and Protons

6.4 Evaporation Model for High-Energy Neutrons and Protons

6.5 Generalised Evaporation Model (GEM) for Inverse Reaction Cross Sections

6.6 Neutron Capture Reaction Model

6.7 Automated Device Modelling

6.8 Setting of Random Position of Spallation Reaction Point in a Component

6.9 Algorithms for Ion Tracking

6.10 Fault Mode Models

6.11 Calculation of Cross Section

6.12 Prediction for Scaling Effects of Soft Error Down to 22 nm Design Rule in SRAMs

6.13 Evaluation of Effects of Heavy Elements in Semiconductor Devices by Nuclear Spallation Reaction

6.14 Upper Bound Fault Simulation Model

6.15 Upper Bound Fault Simulation Results

6.16 Upper Bound Simulation Method for SOC (System On Chip)

6.17 Summary of Chapter 6

References

Chapter 7: Prediction, Detection and Classification Techniques of Faults, Errors and Failures

7.1 Overview of Failures in the Field

7.2 Prediction and Estimation of Faulty Conditions due to SEE

7.3 In-situ Detection of Faulty Conditions due to SEE

7.4 Classification of Faulty Conditions

7.5 Faulty Modes in Each Hierarchy

7.6 Summary of Chapter 7

References

Chapter 8: Mitigation Techniques of Failures in Electronic Components and Systems

8.1 Conventional Stack-layer Based Mitigation Techniques, Their Limitations and Improvements

8.2 Challenges for Hyper Mitigation Techniques

8.3 Summary of Chapter 8

References

Chapter 9: Summary

9.1 Summary of Terrestrial Radiation Effects on ULSI Devices and Electronic Systems

9.2 Directions and Challenges in the Future

Appendices

A.1 Hamming Code

A.2 Marching Algorithms

A.3 Why VB Is Used For Simulation?

A.4 Basic Knowledge of Visual Basic

A.5 Database Handling by Visual Basic and SQL

A.6 Algorithms in Text Handling and Sample Codes

A.7 How to Make a Self-Consistent Calculation

A.8 Sample Code for Random Selection of Hit Points in a Triangle

Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

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Figure 8.19

List of Tables

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 5.3

Table 5.4

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Table 5.6

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Table 6.1

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

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Table 8.1

Table 8.2

Table 8.3

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Table 8.6

TERRESTRIAL RADIATION EFFECTS IN ULSI DEVICES AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

Eishi H. Ibe

Chief Researcher, Hitachi Ltd., Japan

This edition first published 2015

© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte. Ltd.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ibe, Eishi H.

Terrestrial radiation effects in ULSI devices and electronic systems / Eishi H. Ibe.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-47929-2 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Electronic circuits–Effect of radiation on. 2. Integrated circuits–Ultra large scale integration–Reliability. 3. Integrated circuits–Effect of radiation on. I. Title.

TK7870.285.I24 2015

621.3815—dc23

2014022262

To my daughters, Akane and Hikari

About the Author

Dr. Eishi Hidefumi IBE received his BS degree in Physics from Kyoto University, Japan in 1975, and his PhD degree in Nuclear Engineering from Osaka University, Japan in 1985.

He has joined the Atomic Energy Research Laboratory, Hitachi Ltd in 1975. He was promoted to chief researcher in the Yokohama Research Laboratory (formerly Production Engineering Research Laboratory), Hitachi Ltd. in 2006.

He has made outstanding accomplishments in nuclear engineering during the first 20 years of his career, in particular radiation effects on water (radiolysis) and component materials, and in single event effects on semiconductor devices during the last 18 years. His expertise covers very wide areas of sciences, such as elementary particle/cosmic ray physics, nuclear/neutron physics, semiconductor physics, mathematics and computing technologies, ion-implantation/mixing and accelerator technologies, electro-chemistry, database handling, RBS (Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry)/Auger/SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy)/Laser-beam micro analysis, and so on.

He has carried out pioneering work on simulation techniques of water radiolysis in the coolant of nuclear power plants to reveal that water coolant in the core decomposes into H2 and H2O2. He has also established a theoretical basis for the hydrogen water chemistry techniques used to suppress oxidising H2O2, which is now widely applied to Japanese boiling water reactors to mitigate inter-granular stress corrosion cracking of the component materials. He has received awards from the Japanese Atomic Energy Society in 1986 and 1990, and from the American Nuclear Society in 1996.

During the last 18 years, he has dedicated himself to the development of quantification and mitigation techniques for terrestrial neutron-induced soft error in electronic devices and components. He developed the novel soft-error models for CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) devices. The models have been utilised to design more reliable semiconductor memory devices and logic gates, bringing in the breakthrough knowledge on the nature of terrestrial neutron soft error. Under his leadership, novel experimental techniques to quantify soft-error susceptibility of the devices and components have been developed and accepted as international standards.

He has contributed to IEEE journals such as EDS and TNS, conferences such as IRPS, IOLTS, ICICDT, WDSN, NSREC, RADECS, RASEDA, ICITA and SELSE as a program committee member, or a reviewer in the field of neutron-induced faults/errors/failures. He has authored more than 90 international technical papers and presentations including 25 invited contributions in the field of radiation effects. He has reviewed more than 200 technical papers responding to requests from the Chairs of the journals and conferences. This accumulation has given him wide and deep scope in the field of single event effects.

Dr. Ibe was promoted to IEEE Fellow for contributions to analysis of soft errors in memory devices in 2008. Some of his achievements are now accessible worldwide through his recent publications with World Scientific Inc. (2008) and Springer (2010, 2011).

Preface

In everyday life, we do not recognise the presence of terrestrial radiation – secondary particles are produced from cosmic ray and radiation from radioisotopes at ground level. Terrestrial radiation is so weak (low flux) that they do not have any visible or recognisable influence on human tissues, but it does have an impact on LSI (Large Scale Integration), VLSI (Very large scale integration) and ULSI (Ultra large scale integration) devices in electronic systems at ground level.

When I was a fourth grade student of the Kyoto University in 1974, my major subject matter was the measurement of lifetime of terrestrial muon. At that time, no one, including me, knew about or even imagined such impacts from terrestrial neutrons.

Rapid progress in semiconductor industries has forced us to be aware of the impacts of terrestrial radiation on semiconductor devices. First, alpha-ray soft error from contaminated radioisotopes on/in the DRAM (Direct Random Access Memory) and SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) devices. As the readers will see in this book, terrestrial neutron-induced soft error has been unacknowledged up until the late 1990s for many reasons. As device scaling has nosedived into below 100 nm, the impacts of terrestrial radiation has spread very widely and deeply. Not only terrestrial neutrons but also other terrestrial radiative particles such as protons and muons are recently among the focus of scientific investigations. Beyond memories, sequential and combinational logic devices and circuits are also being scrutinised. Concerns over failures have broadened from servers/routers to the automobile industry.

It is commonly recognised now that failures in electronic systems due to faults or errors introduced in devices/circuits by terrestrial radiation can only be mitigated by the combination or cooperation of mitigation techniques in two or more stack layers such as substrate, cell, circuit, CPU (Central Processing Unit), middleware, OS (Operating System) and application. This is a very challenging task that requires a wide variety of scientific fields like astronomy, cosmic ray physics, nuclear physics, accelerator physics, semiconductor physics, circuit theory, computer theory, numerical simulation, EDA (Electric Design Automation) tools, coding theory, reliability physics, database handling, and so on.

Meanwhile, this task is fascinating. During my research in this field, I have learned a number of exciting facts about the Earth.

We cannot live without air that is only a 50 km thick layer above the Earth – 1/250 of the diameter of the Earth. An astronaut has a limit to how long he can stay in the inner/outer space due to the limit of radiation exposure by cosmic rays. We, humankind, cannot live on a planet without air and have been protected from harsh cosmic radiation in outer space by only this very thin layer of air in the Earth.

Beautiful aurora australis and borealis are the outcome of interactions between cosmic rays and the atmosphere.

Carbon-14 that is used for radiocarbon dating is produced by nuclear reaction of nitrogen-14 and cosmic ray proton in the atmosphere. Even clouds in the sky have recently been revealed to be mostly triggered by cosmic rays according to CERN's team report.

The author hopes that this book will trigger the readers' interest in the impact of cosmic rays on the Earth and our everyday lives.

16 April 2014Eishi H. IbeEnjoying scuba diving in Saipan, USA

Acknowledgements

I gratefully acknowledge Professors Emeritus T. Nakamura, M. Baba and Professor Y. Sakemi for helpful discussions and support for the database on nuclear reactions and high-energy neutron experiments at CYRIC, Tohoku University. We also acknowledge Dr Alexander Prokofiev for cordial support in high-energy neutron experiments at TSL, Uppsala University. Communicative discussions with Drs. C. Slayman, S.-J. Wen of Cisco Systems Inc., N. Seifert of Intel, R. Baumann of TI, M. Nicolaidis of TIMA Laboratory, D. Alexandrescu and A. Evans of iRoc, T. Uemura of Fujitsu Laboratory and H. Kobayashi of SONY are deeply acknowledged. I am also grateful to Professors K. Kobayashi of Kyoto Institute of Technology, H. Onodera of Kyoto University, Drs. M. Yoshimura and Y. Matsunaga of Kyushu University for giving valuable information on SEU tolerant flip-flops and EDA tools. Invaluable discussions and information are given by Drs. Kuboyama, and D. Kobayashi of JAXA, Professor Y. Takahashi of Nippon University, and Ms. A. Makihara of HIREC.

Acronyms

ACE

Architectural Correct Execution

ALLS

Aligned Laboratory System

ALPEN

ALpha Particle source/drain PENtration

ALS

Absolute Laboratory System

ALU

Arithmetic-Logic Unit

AMUSE

Autonomous MUltilevel emulation system for Soft Error evaluation

ANITA

Atmospheric-like Neutrons from thIck TArget

AOI

Area Of Interest

ASIC

Application Specific Integrated Circuit

ASIL

Automotive Safety Integrity Level

ASTEP

Altitude Single event effects Test European Platform

AVF

Architectural Vulnerability Factor

AVP

Architectural Verification Program

BAN

Body Area Network

BCDMR

Bistable Cross-coupled Dual Modular Redundancy

BICS

Built-In Current Sensor

BISER

Built-In Soft Error Resilience

BIPS

Built-in Pulse Sensor

BIST

Built-In Self Test

BL

Bit Line

BNL

Brookhaven National Laboratory

BOX

Buried Oxide

BPSG

Boron Phosphor Silicate Glass

BUT

Board Under Test

CAM

Content Addressable Memory

CAN

Controller Area Network

CCD

Charge Coupled Device

CHB

CHecker Board

CHBc

CHecker Board complement

CL

Confidence Level

CLR

Cross-Layer Reliability

CM

Center of Mass

CMOS

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

CMP

Chemical Mechanical Polishing

CNL

UC Davis Crocker Nuclear Laboratory

CNRF

Cold Neutron Research Facility

CORIMS

COsmic Radiation IMpact Simulator

CPU

Central Processing Unit

CRAM

Configuration Random Access Memory

CRC

Cyclic Redundancy Code

CYCLON

Cyclotron of Louvain la Neuve

CYRIC

CYclotron and RadioIsotope Center