The Chemistry Inside Spices & Herbs: Research and Development: Volume 4 E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: The Chemistry inside Spices & Herbs: Research and Development
- Sprache: Englisch
The Chemistry inside Spices & Herbs: Research and Development brings comprehensive information about the chemistry of spices and herbs with a focus on recent research in this field.
Experts in phytochemistry have contributed chapters with the aim to give the reader deep knowledge about phytochemical constituents in herbal plants and their benefits. These in-depth reviews cover the biochemistry and biotechnology of spices and herbs, herbal medicines, biologically active compounds and their role in therapeutics among other topics. Chapters which highlight natural drugs and their role in different diseases and special plants of clinical significance are also included.
Volume 4 covers these topics: the potential use of Indian spices in managing viral infections, the chemical, functional, and nutritional properties of Coriander, traditional uses, chemical components, and pharmacological properties of Sphaeranthus indicus, Copaiba oleoresins phytochemisty and the pharmacological properties of oils from Copaifera species. Additionally, the pharmacognostic profile of Nardostachys jatamansi is discussed, along with insights into the medicinal herb Bush Onion (Afrostyrax lepidophyllus) and its nutritional and medicinal values. Various aspects of plant essential oils, including their chemistry, extraction methods, and medicinal properties, and plant proteases are also covered in detail.
This book is an ideal resource for scholars (in life sciences, phytomedicine and natural product chemistry) and general readers who want to understand the importance of herbs, spices and traditional medicine in pharmaceutical R&D and clinical research.
Readership
Scholars in life sciences, phytomedicine and natural product chemistry; general readers who want to understand the importance of herbs, spices and traditional medicine, pharmaceutical R&D and clinical research."
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Seitenzahl: 404
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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PREFACE
VOLUME-4 of the book series “The Chemistry Inside Spices and Herbs: Research and Development” is a nice collection of a total of eight chapters written by experts from India, Brazil, and Nigeria. Volume-4 has chapters full of scientific knowledge on the pharmacology of different herbs and spices, and different pharmaceutical roles of herbs and spices along with their chemistry have been excellently expounded by the experts. This volume of the book includes several pharmaceutically relevant topics such as the pharmacological potential of Sphaeranthus indicus Linn, Indian spices in the management of emerging viral infections, Coriander and its properties, Copaifera spp. Oils’ pharmacological study, Nardostachys jatamansi and its pharmacognostic profile, edible bush onion (Afrostyrax lepidophyllus) as a source of essential food and medicinal constituents, chemistry, biochemistry and medicinal applications of different herbal essential oils and insights into the pharmacologically valuable plant proteases.
Chapter 1, written by Singh, illustrates the necessity for novel antivirals, which is further supported by the recent pandemic scenario. The effect of various Indian spices on the immune system, as well as how well they might be capable of fighting viral infections, is covered in detail in the second section.
Chapter 2, written by Zambelli, describes the chemical, functional and nutritional properties of Coriander.
In Chapter 3, Tiwari et al., have compiled the traditional uses, chemical components and pharmacological properties of Sphaeranthus indicus Linn to provide a ready reference for scientists working on this plant species.
Chapter 4, written by Kumar et al., comprehensively describes the phytochemistry of Copaiba oleoresins, conventional uses, and pharmacological properties of various oils from Copaifera species.
Chapter 5, written by Gupta et al., comprehensively describes the pharmacognostic profile of Nardostachys jatamansi, a potent medicinal herb. In this chapter, they have described the various aspects of this medicinal plant in detail.
Chapter 6, written by OYETAYO et al., describes a medicinal herb, Bush Onion (Afrostyrax lepidophyllus), along with its nutritional and medicinal values.
In Chapter 7, Agrawal et al., describe the various plant’s essential oils, the chemistry of EO, extraction methods, essential oils in aromatherapy, as well as medicinal functional properties of different EOs like Lavender Oil, Clove oil, Eucalyptus oil, Peppermint oil, Lemongrass oil, and Cinnamon oil.
In Chapter 8, Roy et al., have comprehensively discussed the various plant proteases, highlighting their pharmaceutical, industrial and biotechnological aspects as well as the structure, properties and catalytic mechanisms.
List of Contributors
Role of Indian Spices in the Management of Emerging Viral Infections
Anuradha Singh1,*Abstract
The viral pandemic, with both emerging and re-emerging characteristics, has had a significant impact on human lives worldwide. This pandemic has resulted in substantial morbidity and mortality due to its rapid and widespread transmission among the general population. Unfortunately, the lack of effective antiviral treatments has further complicated the situation, making it challenging to control and manage the disease effectively. The ideal method for safeguarding against viral infections is to be immune. India's indigenous systems of medicine, with its rich array of phyto-therapies and natural remedies, have attracted the global community's interest. As a result, people all around the world are turning to and rekindling their interest in immune-boosting traditional remedies. Spices, with their significant therapeutic potential and excellent safety profiles, are currently being extensively studied as herbal drugs and immune-enhancing home remedies against infectious diseases. The first part of this chapter discusses the need for new antiviral drugs, especially in light of the recent pandemic. The second part reviews the extensive scientific evidence on the immune-boosting effects of many Indian spices, as well as their potential to fight viral infections. It also discusses their safety and toxicity profiles.
INTRODUCTION
From time immemorial, infectious diseases, particularly viral infections, have tormented humanity and civilization [1-4]. The virus's replication motifs and transmission modes are the prime roots of viral pandemics [5, 6]. However, substantial progress in the medical field against emerging viral infections has been made in the past few decades, particularly in the 1990s and 2000s. This progress has been driven by a number of factors, including advances in understanding the biology of viruses and their replication, the development of new technologies for
drug discovery and vaccine development, and increased investment in global health research and development [7-10].
The discovery of new treatment targets is not always followed by the formulation and authorization of new chemotherapeutics. Antivirals are not an exception when it comes to treating viral infections. Between 2017 and 2022, the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) granted approval to a mere seven new antiviral drugs, as highlighted in Table 1. The emerging and re-emerging viral outbreaks, as shown in Fig. (1), have propelled the scientific community to develop effective and sophisticated remedies to address the escalating demands imposed by these deadly diseases [11, 12].
Fig. (1)) Emerging and re-emerging viral diseases.Viral Life Cycle and Possible Drug Interventions
As parasites, contagious microscopic viruses encroach on living cells incorporated with host DNA. The virus takes control of the cellular machinery, initiating the production of numerous virion particles. As the entire life cycle of the virus unfolds within the host cell, discovering an effective treatment becomes exceedingly challenging. Different strategies have been developed by the scientific community to combat viral infections, and the main antiviral approaches currently under consideration may be classified into two types:
(i) The approaches that directly target the viruses and
(ii) The indirect approach involves targeting viruses by modulating the immune system of the host through various strategies, aiming to enhance the innate immune response or reduce inflammation triggered by viral infections [13].
The virus-directed methods require a thorough understanding of the virus's chemical nature, especially its interaction with the host cell. In the case of retroviruses, the exceedingly fast multiplication rate combined with the absence of exo-nuclease proofreading allows them to generate drug resistance mutations at an exceptionally fast rate. Viruses also exploit host machinery to not only replicate in host cells but also to escape the host immune system. The prospective targets in the viral life phases for the development of potential antivirals have been shown in Fig. (2).
Fig. (2)) Virus life cycle, possible viral targets (dotted blue circle) and potential drug interventions (in red).Over the past three decades, numerous antiviral agents targeting viral proteins or the host immune system have been successfully developed. However, challenges remain. De Clercq, E. and Li, G. (2016) provide a comprehensive evaluation of approved antiviral drugs in recent decades, shedding light on the need for improved antiviral treatments against both existing and emerging viruses [14]. Moreover, the rise of novel viruses such as Ebola and coronaviruses, which currently lack targeted treatments and exhibit growing resistance to existing drugs, underscores the urgency for innovative and efficacious strategies to develop potential antivirals. These strategies are crucial in combating ongoing and emerging viral infections effectively. In order to tackle the challenge of antiviral resistance and the emergence of new infectious viral diseases, it is crucial to maintain the continuous development of new drugs, which will help strengthen the arsenal of antiviral treatments. Unfortunately, the traditional drug discovery approach is not sufficient to solve the emerging global infectious pandemic [15].
Traditional Plant-Based Remedies
Nature has provided us with various medicinal plants, fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices, which are full of therapeutic properties along with fulfilling our nutritional needs [16, 17]. Herbal remedies have been utilized in traditional medicinal systems of India for centuries [18]. A variety of Indian medicinal plants, including herbs and spices, are used as rejuvenators and to cure a variety of diseases. Rising healthcare expenses and a desire for a higher quality of life have prompted scientists worldwide to research plant-based cures for preventative care and health management in recent decades [19, 20].
The genomes of medicinal plants are said to contain valuable components that can be used to treat a variety of diseases and metabolic disorders [21]. Due to their low cost, ease of availability, compatibility with the body and lack of side effects when compared to synthetic chemical treatments, herbal remedies have gained popularity worldwide. As stated by the World Health Organization (WHO), 80% of the global population has tried to focus on herbal products for primary health care [22]. Extensive research has been conducted to investigate the therapeutic potential of diverse classes of phytochemicals derived from medicinal plants and herbs. Nonetheless, the process of discovering drugs from plant metabolites is time-consuming, which stands in contrast to the urgent requirement for novel antiviral and antibacterial agents [23-25]. Even after a promising drug candidate has been identified, there may be challenges in all phases of drug development, from toxicity assessments and formulation studies to bioavailability assessments and the upscaling process for pilot production. The factors mentioned above are some of the challenges that need to be addressed in order to move a drug from the preclinical to clinical phases of development. A potentially faster and more likely successful strategy involves studying plant species that are already consumed by people, have a known toxicity profile, and are easily procurable in large quantities with a standardized manufacturing process [26]. Spices and herbs are examples of plant sources that fall into this category [27-30]. Some important characteristics of spices as prospective therapeutic agents are discussed below:
• A wide variety of industrially produced spices that are safe for human ingestion and are widely used in different countries are mentioned in the scientific literature as potential therapeutic agents with beneficial medicinal properties.
•The fact that spices are often used in hot dishes and with acidic ingredients like vinegar and lemon suggests that they are composed of stable compounds.
• The spices as adjuncts in the prevention or treatment of viral infection require the patient's consent, as these are already commonly consumed.
•The fine powder form of spices is commonly available, which extends their shelf life and makes it easier to develop different formulations.
• The extensive research that has been done on the safety profile, authenticity, and identifiable nature of traceability spices has helped to ensure that these products are safe to eat and that they are what they claim to be. This chapter discusses the role of herbs and spices, particularly used in India, in the treatment of several infectious diseases.
Antiviral Potential of Indian Spices
According to WHO statistics, when compared to comparably impacted nations such as the United States, Brazil, Russia, and Mexico, India has one of the “lowest” rates of COVID-19 mortality per million persons, indicating that with a population of 1.3 billion people, India is fighting the COVID-19 pandemic with a notable disparity in fatality rates compared to affluent countries [31]. The interplay between the host and the pathogen and the hot and humid environment may have been a major factor in making a large portion of the Indian population less vulnerable to COVID-19. The environment may have also helped to enhance their innate immunity and immunological responses to the virus [32]. The Ayurveda aphorism emphasizes the importance of diet for health. The eating habits of Indians, including their consumption of spicy foods, may be one of the reasons why they have a lower mortality rate from COVID-19 [33, 34]. Studies have shown that countries with low dietary spice consumption have a higher incidence of COVID-19 cases per million people. Additionally, recent molecular docking studies have found that bioactive compounds in spices have a highly specific attraction to certain targets that are involved in the infection caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus [35-40]. Since ancient times, India has been known as the “Spice Bowl of the World”. Indian cuisine is incomplete without the use of spices. Spices have been used in India for centuries not only for their culinary properties, such as aroma, color, and flavor, but also for their medicinal properties, such as the ability to cure ailments and boost immunity.
According to Indian traditional wisdom, an imbalance of the three doshas called Vata, Pitta and Kapha reduces immunological health and makes the body more vulnerable to disease. An adequate amount of daily intake of spices balances the three doshas of the human body and acts as an immunity booster [41, 42]. The spices and herbs are known to be a repository of various secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids, coumarins, phenolics, lignans, saponins, terpenes and xanthones with credible therapeutic potentials with diverse mechanisms of action [43, 44]. The assorted phytoconstituents present in these not only block the virus life cycle but also act as immunomodulators; they can improve the immune system of infected patients without any side effects. The phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids present in spices are known to give them antibacterial and antifungal properties, which is why spices are often used as stabilizers or preservative agents in food. Spices or the active ingredients in spices could be utilized to treat a range of viral infectious disorders [45, 46].
During times of widespread pandemics, the adage “Let food be thy medicine” is especially appropriate. Recognizing the power of spices through their immune-protective properties and adding them to regular meals can be a lifesaver in protecting mankind from a variety of diseases and viral infections. With the emergence of COVID-19, several dietary polyphenols came into the spotlight due to their antiviral activity and immunity booster properties [47]. Following an assessment of the role of spices as an immune booster, the Ministry of AYUSH, Government of India, published guidance on herbal-based immunity-promoting strategies for self-care during the COVID-19 pandemic. The AYUSH recommendations stress the inclusion of spices such as turmeric, cumin, coriander, and garlic in cuisine. The guidelines also recommend drinking herbal tea or kadha made with basil, cinnamon, black pepper and ginger twice a day. Furthermore, hot milk with half a teaspoon of turmeric powder and a pinch of black pepper powder per day is also recommended [48].
As a result, this study gives an overview of some recent scientific results of some of the most often used spices in the typical Indian diet that have potential bioactive components with immunomodulatory effects for bolstering the immune system against various viral infections.
Turmeric
Curcumin is a polyphenolic compound that is found in turmeric, a perennial herb that is also known as haldi in Hindi. Turmeric belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. Of the nearly 100 Curcuma species documented in botanical literature, Curcuma longa is the most well-known and studied [49]. The other sources of curcumin are C. aromatica, C. phaeocaulis, C. zedoaria, and C. caesia. In Southeast Asia and other tropical and subtropical regions, including India and China, curcumin is widely grown. India is the world's top producer of turmeric, accounting for nearly all of the crop's production and utilization. Various Curcuma species have been utilized in India's traditional medical system to treat a variety of illnesses and health issues. Culinary aficionados and members of the medical/scientific community have both expressed interest in it [50, 51].
Curcumin is a compound that has been used for centuries as a medicine, food additive, and dietary supplement. It has several promising properties that make it a potential drug candidate, and the World Health Organization has declared it as a medicinal herb. The safety of curcumin has been evaluated by the WHO and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The WHO has set an adequate daily intake (ADI) of curcumin at 0–3 mg/kg, while the FDA has classified curcumin as “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS). This means that a healthy person can consume up to 12 g of curcumin per day without any adverse effects [52].
A Google search for the keyword “turmeric” yields more than 357 million results. Over the past ten years, there have been approximately 100 patents filed each year worldwide on the biological activity and innovative formulations of turmeric. Additionally, around 300 papers have been published on the same topic.
Turmeric has been used in India for centuries for its medicinal and culinary properties. It was also considered sacred in the Vedic period. Turmeric has gained widespread attention in recent years due to its diverse pharmacological properties and possible therapeutic effects against chronic diseases. Some experts have even proposed that it may be more effective than prescription medications for neurological disorders, cancer, and diabetes [53-55].
Turmeric supplements are now widely available and popular, particularly in Western countries. Turmeric, the golden spice, has been classified as a highly pleiotropic compound, which means it can interact with a variety of cellular components at the molecular level. This includes factors that influence the life cycle of a cell [56].
Curcumin is a powerful antioxidant that can directly scavenge a variety of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Curcumin's phenolic groups can act as antioxidants by scavenging free radicals. Curcumin can also inhibit the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by blocking key enzymes involved in their production, such as lipoxygenase/cyclooxygenase and xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase. Additionally, curcumin can increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. Curcumin activates the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)- dependent pathway, which is responsible for the body's antioxidant defense mechanism. As a result, boosting immunity is one of its major characteristics [57].
Curcumin is a potent anti-inflammatory compound that has been shown to inhibit the activity of several mediators of inflammation, including cytokines. The plausible explanation for its reported beneficial effects against various inflammatory diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and metabolic disorders is that even at low concentrations, curcumin can boost antibody responses and regulate the immune system.
Curcumin's anti-inflammatory effects are due to its ability to block the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway. NF-κB is a transcription factor that binds to DNA and activates the transcription of genes that produce inflammatory molecules, such as COX-2. It also plays an important role in cell proliferation and differentiation. Curcumin inhibits NF-κB, which prevents the transcription of these genes and reduces inflammation [58-60]. The chemistry of curcumin and its molecular targets has been presented in Fig. (3).
Fig. (3)) Main compounds found in curcuma and its molecular targets.Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)
Ginger (Zingiberaceae family) is a popular Indian spice that has been used for centuries for its medicinal properties. It is a safe herbal supplement that has been used to treat fevers, sinus infections, headaches, and appetite loss. Ginger contains around 200 known compounds, including tannins, anthocyanins, terpenes, and phenolic compounds. Gingerols, shogaols, and paradols are the most abundant phenolic compounds in ginger.
Gingerols are the main component that appears to be responsible for the plant's many pharmacological activities, including immunomodulatory properties. Gingerols have the ability to decrease inflammation by blocking the activation of protein kinase B (Akt) and the NF-κB signaling pathways. As a result, this leads to a decrease in the production of proinflammatory cytokines and a rise in anti-inflammatory cytokines. Ginger rhizomes also contain a significant amount of antiviral compounds. Studies in a laboratory setting have shown that a warm water extract of ginger root can boost the production of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) in mucosal cells. Interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) has antiviral properties against human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) by blocking the virus from attaching to host-specific receptors. This antiviral effect is similar to the treatment of fever, cough, and respiratory distress caused by viruses.
Additionally, allicin is a sulfur-containing compound that is produced when ginger is chopped or crushed. It has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antiviral properties. In particular, allicin has been shown to inhibit the replication of the H1N1 influenza virus in vitro. These properties help to enhance innate immunity [61-66]. The chemistry of ginger and its molecular targets has been presented in Fig. (4).
Fig. (4)) Chemistry of ginger and its molecular targets.Garlic (Allium sativum)
Garlic (family Amaryllidaceae) is a bulbous spice with a sharp and peppery flavour that has been regarded as an important Indian spice since the 6th century BC. A sulfur-containing natural compound, allicin (allyl 2-propenethiosulfinate or diallyl thiosulfinate), is the primary active component of garlic. Other sulfur-containing compounds found in garlic include ajoene, diallyl polysulfides, vinyldithiins, and S-allylcysteine, as well as saponins, flavonoids, lectins, polysaccharides (fructan), various enzymes, vitamins, minerals, and amino acids.
The proposed mechanism of antiviral action of garlic extract involves three main pathways: direct inhibition of viral infection, enhancement of host immune response, and inhibition of viral replication. The first way to stop a virus from infecting a cell is to block its entry. This is done by disrupting the viral envelope and cell membrane, which prevents the virus from attaching to the cell and entering. The second pathway involves the enhancement of the host immune response. Garlic extract contains compounds that can stimulate the production of white blood cells, which are responsible for fighting off infections. These compounds can also activate natural killer cells, which are a type of white blood cell that can kill virus-infected cells. The third pathway involves the inhibition of viral replication. Garlic extract contains compounds that can inhibit the activity of the polymerase enzyme, which is essential for viral replication. This prevents the virus from replicating and spreading throughout the body.
The formation of SAMG (S-allyl-mercapto-glutathione) and SAMC (S-allyl- mercapto- cysteine) is thought to be one of the ways that allicin can inhibit viral replication. These compounds can damage the structural integrity of viral proteins, making it difficult for the virus to replicate. SAMG is a compound that is formed when allicin reacts with glutathione. It has been shown to have antiviral activity against a variety of viruses, including HIV, influenza, and herpes simplex virus. SAMC is a compound that is formed when allicin reacts with l-cysteine. It has also been shown to have antiviral activity, but it is not as potent as SAMG [67-70]. The chemistry of garlic and its molecular targets has been presented in Fig. (5).
Fig. (5)) The chemistry of garlic and its molecular targets.Black Pepper (Piper nigrum)
Black pepper (Piperaceae family), the king of spices, is known as kali mirch in India and is one of the most widely used spices, appearing in virtually every cuisine. Its strong flavour is due to the chemical piperine (alkaloid). Pepper has been used for centuries to treat fevers and stimulate bile production [71], as shown in Fig. (6). Piperine has anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anticancer properties. Piperine can help reduce inflammation, fight viruses, and kill cancer cells [72]. Piperine is a natural pesticide that can help protect plants from pests. Piperine has been shown to have antidepressant effects in animal studies [73]. Piperine was projected to be more effective than standard drugs at inhibiting COVID-19, Zika, Ebola and dengue viruses using molecular docking simulation. In vitro studies have shown that piperamides, compounds derived from black pepper, have antiviral activity against coxsackievirus, rhinovirus and influenza virus [74, 75].
Fig. (6)) Structure of piperine.Piperine has a high antioxidant content, and therefore protects the liver. Pepper has immunomodulatory properties, meaning that it can help to regulate the immune system. This can be beneficial for both cellular and humoral immune responses.
Based on the existing evidence, piperine shows potential as a beneficial compound for individuals experiencing pain and inflammation. Research indicates that piperine can be as effective as ibuprofen in relieving pain associated with osteoarthritis, as demonstrated in one study. Another study found that piperine effectively reduces inflammation in the colon. The analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of piperine are believed to be attributed to its interaction with the body's endocannabinoid system, which is responsible for pain regulation and inflammation.
Piperine is a bioenhancer, a substance that can improve the absorption of other drugs. It does this by blocking several enzymes that metabolize drugs, which increases the amount of drug that is available to the body. Piperine has been shown to increase the bioavailability of many drugs, including carbamazepine, curcumin, ciprofloxacin, ampicillin, metronidazole, and oxytetracycline [76].
CONCLUSION
Due to their mutation and resistance, there are no viable treatments for viral infections. This provides the best opportunity to try various herbs and spices for disease management. Indian medicinal plants hold great potential in the treatment of various diseases. The practices of Ayurveda and Siddha, which originated in India, continue to be widely embraced by the Indian population. Furthermore, the identification of phytochemical components within medicinal plants may contribute to alleviating infections. Consequently, Indian medicinal plants offer a new avenue to combat viral transmission and should be considered for their potential role in overcoming such challenges. Plant-based drugs are typically safe and accessible to consume. Plant-based medicines have been used in many countries to prevent or treat a variety of diseases, although there is no scientific agreement on the effectiveness of their bioactive substances in low doses. Plant spices often contain compounds with antiviral and antibacterial activity. The synergistic interaction of multiple compounds can enhance biological activity. The availability of many plant spices in industrial quantities opens up the possibility of large-scale extraction and compound manufacturing for clinical research. Additionally, plant extracts have shown promising results when combined with existing antibiotic drugs to fight a variety of resistant bacterial strains. Clinical trials that combine plant extracts, with other oral drugs in various existing formulations, warrant further research to specifically understand their therapeutic potential.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge DST-CURIE, Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, for financial support through sanction number DST/CURIE-PG/2022/10 (G).
