The Dictionary of Human Geography E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 3521

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

THE DICTIONARY OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

‘Even better than before, the Dictionary is an essential tool for all human geographers and over the years has provided an invaluable guide to the changing boundaries and content of the discipline. No-one can afford to be without this fifth edition.’ Linda McDowell, University of Oxford

‘From explanations of core concepts and central debates to lucid discussions of the theories driving contemporary research, this is the best conceptual map to the creative and critical thinking that characterises contemporary human geography. The fifth edition belongs on the bookshelf of all serious students.’ Gerard Toal, Virginia Tech

‘With an exceptional balance between breadth and depth, this is undoubtedly a timely and ground-breaking revision of the Dictionary. An outstanding accomplishment of the editors and contributors, and a comprehensive and essential reference for any student or scholar interested in human geography.’ Mei-Po Kwan, Ohio State University

‘I can’t imagine life without it. Definitive, detailed yet accessible: there’s still no single-volume reference work in the field to rival it.’ Noel Castree, University of Manchester

The Dictionary of Human Geography represents the definitive guide to issues and ideas, methods and theories in human geography. Now in its fifth edition, this ground-breaking text has been comprehensively revised to reflect the changing nature and practice of human geography and its rapidly developing connections with other fields.

The major entries not only describe the development of concepts, contributions and debates in human geography, but also advance them. Shorter, definitional entries allow quick reference and coverage of the wider subject area. Changes to the fifth edition include entries from many new contributors at the forefront of developments in the field, and over 300 key terms appearing for the first time. It features a new consolidated bibliography along with a detailed index and systematic cross-referencing of headwords.

The Dictionary of Human Geography continues to be the one guidebook no student, instructor or researcher in the field can afford to be without.

Leseprobe

Contents

Preface to the Fifth Edition

How to Use This Dictionary

Acknowledgements

List of Contributors

Editorial Advisory Board

A

abduction

abjection

aboriginality

abstraction

accessibility

accumulation

acid rain

action research

activism

actor-network theory (ANT)

adaptation

aerotropolis

affect

Africa (idea of)

ageing

agent-based modelling

agglomeration

aggregate travel model

agrarian question

agribusiness

agricultural geography

agricultural involution

Agricultural Revolution

agro-food system

aid

AIDS

algorithm

alienation

Alonso model

alterity

alternative economies

America(s) (idea of)

American empire

analogue

analytical Marxism

anarchism

androcentricity

Anglocentrism

animals

Annales School

anthropogeography

anti-development

anti-globalization

anti-humanism

apartheid

applied geography

area studies

areal differentiation

art

artificial intelligence

Asia (idea of)

Asian miracle/tigers

assemblage

assimilation

asylum

Austral(as)ia, idea of

authenticity

azimuth

B

back-to-the-city movement

balkanization

bare life (‘naked life’)

barrio

base and superstructure

Bayesian analysis

behavioural geography

Berkeley School

bid-rent curve

biodiversity

biogeography

biophilosophy

biopolitics, biopower

bioprospecting

bioregionalism

biosecurity

biotechnology

blockbusting

body

border

borderlands

Boserup thesis

boundary

Brenner thesis

C

cadastral mapping

camp

capital

capitalism

capture-recapture methods

carceral geographies

carrying capacity

Cartesianism

cartogram

cartographic reason

cartography

cartography, history of

case study

caste

catastrophe theory

categorical data analysis

cellular automata

census

census tract

central business district (CBD)

central place theory

centrifugal and centripetal forces

chain migration

chaos theory

Chicago School

children

Chinatown

chorology/chorography

choropleth

chronotope

citizenship

city

civil society

civilization

class In

class interval

classification and regionalization

climate

clusters

co-evolution

co-fabrication

cohort

Cold War

collective consumption

collinearity

colonialism

command economy

commercial geography

commodity

commodity chain/filière

common pool resources

common property regimes

communication(s)

communism

communitarianism

community

commuting

compact city

comparative advantage

competitive advantage

complementarity

complexity theory

Suggested reading

confirmatory data analysis

conflict

conflict commodities

conservation

consumption

contextual effect

contextuality

contiguous zone

continental shelf

continents

contrapuntal geographies

conurbation

convergence, regional

co-operative

core-periphery model

corporatization

correlation

cosmography

cosmopolitanism

cost structure

cost-benefit analysis

counterfactuals

counter-urbanization

creative destruction

crime

crisis

critical geopolitics

critical human geography

critical rationalism

critical theory

cultural capital

cultural ecology

cultural economy

cultural geography

cultural hearth

cultural landscape

cultural politics

cultural turn

culture

culture area

cybernetics

cyberspace

cyborg

cycle of poverty

D

Darwinism

data archive

data mining

decentralization

decision-making

decolonization

deconstruction

deduction

deep ecology

defensible space

deindustrialization

deliberative mapping

democracy

demographic transition

demography

density gradient

dependency ratio

dependency theory

desertification

development

devolution

dialectic(s)

dialectical image

diaspora

difference

diffusion

digital cartography

digitizing

disability

disciplinary power

discourse

discourse analysis

disease, diffusion of

Disneyfication

distance decay

districting algorithm

division of labour

domestic labour

domestication

domesticity

domination

domino theory

dry farming

dual economy

E

ecofeminism

ecological fallacy

ecological imperialism

ecological inference

ecology

ecometrics

economic base theory A

economic geography

economic growth

economic integration

economies of scale

economies of scope

economy

ecosystem

ecumene

edge city

education

egalitarianism

electoral geography

emigration

emotional geography

empire

empiricism

empowerment

enclave

enclosure

endogeneity

energy

Enlightenment

enterprise zone

entrepreneurship

entropy

entropy-maximizing models

environmental audit

environmental determinism

environmental economics

environmental hazard

environmental history

Environmental Impact Assessment

environmental justice

environmental movement

environmental perception

environmental psychology

environmental racism

environmental refugees

environmental security

environmentalism

epidemic

epidemiology

episteme

epistemology

equality

equilibrium

e-social science

essentialism

ethics

ethnic cleansing

ethnic democracy

ethnicity

ethnoburb

ethnocentrism

ethnocracy

ethnography

ethnomethodology

Euclidean space

Eurocentrism

everyday life

evidence-based policy

exception, space of

exceptionalism

exchange

exclave

existentialism

exit, voice and loyalty

exopolis

explanation

exploration

exploratory data analysis (EDA)

export processing zone (EPZ)

extensive research

external economies

externalities

F

factor analysis

factorial ecology

factors of production

fair trade

falsification

family reconstitution

famine

farming

Fascism

fecundity

Federalism

feedback

Feminism

feminist geographies

Fertility

feudalism

field system

fieldwork

film

filtering

financial exclusion

fiscal crisis

fiscal migration

flaneur/flânerie

flexible accumulation

flows

focus group

food

footloose industry

Fordism

forecast

forestry

foundationalism

Fourth World

fractal

free port

free trade area (FTA)

friction of distance

friends-and-neighbours effect

frontier

frontier thesis

functionalism

fuzzy sets/fuzzy logic

G

game theory

garden city

gated communities

Gender

gender and development

genealogy

general linear model (GLM)

general systems theory (GST)

genetic algorithm

genetic geographies

genius loci

genocide

genre de vie

gentrification

geo-body

Geocoding

Geocomputation

geodemographics

Geographic Information Science (GISc)

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

geographical analysis machine (GAM)

geographical explanation machine (GEM)

geographical imaginary

geographical imagination

geographical societies

geographically weighted regression (GWR)

geography

geography, history of

geo-informatics

geopiety

geopolitics

Geopolitik

geostrategic realms

gerrymandering

ghetto

GIS

global cities/world cities

global commons

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

global warming

globalization

globe

glocalization

governable space

governance

governmentality

Grand Theory

graph theory

gravity model

green belt

Green Line

Green Revolution

greenhouse effect

gross domestic product (GDP)

gross national product (GNP)

growth coalitions

growth pole

growth theory

H

habitus

hazard

health and health care

heartland

hegemony

heritage

hermeneutics

heteronormativity

heterotopia

heuristic

Hindutva

hinterland

historical demography

historical geography

historical materialism

historicism

history of geography

holocaust

home

homeland

homelessness

homo sacer

homophobia and heterosexism

hot money

Hotelling model

household

housing class

housing studies

human agency

human ecology

human genome

human geography

human rights

humanism

humanistic geography

humanities

hunger

hybridity

hyperspace

hypothesis

I

iconography

ideal type

idealism

identity

ideology

idiographic

image

imaginative geographies

immigration

imperialism

indigenous knowledge

indistinction, zone of

industrial district

industrial geography

industrial organization

industrial revolution

industrialization

inequality, spatial

informal sector

information economy

information theory

informational city

infrastructure

inheritance systems

inner city

innovation

input–output

institutional economics

institutionalism

instrumental variables

instrumentalism

integration

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

intensive agriculture

intensive research

internal relations

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

international relations

Internet

interoperability

intervening opportunities

interviews and interviewing

intifada

invasion and succession

investment

irredentism

isolines

J

just war

just-in-time production

K

Kantianism

kibbutz

knowledge economy

Kondratieff waves

L

Laboratory

labour geography

labour market

labour process

labour theory of value

Lamarck(ian)ism

land tenure

land use and land-cover change (LULC)

landscape

Landschaft

land-use survey

language

Latin America

Law

law (scientific)

law of the sea

learning regions

Lebensraum

leisure

liberalism

life expectancy

life table

life course/life-cycle

lifeworld

limits to growth

linear programming

Linkages

literature

local knowledge

local state

local statistics

Locale

local-global relations

Locality

Localization

location quotient

location theory

locational analysis

logical empiricism

logical positivism

log-linear modeling

logit regression models

longitudinal data analysis (LDA)

Los Angeles School

M

macrogeography

malapportionment

Malthusian model

map

map projection

Suggested reading

map reading

market

Markov process (or Markov chain)

Marxism

Marxist economics

Marxist geography

masculinism

material culture

materialism

mean information field (m.i.f.)

measurement

media

medical geography

megacities

megalopolis

memory

mental maps/cognitive maps

metageography

metaphor

methodological individualism

methodology

metropolitan area

micropolis

microsimulation

Middle East, idea of

migrancy

migration

militarism

militarygeography

mimesis

minor theory

mobility

mode of production

model

modernism

modernity

modernization

modifiable areal unit problem (maup)

money and finance

monuments

moral geographies

moral landscapes

morphogenesis

morphology

mortality

multiculturalism

multidimensional scaling (MDS)

multilateralism

multi-level models

multiple nuclei model

multipliers

music

N

narco-capitalism

nation

national parks

nationalism

nation-state

natural resources

naturalism

nature

neighbourhood

neighbourhood effect

neighbourhood unit

neo-classical economics

neo-geography

neo-liberalism

neo-Ricardian economics

network society

network(s)

neural networks

New Economic Geography

New International Division of Labour (NIDL)

new town

NGO

NIMBY

nodal region

nomadism

nomadology

nomos

nomothetic

non-place

non-representational theory

normative theory

North–South

Nuptuality

O

objectivity

Occidentalism

occupation, military

oceans

oil

ontology

ONTOLOGY

opportunity costs

optimization models

Orientalism

Other/Otherness

outsourcing

overpopulation

P

Pacific Rim

pandemic

Panopticon

paradigm

Pareto optimality

participant observation

participatory democracy

partition

pastoralism

patenting

patriarchy

Pax Americana

peasant

performance

performativity

periodic market systems

petro-capitalism

phallocentrism

phenomenology

philosophy

physical geography

Pirenne thesis

pixel

place

place-names

placelessness

plantation

pluralism

point pattern analysis

Poisson regression models

policing

political ecology

political economy

political geography

pollution

population density

population geography

population potential

population projection

population pyramid

populism

pork barrel

positionality

positive discrimination

positivism

possibilism

Postan thesis

post-colonialism

post-development

post-Fordism

posthumanism

post-industrial city

post-industrial society

post-Marxism

postmaterialism

postmodernism

postmodernity

post-normal science (PNS)

post-socialism

post-structuralism

poverty

poverty gap

power

power-geometry

pragmatism

prediction

pre-industrial city

preservation

pricing policies

primary data analysis

primate city, the law of

primitive accumulation

primitivism

principal components analysis (pca)

prisoner’s dilemma

prisons

private and public spheres

private interest developments (pids)

privatization

probabilism

probability map

process

producer services

productlife cycle

production complex

production of nature

production of space

productivity

profit cycle

property

propinquity

prostitution

proto-industrialization

psychoanalytic theory

psychogeography

public administration

public choice theory

public finance

public geographies

public goods

public policy

public-private partnership (PPPs)

public services

public space

Q

quadrat analysis

quadtree

qualitative methods

quality of life

quango

quantitative methods

quantitative revolution

queer theory

questionnaire

R

race

racial districting

racialization

racism

radical democracy

radical geography

rank-size rule

raster

rational choice theory

realism

recognition

reconstruction

recreation

recycling

red-light districts

redistribution

redistricting

redlining

reductionism

reflexivity

refugees

regime of accumulation

regime theory

region

regional alliance

regional cycles

regional geography

regional policy

regional science

regionalism

regression

regulation theory

relational database

relativism

relevance

religion

remote sensing (RS)

rent

rent gap

representation

resistance

resort life-cycle model

resource

resource economics

resource evaluation

resource management

resource wars

restructuring

retailing

retroduction

retrogressive approach

retrospective approach

revealed preference analysis

rhetoric

rhizome

rhythmanalysis

ribbon development

rights

risk

risk society

rogue state

rural geography

rural planning

rural-urban continuum

rustbelt

S

sacred and profane space

sampling

satisficing behaviour

scale

science/science studies

science park

scientific instrumentation

scientific revolution(s)

secession

Second World

secondary data analysis

section

sectoral model

secularism

security

segregation

seg regation, measu rement of

self-determination

sense of place

sequence analysis

sequent occupance

services

settlement continuity

settler society

sexuality

shadow state

sharecropping

shift-share model

shifting cultivation

significance test

simulacrum

simulation

situated knowledge

situationists/situationism

Sjoberg model

skid row

slavery

slum

social area analysis

social capital

social construction

social exclusion

social formation

social geography

social justice

social movements

social network

social physics

social reproduction

social space

social theory

social well-being

socialism

society

software for qualitative research

software for quantitative analysis

South, the

sovereign power

sovereignty

space

space syntax

space-economy

space–time forecasting models

spatial analysis

spatial autocorrelation

spatial econometrics

spatial fetishism

spatial identity

spatial interaction

spatial mismatch

spatial monopoly

spatial science

spatial separatism

spatial structure

spatiality

spectacle

spontaneous settlement

sport(s)

sprawl

squatting

stages of growth

staples theory

state

state apparatus

state of nature

stochastic process

structural adjustment

structural functionalism

structuralism

structuration theory

subaltern studies

subject/subjectivity

Subsidiarity

subsistence agriculture

Substitutionism

suburb/anization

sunbelt/snowbelt

sunk costs

surface

surveillance

survey analysis

surveying

sustainability

sustainable development

symbolic interactionism

system

T

taken-for-granted world

Tariff

Taylorism

Teleology

terms of trade

terra nullius

territorial integrity

territorial justice

territorial sea

Territoriality

territorialization

territory

terrorism

text

textuality

theory

thick description

third space

Third World

Tiebout model

time

time-geography

time–space compression

time–space convergence

time-space distanciation

time–space expansion

topographic map

topography

topology

topophilia

tourism

town

townscape

trade

tragedy of the commons

transaction costs

transactional analysis

transculturation

transfer pricing

transferability

transgression

transhumance

transnational corporations (TNCs)

transnationalism

transport costs

transport geography

transportation problem

travel writing

travelling theory

trend surface analysis

trialectics

tricontinentalism

tropicality

trust

turf politics

U

uncertainty

underclass

underdevelopment

uneven development

universalism

urban and regional planning

urban ecology

urban entrepreneurialism

urban exploration

urban fringe

urban geography

urban managers and gatekeepers

urban nature

urban origins

urban renewal

urban social movement

urban system

urban village

urbanism

urbanization

urbicide

utilitarianism

utility theory

utopia

V

value-added

values

vertical theme

verticality, politics of

violence

virtual geographies

virtual reality

virus

vision and visuality

visual methods

visualization

von Thünen model

W

war

water

welfare geography

welfare state

West, the

wetlands

whiteness

wilderness

world city

World Social Forum (WSF)

World Trade Organization (WTO)

world-systems analysis

Z

zonal model

zone of dependence

zoning

zoos

Bibliography

Index

This 5th edition first published 2009

© 2009 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd except for editorial material and organization

© 2009 Derek Gregory, Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael J. Watts, and Sarah Whatmore

Edition history: Basil Blackwell Ltd (1e, 1981 and 2e, 1986);

Blackwell Publishers Ltd (3e, 1994 and 4e, 2000)

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The dictionary of human geography / edited by Derek Gregory … [et al.]. – 5th ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4051-3287-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) –ISBN 978-1-4051-3288-6 (pbk. : alk. paper)

1. Human geography-Dictionaries. I. Gregory, Derek, 1951–

GF4.D52 2009

304.203-dc22

2008037335

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

1 2009

To the memory of

DENIS COSGROVE AND LESLIE HEPPLE

Preface to the Fifth Edition

Geographical dictionaries have a long history. A number were published in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: a few – mostly those with greater pretensions to providing conceptual order–were described as ‘Geographical Grammars’. The majority were compendia of geographical information, or gazetteers, some of which were truly astonishing in their scope. For example, Lawrence Echard noted with some asperity in his 1691 Compendium of Geography that the geographer was by then more or less required to be ‘an Entomologist, an Astronomer, a Geometrician, a Natural Philosopher, a Husbandman, an Herbalist, a Mechanik, a Physician, a Merchant, an Architect, a Linguist, a Divine, a Politician, one that understands Laws and Military Affairs, an Herald [and] an Historian.’ Margarita Bowen, commenting on 1981 on what she took to be Geography’s isolation from the scientific mainstream in Echard’s time, suggested that ‘the prospect of adding epistemology and the skills of the philosopher’ to such a list might well have precipitated its Cambridge author into the River Cam!

It was in large measure the addition of those skills to the necessary accomplishments of a human geographer that prompted the first edition of The Dictionary of Human Geography. The original idea was John Davey’s, a publisher with an extraordinarily rich and creative sense of the field, and he persuaded Ron Johnston, Derek Gregory, Peter Haggett, David Smith and David Stoddart to edit the first edition (1981). In their Preface they noted that the changes in human geography since the Second World War had generated a ‘linguistic explosion’ within the discipline. Part of the Dictionary’s purpose – then as now – was to provide students and others with a series of frameworks for situating, understanding and interrogating the modern lexicon. The implicit model was something closer to Raymond Williams’ marvellous compilation of Keywords than to any ‘Geographical Grammar’. Certainly the intention was always to provide something more than a collection of annotated reading lists. Individual entries were located within a web of cross-references to other entries, which enabled readers to follow their own paths through the Dictionary, sometimes to encounter unexpected parallels and convergences, sometimes to encounter creative tensions and contradictions. But the major entries were intended to be comprehensible on their own, and many of them not only provided lucid presentations of key issues but also made powerful contributions to subsequent debates.

This sense of The Dictionary of Human Geography as both mirror and goad, as both reflecting and provoking work in our field, has been retained in all subsequent editions. The pace of change within human geography was such that a second edition (1986) was produced only five years after the first, incorporating significant revisions and additions. For the third (1994) and fourth (2000) editions, yet more extensive revisions and additions were made. This fifth edition, fostered by our publisher Justin Vaughan, continues that restless tradition: it has been comprehensively redesigned and rewritten and is a vastly different book from the original. The first edition had over 500 entries written by eighteen contributors; this edition has more than 1000 entries written by 111 contributors. Over 300 entries appear for the first time (many of the most important are noted throughout this Preface), and virtually all the others have been fully revised and reworked. With this edition, we have thus once again been able to chart the emergence of new themes, approaches and concerns within human geography, and to anticipate new avenues of enquiry and new links with other disciplines. The architecture of the Dictionary has also been changed. We have retained the cross-referencing of headwords within each entry and the detailed Index, which together provide invaluable alternatives to the alphabetical ordering of the text, but references are no longer listed at the end of each entry. Instead, they now appear in a consolidated Bibliography at the end of the volume. We took this decision partly to avoid duplication and release space for new and extended entries, but also because we believe the Bibliography represents an important intellectual resource in its own right. It has over 4000 entries, including books, articles and online sources.

Our contributors operated within exacting guidelines, including limits on the length of each entry and the number of references, and they worked to a demanding schedule. The capstone entry for previous editions was ‘human geography’, but in this edition that central place is now taken by a major entry on ‘geography’, with separate entries on ‘human geography’ and (for the first time) ‘physical geography’. The inclusion of the latter provides a valuable perspective on the multiple ways in which human geography has become involved in interrogations of the biophysical world and – one of Williams’s most complicated keywords – ‘nature’. Accordingly, we have expanded our coverage of environmental geographies and of terms associated with the continued development of actor-network theory and political ecology, and for the first time we have included entries on biogeography, biophilosophy, bioprospecting, bioregionalism, biosecurity, biotechnology, climate, environmental history, environmental racism, environmental security, genetic geographies, the global commons, oceans, tropicality, urban nature, wetlands and zoos.

The first edition was planned at the height of the critique of spatial science within geography, and for that reason most of the entries were concerned with either analytical methods and formal spatial models or with alternative concepts and approaches drawn from the other social sciences. We have taken new developments in analytical methods into account in subsequent editions, and this one is no exception. We pay particular attention to the continuing stream of innovations in Geographic Information Systems and, notably, the rise of Geographic Information Science, and we have also taken notice of the considerable revival of interest in quantitative methods and modelling: hence we have included for the first time entries on agent-based modelling, Bayesian analysis, digital cartography, epidemiology, e-social science, geo-informatics and software for quantitative analysis, and we have radically revised our coverage of other analytical methods. The vital importance of qualitative methods in human geography has required renewed attention too, including for the first time entries on discourse analysis and visual methods, together with enhanced entries on deconstruction, ethnography, iconography, map reading and qualitative methods. In the previous edition we provided detailed coverage of developments in the social sciences and the humanities, and we have taken this still further in the present edition. Human geographers have continued to be assiduous in unpicking the seams between the social sciences and the humanities, and for the first time we have included entries on social theory, on the humanities, and on philosophy and literature (complementing revised entries on art, film and music), together with crucial junction-terms such as affect, assemblage, cartographic reason, contrapuntal geographies, dialectical image, emotional geography, minor theory, posthuman-ism, representation and trust (complementing enhanced entries on performance, performativity, non-representational theory and representation). Since the previous edition, the interest in some theoretical formations has declined, and with it the space we have accorded to them; but human geography has continued its close engagement with postcolonialism and post-structuralism, and the new edition incorporates these developments. They involve two continuing and, we think, crucial moments. The first is a keen interest in close and critical reading (surely vital for any dictionary!) and, to repeat what we affirmed in the preface to the previous edition, we are keenly aware of the slipperiness of our geographical ‘keywords’: of the claims they silently make, the privileges they surreptitiously install, and of the wider webs of meaning and practice within which they do their work. It still seems to us that human geographers are moving with considerable critical intelligence in a trans-disciplinary, even post-disciplinary space, and we hope that this edition continues to map and move within this intellectual topography with unprecedented precision and range. The second implication of postcolonialism and post-structuralism is a heightened sensitivity to what we might call the politics of specificity. This does not herald the return of the idiographic under another name, and it certainly does not entail any slackening of interest in theoretical work (we have in fact included an enhanced entry on theory). But it has involved a renewed interest in and commitment to that most traditional of geographical concerns, the variable character of the world in which we live. In one sense, perhaps, this makes the fifth edition more conventionally ‘geographical’ than its predecessors. We have included new entries on the conceptual formation of major geographical divisions and imaginaries, including the globe and continents (with separate entries on Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australasia and Europe), and on Latin America, the Middle East, the global South and the West, and on cognate fields such as area studies and International Relations. But we also asked our contributors to recognize that the world of geography is not limited to the global North. In previous editions, contributors frequently commented on the multiple ways in which modern human geography had worked to privilege and, indeed, normalize ‘the modern’, and together they traced a genealogy of geographical knowledge in which the world beyond Europe and North America was all too often marginalized or produced as a problematic ‘pre-modern’. For this edition, we asked contributors to go beyond the critique of these assumptions and, wherever possible, to incorporate more cosmopolitan geographies (and we have included a new entry on cosmopolitanism).

And yet we must also recognize that this edition, like its predecessors, remains focused on English-language words, terms and literatures. There are cautionary observations to be made about the power-laden diffusion of English as a ‘global language’, and we know that there are severe limitations to working within a single-language tradition (especially in a field like human geography). The vitality of other geographical traditions should neither be overlooked nor minimized. We certainly do not believe that human geography conducted in English somehow constitutes the canonical version of the discipline, though it would be equally foolish to ignore the powers and privileges it arrogates to itself in the unequal world of the international academy. Neither should one discount the privileges that can be attached to learning other languages, nor minimize the perils of translation: linguistic competences exact their price. But to offer some (limited) protection against an unreflective ethnocentrism, we have been guided by an international Editorial Advisory Board and we have extended our coverage of issues bound up with Anglocentrism and Eurocentrism, colonialism and imperialism, Empire and Orientalism – all of these in the past and in the present – and we continue to engage directly with the politics of ‘race’, racism and violence. All of this makes it impossible to present The Dictionary of Human Geography as an Archimedean overview, a textual performance of what Donna Haraway calls ‘the God-trick’. The entries are all situated knowledges, written by scholars working in Australia, Canada, Denmark, India, Ireland, Israel, New Zealand, Singapore, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. None of them is detached, and all of them are actively involved in the debates that they write about. More than this, the authors write from a diversity of subject-positions, so that this edition, like its predecessor, reveals considerable diversity and debate within the discipline. We make no secret of the differences – in position, in orientation, in politics – among our contributors. They do not speak with a single voice, and this is not a work of bland or arbitrary systematization produced by a committee. Even so, we are conscious of at least some of its partialities and limitations, and we invite our readers to consider how these other voices might be heard from other positions, other places, and to think about the voices that are – deliberately or unconsciously – silenced or marginalized.

None of these changes is a purely intellectual matter, of course, for they do not take place in a vacuum: the world has changed since the previous edition, and this is reflected in a number of entries that appear here for the first time. Some reach back to recover terms from the recent past that are active in our present – including Cold War, fascism, Holocaust and Second World - but all of them are distinguished by a sense of the historical formation of concepts and the webs of power in which they are implicated. While we do not believe that ‘everything changed’ after the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on 11 September 2001, one year after our last edition, a shortlist of terms that have achieved new salience within the field indicates how far human geography has been restructured to accommodate a heightened sensitivity to political violence, including its ethical, economic and ecological dimensions. While many of these terms (like the four we have just mentioned) should have been in previous editions, for the first time we now have entries on: American Empire, asylum, bare life, the camp, ethnic cleansing, spaces of exception, genocide, homo sacer, human rights, intifada, just war, militarism, military geography, military occupation, resource wars, rogue states, security, terrorism, urbicide and war. Human geography has made major contributions to the critical study of economic transformation and globalization too, and our entries continue to recognize major developments in economic geography and political economy, and the lively exchanges between them that seek to explicate dramatic changes in contemporary regimes of capital accumulation and circulation. The global economic crisis broke as this edition was going to press. We had already included new entries on anti-development and anti-globalization, on the International Monetary Fund and the World Social Forum, and on narco-capitalism and petrocapitalism, which speak to some of the ramifications of the crisis, but we also believe that these events have made our expanded critiques of (in particular) capitalism, markets and neo-liberalism more relevant than ever before.

A number of other projects have appeared in the wake of previous editions of the Dictionary: meta-projects such as the International Encyclopedia of Human Geography and several other encyclopedias, an indispensable Feminist Glossary of Human Geography, and a series devoted to Key Concepts in the major subdisciplines of human geography. There is, of course, a lively debate about scale in geography, but we believe that the scale (or perhaps the extent of the conceptual network) of The Dictionary of Human Geography continues to be a crucial resource for anyone who wants to engage with the continued development of the field. It is not the last word – and neither pretends nor wishes to be – but rather an invitation to recover those words that came before, to reflect on their practical consequences, and to contribute to future ‘geo-graphings’. This makes it all the more salutary to return to Echard’s original list and realize that virtually all of the fields he identified as bearing on geography have their counterparts within the contemporary discipline. The single exception is the figure of the Herald, but if this is taken to imply not the skill of heraldry but rather a harbinger of what is to come, then human geography’s interest in prediction and forecasting returns us to the footsteps of our seventeenth-century forebear. Be that as it may, none of us is prepared to forecast the scope and contents of the next edition of The Dictionary of Human Geography, which is why working on the project continues to be such a wonderfully creative process.

Derek Gregory

Ron Johnston

Geraldine Pratt

Michael J. Watts

Sarah Whatmore

How to Use This Dictionary

Keywords are listed alphabetically and appear on the page in bold type: in most cases, users of the Dictionary should begin their searches there. Within each entry, cross-references to other entries are shown in CAPITAL LETTERS (these include the plural and adjectival versions of many of the terms). Readers may trace other connections through the comprehensive index at the back of the book.

Suggested readings are provided at the end of each entry in abbreviated (Harvard) form; a full Bibliography is provided between pages 818 and 956, and readers seeking particular references or the works of particular authors should begin their searches there.

Acknowledgements

In the production of this edition, we are again indebted to a large number of people. We are particularly grateful to Justin Vaughan, our publisher at Wiley-Blackwell, for his enthusiasm, support and impeccably restrained goading, and to many others at Wiley-Blackwell (especially Liz Cremona and Tim Beuzeval) who have been involved in the management and implementation of this project. We owe a special debt to Geoffrey Palmer, our copy-editor, who performed marvels turning multiple electronic files into an accurate and coherent printed volume, and to Word Co Indexing Services, Inc., who compiled and cross-checked the Index with meticulous care.

The preparation of a large multi-authored volume such as this is dependent on the cooperation of a large number of colleagues, who accepted our invitation to contribute, our cajoling to produce the entries, our prompts over deadlines and our editorial interventions: we are immensely grateful to them for their care, tolerance and patience. It is with the greatest sadness that we record the deaths of two of them during the preparation of the Dictionary – Denis Cosgrove and Les Hepple – and we dedicate this edition to their memory.

The authors, editors and publishers thank the following for permission to reproduce the copyright material indicated:

Martin Cadwallader for the figure reproduced in the entry for Alonso model from Analytical Urban Geography, 1985.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd with The University of Chicago Press for the figure reproduced in the entry capitalism from D. Harvey, The Limits to Capital, 1982.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd for the figure reproduced in the entry crisis from D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations, 1993.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd for the figure reproduced in the entry critical theory, based on Jurgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, Polity Press.

University of California Press for the figure reproduced in the entry cultural landscape from Carol O. Sauer, The Morphology of Landscape, 1925. # 1925 The Regents of the University of California.

Peter Haggett for the figure reproduced in the entry for demographic transition from Geography: A Modern Synthesis, 1975.

Ohio State University Press/Macmillan Publishers Ltd for the figure reproduced in the entry distance decay from Peter J. Taylor, ‘ Distance transformation and distance decay functions’, Geographical Analysis, Vol. 3, 3 July 1971. # Ohio State University Press.

Hodder and Stoughton Publishers Ltd for the figure reproduced in the entry Kondratieff waves based on Marshall, 1987, from P. Knox and J. Agnew, Geography of the World-Economy, 1989.

Macmillan Publishers Ltd with St. Martin’ s Press for the figure reproduced in the entry Kondratieff waves from Knox and Agnew, adapted from M. Marshall, Long Waves of Regional Development, 1987.

Peter Haggett for the figure reproduced in the entry for locational analysis, from Locational Analysis in Human Geography, 1977.

Cambridge University Press and The University of Chicago Press for the figure reproduced in the entry for multiple nuclei model from Harris and Ullman in H.M. Mayer and C.F. Kohn, eds, Readings in Urban Geography, 1959.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd for figures 1 and 2 reproduced in the entry production of space from D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations, 1993.

The Estate of Conroy Maddox for the figure reproduced in the entry for reflexivity.

Contributors

AA

Ash Amin, Professor of Geography, University of Durham, UK

AB

Alison Blunt, Professor of Geography, Queen Mary, University of London, UK

AGH

Tony Hoare, Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of Bristol, UK

AJB

Adrian Bailey, Professor of Migration Studies, School of Geography, University of Leeds, UK

AJS

Anna Secor, Associate Professor of Geography, University of Kentucky, USA

AL

Andrew Leyshon, Professor of Economic Geography, University of Nottingham, UK

AV

Alexander Vasudevan, Lecturer in Cultural and Historical Geography, University of Nottingham, UK

BA

Ben Anderson, Lecturer in Geography, University of Durham, UK

BY

Brenda Yeoh, Professor of Geography, National University of Singapore, Singapore

CB

Clive Barnett, Reader in Human Geography, The Open University, UK

CF

Colin Flint, Professor of Geography, University of Illinois, Urbana- Champaign, USA

CK

Cindi Katz, Professor of Geography, Graduate Center, The City University of New York, USA

CP

Chris Philo, Professor of Geography, University of Glasgow, UK

CW

Charles Withers, Professor of Historical Geography, University of Edinburgh, UK

DCa

David Campbell, Professor of Cultural and Political Geography, University of Durham, UK

DCl

Dan Clayton, Lecturer in Human Geography, University of St Andrews, UK

DCo

Denis Cosgrove, formerly Alexander von Humboldt Professor of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

DG

Derek Gregory, Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

DH

Dan Hiebert, Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

DL

David Ley, Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

DMat

David Matless, Professor of Cultural Geography, University of Nottingham, UK

DMar

Deborah Martin, Assistant Professor of Geography, Clark University, USA

DMS

David Smith, Emeritus Professor of Geography, Queen Mary, University of London, UK

DNL

David Livingstone, Professor of Geography and Intellectual History, Queen’s University, Belfast, UK

DP

David Pinder, Reader in Geography, Queen Mary, University of London, UK

EM

Eugene McCann, Associate Professor of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Canada

EP

Eric Pawson, Professor of Geography, University of Canterbury, New Zealand

ES

Eric Sheppard, Regents Professor, University of Minnesota, USA

ESch

Erica Schoenberger, Professor of Geography, the Johns Hopkins University, USA

FD

Felix Driver, Professor of Human Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK

GB

Gavin Bridge, Reader in Economic Geography, University of Manchester, UK

GHa

Gillian Hart, Professor of Geography, University of California, Berkeley, USA

GHe

George Henderson, Associate Professor of Geography, University of Minnesota, USA

GK

Gerry Kearns, Professor of Government and International Affairs, Virginia Tech, USA

GP

Geraldine Pratt, Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

GR

Gillian Rose, Professor of Cultural Geography, The Open University, UK

GRe

George Revill, Senior Lecturer, Department of Geography, The Open University, UK

GV

Gill Valentine, Professor of Geography, University of Leeds, UK

GW

Graeme Wynn, Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

JA

John Agnew, Professor of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

JD

Jessica Dubow, Lecturer in Geography, University of Sheffield, UK

JF

James Faulconbridge, Lecturer in Human Geography, Lancaster University, UK

JGl

Jim Glassman, Associate Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

JGu

Julie Guthman, Associate Professor, Community Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz, USA

JH

Jennifer Hyndman, Professor of Geography, Syracuse University, USA

JK

Jake Kosek, Assistant Professor, University of California, Berkeley, USA

JL

Jo Little, Professor in Gender and Geography, University of Exeter, UK

JM

James McCarthy, Assistant Professor of Geography, Pennsylvania State University, USA

JPa

Joe Painter, Professor of Geography, University of Durham, UK

JPe

Jamie Peck, Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

JPi

John Pickles, Earl N. Phillips Distinguished Professor of International Studies and Geography, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA

JPJ

John Paul Jones III, Professor of Geography, University of Arizona, USA

JSD

James Duncan, Reader in Cultural Geography, University of Cambridge

JSh

Jo Sharp, Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of Glasgow, UK

JSt

Jon Stobart, Professor of History, Northampton University, UK

JSu

Juanita Sundberg, Assistant Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

JWi

Jane Wills, Professor of Human Geography, Queen Mary, University of London, UK

JWy

John Wylie, Senior Lecturer in Human Geography, University of Exeter, UK

KB

Keith Bassett, Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of Bristol, UK

KJ

Kelvyn Jones, Professor of Human Quantitative Geography, University of Bristol, UK

KM

Katharyne Mitchell, Professor of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, USA

KS

Kirsten Simonsen, Professor of Geography, Roskilde University, Denmark

KWa

Kevin Ward, Professor of Geography, University of Manchester, UK

KWo

Keith Woodard, Lecturer in Human Geography, University of Exeter, UK

LB

Liz Bondi, Professor of Social Geography, University of Edinburgh, UK

LK

Lily Kong, Vice President (University and Global Relations) and Professor of Geography, National University of Singapore, Singapore

LL

Loretta Lees, Professor of Human Geography, King’s College, London, UK

LST

Leigh Shaw-Taylor, Senior Research Associate in Geography and Deputy Director of the Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure, University of Cambridge, UK

LWH

Les Hepple, formerly Professor of Geography, University of Bristol, UK

MB

Michael Brown, Professor of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, USA

MC

Mike Crang, Reader in Geography, University of Durham, UK

ME

Matthew Edney, Director of the History of Cartography Project, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA

MH

Michael Heffernan, Professor of Historical Geography, University of Nottingham, UK

MM

Mark Monmonier, Distinguished Professor of Geography, Syracuse University, USA

MS

Matthew Sparke, Professor of Geography, University of Washington, USA

MSG

Meric Gertler, Dean of Arts and Sciences and Professor of Geography, University of Toronto, Canada

MSR

Matthew Smallman-Raynor, Professor of Analytical Geography, Nottingham University, UK

MT

Matt Turner, Professor of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA

MW

Michael J. Watts, Professor of Geography, University of California, Berkeley, USA

NB

Nick Bingham, Lecturer in Human Geography, The Open University, UK

NC

Nigel Clark, Senior Lecturer in Human Geography, The Open University, UK

NJ

Nuala Johnson, Reader in Human Geography, Queen’s University, Belfast, UK

NJC

Nick Clifford, Professor of River Science, School of Geography, University of Nottingham, UK

NKB

Nick Blomley, Professor of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Canada

NS

Nadine Schuurman, Associate Professor of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Canada

OY

Oren Yiftachel, Professor of Geography, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

PG

Paul Glennie, Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of Bristol, UK

PH

Phil Hubbard, Professor of Urban Social Geography, Loughborough University, UK

PM

Phil McManus, Associate Professor of Geography, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Australia

PR

Paul Routledge, Reader in Geography, University of Glasgow, UK

RH

Richard Harris, Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of Bristol, UK

RJ

Ron Johnston, Professor of Geography, University of Bristol, UK

RK

Roger Keil, Professor of Environmental Studies, York University, Canada

RL

Roger Lee, Professor of Geography, Queen Mary, University of London

RMS

Richard Smith, Professor of Historical Geography and Demography, University of Cambridge, UK

RN

Richa Nagar, Professor of Gender, Women and Sexuality Studies, Department of Geography, University of Minnesota, USA

SC

Sharad Chari, Lecturer in Human Geography, London School of Economics, UK

SCh

Sanjay Chaturvedi, Professor of Political Science and Co-ordinator of the Centre for the Study of Geopolitics, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

SCo

Stuart Corbridge, Professor of Development Studies, London School of Economics, UK

SD

Simon Dalby, Professor of Geography, Carleton University, Canada

SE

Stuart Elden, Professor of Geography, University of Durham UK

SG

Stephen Graham, Professor of Geography, University of Durham, UK

SHa

Susan Hanson, Research Professor of Geography, Clark University, USA

SHe

Steve Herbert, Professor of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, USA

SHi

Stephen Hinchliffe, Reader in Environmental Geography, The Open University, UK

SM

Sallie Marston, Professor of Geography, University of Arizona, USA

SP

Scott Prudham, Associate Professor of Geography, University of Toronto, Canada

SW

Sarah Whatmore, Professor of Environment and Public Policy, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, UK

TJB

Trevor Barnes, Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

US

Ulf Strohmayer, Professor of Geography, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

VG

Vinay Gidwani, Associate Professor of Geography, University of Minnesota, USA

WMA 

Bill Adams, Moran Professor of Conservation and Development, University of Cambridge, UK

Editorial Advisory Board

Nicholas Blomley

Professor of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Canada

Sanjay Chaturvedi

Professor of Political Science and Co-ordinator of the Centre for the Study of Geopolitics, Panjab University, India

Eric Clark

Professor, Department of Social and Economic Geography, Lund University, Sweden

Felix Driver

Professor of Human Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK

Katherine Gibson

Professor, Department of Human Geography, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

Michael Heffernan

Professor of Historical geography, University of Nottingham, UK

Jennifer Hyndman

Professor of Geography, Syracuse University, USA

Kelvyn Jones

Professor of Human Quantitative Geography, University of Bristol, UK

Paul Longley

Professor of Geographic Information Science, University College London, UK

Peter Meusburger

Senior Professor, Department of Geography, University of Heidelberg, Germany

Don Mitchell

Professor of Geography, Syracuse University, USA

Anna Secor

Associate Professor of Geography, University of Kentucky, USA

Joanne Sharp

Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of Glasgow, UK

Eric Sheppard

Regents Professor, Department of Geography, University of Minnesota, USA

Kirsten Simonsen

Professor of Geography, Roskilde University, Denmark

David Slater

Loughborough University, UK

Gearoid O Tuathail (Gerard Toal)

Professor, School of Public and International Affairs, Virginia Tech, USA

Jane Wills

Professor of Human Geography, Queen Mary, University of London, UK

Brenda Yeoh

Professor of Geography, National University of Singapore

Oren Yiftachel

Professor of Geography, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

Yoka Yoshida

Associate Professor of Human Geography, Nara Women’ s University, Japan

A

abduction

A form of reasoning that takes accepted knowledge and infers the ‘best available’ explanations for what is observed. Whereas DEDUCTION formally infers the consequences of a cause-and-effect relationship (if a, then b), and INDUCTION infers a conclusion from a number of observations (of the same patterns, for example), abductive reasoning infers relationships from observations rather than asserting them. It thus presents a ‘provisional’ account for what has been observed (for why a is related to b), either inviting further empirical investigation that might sustain the ‘explanation’ or encouraging deductive work that might put the putative causal chain on a former footing. RJ

abjection

A psychoanalytic concept that describes a psychic process through which the pure, proper and bounded body and IDENTITY emerge by expelling what is deemed impure, horrific or disgusting. The abject refers to bodily by-products such as urine, saliva, sperm, blood, vomit, faeces, hair, nails or skin, but also to impure psychic attachments, such as same-sex desire (Butler, 1997) and to entire zones of uninhabitable social life. What and who is classified as abject is socially and culturally contingent; it is that which ‘upsets or befuddles order’ (Grosz, 1994, p. 192). The abject thus signals sites of potential threat to the psychic and social order. Abjection is a process that can never be completed, and this is one factor that creates the intensity of psychic investment in the process. The concept is of interest because it attests to the materiality of subjectivity (the constant interplay between the body and SUBJECTIVITY); the persistent work required to maintain the fragile boundary between inside and outside, object and subject; and the intimate ways in which cultural norms inhabit the BODY. Geographers have been drawn in particular to the role that abjection plays in group-based fears manifest, for instance, in RACISM, sexism, homophobia (see HOMOPHOBIA AND HETEROSEXISM), able-ism and some forms of NATIONALISM (Young, 1990a), particularly in the maintenance of borders and purification of space, and in the production of the space of the exception (see EXCEPTION, SPACE OF). As one example, Jo Long (2006) interprets the efforts of the Israeli state to defend its borders from the ‘leakage’ of Palestinian checkpoint births and female ‘suicide bombers’ through the concept of abjection; Judith Butler (2004) conceives the US-operated Guantanamo Bay detention camp as a domain of abjected beings. GP

Suggested reading

Sibley (1995).

aboriginality

A term derived from the Latin ab origine, meaning the original founders, or ‘from the beginning’. In the nineteenth century, ‘Aborigines’ denoted the existing inhabitants of what Europeans called the ‘New World’. Today, the terms ‘aboriginal peoples’ and ‘aboriginality’ are in official use in Australia and in Canada, and in Canada it is also common to refer to ‘First Nations’. Elsewhere, it is more usual to refer to indigenous peoples, and hence indigeneity.

According to the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Peoples, the interpretation of such expressions should reflect the historical and current situations of these colonized peoples (see COLONIALISM), as well as their manner of self-identification and search for greater degrees of self-determination. However, as a construct of European MODERNITY, ‘aboriginality’ was freighted with connotations of ‘savagery’ and lack of CULTURE (Anderson, 2000a) (see also PRIMITIVISM), and its continued use also obscures the subjectivities of the heterogeneous groups to which it is applied. Indigenous peoples often had no single name to describe themselves before there was a colonizing Other to make this necessary. The Maori (meaning ‘ordinary’, or ‘the people’) of New Zealand did not describe themselves as such until they were aware of Pakeha (‘not Maori’ or Europeans). They knew and named themselves as members of kin-based groups, as is still the case. Likewise, amongst the Kwara’ae of Malaita (one of the Solomon Islands) self-definition is understood in relation to PLACE, genealogy, right of access to land and the right to speak (Gegeo, 2001).

Since the 1980s, GLOBALIZATION and the architecture of NEO-LIBERALISM have presented both problems and opportunities. Marginalization and loss of control of RESOURCES continue (Stewart-Harawira, 2005), but there is also potential for insertion into transnational informational and economic networks. This can facilitate steps towards indigenous professionalization and self-determination. Participation in activities such as TOURISM, oil extraction and cattle ranching by the Cofan and Secoya peoples of the Ecuadorian Amazon has opened spaces for questioning fixed notions of indigenous identities (as ‘natural’ conservationists of remote territories, for example). These are often articulated in different ways and contested within communities, particularly along generational lines (Valdivia, 2005).

Despite official recognition of indigenous peoples in national legislation and constitutional LAW, the practical implementation of policy remains a problem in many parts of the world. According to the United Nations Working Group in 2003, this applies in areas ranging from rights to land and natural resources to the alleviation of POVERTY. Institutionalized discrimination is pervasive, not least through superimposed definitions of identity (e.g. for census purposes or for state entitlements). State education systems have often been structured to facilitate integration or assimilation, denying cultural and ethnic diversity. Universities maybe comp licit. Research on, rather than with, indigenous people is seen as reproducing colonial relations, advancing the career of the researcher rather than indigenous interests. (cf. Smith, 1999b). EP

Suggested reading

Smith (1999); Valdivia (2005).

abstraction

Methodologically, abstraction involves the conceptual isolation of (a partial aspect of) an object. During the QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION, abstraction was seen as the starting-point for the construction of spatial MODELS, but few methodological principles were provided (Chorley, 1964). Some critics of SPATIAL SCIENCE were drawn instead to the construction of what the sociologist Max Weber called IDEAL TYPES: ‘one-sided’ idealizations of the world seen from particular points of view. There was nothing especially ‘scientific’ about them, which is presumably why they appealed to the critics, and Weber claimed that this kind of selective structuring is something that we all do all the time. Since it is possible to construct quite different ideal types of the same phenomenon, depending on one’s point of view, the critical moment comes when the ideal type is compared with ‘empirical reality’ – but here too few methodological principles were proposed to conduct or interpret any such comparisons.

REALISM rejected both of these approaches as arbitrary and substituted what its proponents saw as a rigorous scientific methodology. According to Sayer (1992 [1984]), abstractions should identify essential characteristics of objects and should be concerned with ‘substantial’ relations of connection rather than merely ‘formal’ relations of similarity (which Chorley (1964) had called ‘analogues’; cf. METAPHOR). Realism turns on identifying those INTERNAL RELATIONS that necessarily enter into the constitution of specific structures. Hence Sayer distinguished a rational abstraction – that is, ‘one that isolates a significant element of the world that has some unity and autonomous force’ – from a chaotic conception – that is, one whose definition is more or less arbitrary. It is no less important to recognize different levels of abstraction, a strategy of considerable importance in theoretical formations such as HISTORICAL MATERIALISM that claim to move between the general and the (historically or geographically) specific (Cox and Mair, 1989). But these prescriptions turn out to be far from straightforward in a HUMAN GEOGRAPHY where ‘context’ cannot be cleanly severed from objects of analysis, and recent debates over SCALE have revealed the importance of revisiting issues of EPISTEMOLOGY and ONTOLOGY that are focal to the process of abstraction (Castree, 2005b).

Abstraction is more than a formal method: it is a profoundly human and thoroughly indispensable practice, as Weber recognized, so that what matters are the consequences of particular modes of abstraction. Seen thus, it spirals far beyond the spheres of SCIENCE and other forms of intellectual enquiry. Many critics have drawn attention to the role of abstraction in the heightened rationalization of everyday life under CAPITALISM – what Habermas (1987b [1981]) called ‘the colonization of the LIFEWORLD’ – and the attendant production of an abstract space, ‘one-sided’ and ‘incomplete’, that Lefebvre (1991b [1974]) identified as the dominant spatial thematic of MODERNITY (see PRODUCTION OF SPACE). DG

Suggested reading

Castree (2005b); Sayer (1982).

accessibility

The standard definition is the ease with which people can reach desired activity sites, such as those offering employment, shopping, medical care or recreation. Because many geographers and planners believe that access to essential goods and services is an important indicator of QUALITY OF LIFE, measures of access are used to compare the accessibility levels of different groups of individuals and households, or of different places or locations. Most measures of accessibility entail counting the number of opportunities or activity sites available within certain travel times or distances of a specified origin (Handy and Niemeier, 1997). A simple example is

where Ai is the accessibility of person i, Oi is the number of opportunities (say, the number of job openings of a particular type or the number of grocery stores) at distance j from person i’s home, and dij is some measure of the FRICTION OF DISTANCE between i andj (this measure could be distance in kilometres, travel costs in euros or travel time in minutes). This equation could also be used to assess the relative levels of accessibility of different areas, such as census tracts; in this case, Ai is the accessibility of place i, Oj is the number of opportunities in place j, and dij is a measure of separation between places i and j.

As is evident from the measure above, accessibility is affected by land-use patterns, MOBILITY and mobility substitutes in the form of telecommunications. If many opportunities are located close to someone’s home or workplace, that person can enjoy a relatively high level of accessibility with relatively little mobility, and will be more likely to gain access to opportunities via walking or biking rather than via motorized modes (Hanson and Schwab, 1987). As opportunities are located at greater distances from each other and from residential areas, greater mobility is required to attain access. As the cost of overcoming spatial separation increases, all else being equal, accessibility decreases. Electronic communications such as the telephone and the INTERNET enable access without mobility, although in most cases, such as that of purchasing a book from an online vendor, the cost of overcoming distance remains in the form of shipment costs (Scott, 2000b). These relationships among accessibility, mobility and land-use patterns are central to efforts to promote the URBAN VILLAGE as an alternative to SPRAWL.

The advent of GIS technology has enabled the development of accessibility measures that recognize that a person’s access changes as that person moves about, for example, over the course of a day (Kwan, 1999). In addition, there is increasing recognition that the ability to take advantage of spatially dispersed employment opportunities, medical services and shops involves more than overcoming distance. Gaining access often entails overcoming barriers constructed by language and culture (as in the ability to access medical care), by lack of education or skills (as in access to certain jobs), or by GENDER ideologies (which prohibit women from entering certain places or place additional space–time constraints on women’s mobility). In short, lack of access involves more than SPATIAL MISMATCH. SHA

Suggested reading

Kwan and Weber (2003); Kwan, Murray, O’Kelly and Tiefelsdorf (2003).

accumulation

The process by which CAPITAL is reproduced on an expanding scale through the reinvestment of surplus value. Accumulation of capital is possible within a variety of social structures, but for Marx accumulation was uniquely imperative within capitalist societies and therefore constituted a definitive condition of the capitalist mode of production (see CAPITALISM).

In capitalist contexts, accumulation involves reinvesting the surplus value from past rounds of production, reconverting it into capital. Marx discussed different forms of accumulation that applied to different historical and geographical conditions of production. In early centuries of European capitalism, a crucial dimension of the accumulation process was enclosure of common lands and conversion of communal or tied labour into ‘free’ wage labour, through destruction of independent control over means of production. Marx described this process of primitive (or ‘primary’) accumulation as a historical precondition for the development of capitalism (Marx, 1967 [1867], pp. 713–41), but it has also been seen in more recent Marxist scholarship as a continuing dimension of the overall process of accumulation that Harvey (2003b, pp. 137–82) calls accumulation by dispossession (cf. Amin, 1974; see also MARXIAN ECONOMICS).

Within the capitalist mode of production proper, the major form of accumulation is what Marx calls ‘expanded reproduction.’ To remain in business, any given capitalist must at least preserve the value of the capital originally invested, what Marx calls ‘simple reproduction.’ But, as individual capitalists seek to more effectively extract surplus from labour, they employ new means of production (machinery and other technologies), the value of which can only be fully realized through expanding their scale of operation. This spurs competition over markets, and competition in turn comes to act as the enforcer of expanded reproduction. Any capitalist who chooses only to engage in simple reproduction would soon lose market share and go out of business. As Marx put the matter, ‘Accumulate, accumulate! That is Moses and the prophets!’ (Marx, 1967 [1867], p. 595).

This competition-enforced dynamic of ac cumulation shapes the geography of capitalist development. The search for new MARKETS drives investors to intensify production and consumption within given locations, contributing to the development of the built environment and transforming social relations in ways that facilitate expanded reproduction (Harvey, 1999 [1982]). It also drives investors to seek opportunities in new locations, thus giving rise to a geographical expansion of capitalist relations of production and consumption, albeit in a highly uneven fashion when considered at a global scale (Amin, 1974; see UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT). Both intensive and extensive capitalist accumulation are fraught processes that do not occur automatically, and are shaped by numerous social struggles (Harvey, 2003b, pp. 183–211). The reproduction of capitalist social relations may or may not occur in given contexts, and may depend upon a variety of factors, including the roles played by STATES. JGL

Suggested reading

Amin (1974); Harvey (1999 [1982], 2003b); Marx (1967 [1867]).

acid rain

The deposition of sulphuric and nitric acids on to land or water by rainwater. Acid rain is one form of acid precipitation, which also includes acid snow, acid hail, dry deposition and acid fog condensation. On a pH scale of 14, a substance with a pH value of less than 7 is considered acidic, while a pH value greater than 7 is considered alkaline. Rainwater is naturally slightly acidic, with a pH value of about 5.6. Acid rain generally has an average pH range of 3–5. Acidity is greatest near the base of clouds, and is diluted by a factor of 0.5 to 1 pH during rainfall (Pickering and Owen, 1994).

The English chemist R. A. Smith discovered a link between industrial POLLUTION and acid rain in Manchester in 1852, although it was known in the twelfth century that the burning of coal caused air pollution (Turco, 1997). Smith first used the term ‘acid rain’ in 1872, but his ideas have only been treated seriously since the late 1950s. The studies of Swedish soil scientist Svente Oden focused attention on this international issue. In 1972 the Swedish Government presented its case at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. The term ‘acid rain’ has been used extensively in recent decades.

Acid rain is caused primarily by the cumulative release of nitrogen and sulphur from the burning of fossil fuels. This includes coal for power, heating and industry, petrol in automobiles, and uncontrolled fires in coalfields and coal mines, particularly in northern China (Stracher and Taylor, 2004). While acid rain may occur through natural processes such as volcanic activity, it is the cumulative impact of human activities that has caused a marked increase in acid rain over the past century. Since about 1990 various Western countries have been generally successful in reducing their generation of acid precipitation, mostly through the closure of old factories, improved pollution control measures and the phasing out of domestic coal burning, but sulphur and nitrogen oxide emissions have increased rapidly in countries such as China (Cutter and Renwick, 2004).

Acid deposition is most severe in western Europe, the Midwest of North America, in China and in countries near its eastern borders. These areas have higher generation rates. Acid rain may cross national boundaries and fall several hundred kilometres from the source, particularly when tall smokestacks displace pollution from its source area. The areas most affected by acid rain tend to be downwind of dense concentrations of power stations, smelters and cities, are often in upland areas with high levels of precipitation, and are often forest areas dissected by rivers and lakes. Acid rain kills forests when acidic particles directly damage leaves, and/or when the soil becomes acidified and the metals bound in the soil are freed. The nutrients necessary for plant growth are then leached by the water. Acid rain lowers the pH value of lakes and other water bodies, which kills fish and other aquatic forms of life. Acid rain may also corrode buildings and other structures. PM

action research

A synthesis between study of social change and active involvement in processes of change, where critical research, reflexive activism and open-ended pedagogy are actively combined in an evolving collaborative methodology.