The Global Cable Industry E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH GmbH
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 659

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

A comprehensive guide to cable materials, markets, and products 

The Global Cable Industry presents a comprehensive overview of the most recent developments in automotive cables, nuclear power station cables, undersea cables, coaxial cables, optical wires, medium- and high-voltage cables. With contributions from noted researchers and developers in the field, the book includes information on material developments for polymers, crosslinked elastomers and flame retardant non-halogen cable compounds.  

The contributors provide information on technologies to crosslink polymers, an overview of foam polymers, and field experiences of the new cable fire test within the Construction Product Regulation framework. In addition, this comprehensive resource contains the most relevant economic questions related to the cable industry that highlights materials, market segments, and countries. This important book:  

• Includes contributions from researchers and developers of key companies in the cable industry 
• Presents information on the most recent developments in the field 
• Covers the most industry-relevant cable types such as automotive, nuclear power cables, undersea, coaxial, optical, medium- and high-voltage cables 

Written for power engineers, materials scientists, chemists and engineering scientists in industry, The Global Cable Industry is an up-to-date guide to the multi-billion-dollar cable enterprise. 

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

About the Editor

1 Overview of the Global Cable Industry – Markets and Materials

1.1 Demand for Polymeric Material

1.2 Asia and Australasia

1.3 Europe

1.4 The Middle East and Africa

1.5 North America

1.6 South and Central America

Notes

2 Thermoplastics for Cables

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Polyolefin Materials

2.3 Chlorinated Polymers

2.4 Fluoropolymers

2.5 Polyamide (PA)

2.6 Polyesters

2.7 Thermoplastic Polyurethane

References

3 Elastomers for Cables

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Rubber Compounds

3.3 Compounding

3.4 Extrusion

3.5 Cross-linking/Vulcanization

References

Notes

4 Extrusion of Cables

4.1 Historical Introduction to Cable Extrusion

4.2 Extruder in Cable Lines

4.3 Accessories for Extruders

4.4 Extrusion Heads or Dies

4.5 Cooling

4.6 Quality

References

Note

5 Foam Extrusion

5.1 Motivation

5.2 Physical Basics

5.3 Selection of Polymer

5.4 Selection of Blowing Agents

5.5 Extrusion Equipment

5.6 Processing

Glossary

References

Notes

6 Flame Retardancy of Cables

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Flame Propagation Tests for Wires and Cables

6.3 Smoke, Corrosivity, and Toxicity Tests for Wires and Cables

6.4 Circuit Integrity and Functional Integrity for Security Cables

6.5 Laboratory Tests for the Flammability of Wire and Cable Materials

6.6 Polymers for Flame-Retardant Wires and Cables

6.7 Flame Retardants for Flame-Retardant Wires and Cables

6.8 Flame-Retardant PVC

6.9 Flame-Retardant Polyolefins

6.10 CPR (Construction Products Regulation)

References

7 CPR Testing of Cables

7.1 Introduction

7.2 FIPEC Program

7.3 Construction Product Regulation (CPR) Framework

References

7.A Measuring Heat Release Rate (HRR) by Oxygen Consumption Technique, and Smoke Density

8 Crosslinking Technologies

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Crosslinking, Curing, Vulcanizing

8.3 Crosslinking Processes

8.4 The Silane-Crosslinking Process

8.5 The Peroxide Crosslinking Process (CV Curing)

8.6 e-Beam Crosslinking

8.7 Conclusions

Further Reading

Silane Crosslinking

Peroxide Crosslinking

Electron-Beam Crosslinking

Hot-Set-Elongation

9 Nuclear Power Station Cables

9.1 Development of Nuclear Power in the World

9.2 Development of Cables for Nuclear Power Plants

9.3 Future Developments of Nuclear Cables

References

10 Submarine Cables

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Submarine Power Cable Applications

10.3 Submarine Power Cable Design Overview

10.4 Power System Considerations

10.5 Submarine Power Cable Elements

10.6 Submarine Cable Manufacturing

10.7 Submarine Power Cable Accessories

10.8 Submarine Power Cable Testing

10.9 Submarine Power Cables – What Next?

References

11 MV and HV Cables

11.1 History of Cables

11.2 Today’s Cables

11.3 Conductor Design

11.4 Conductor Screen

11.5 Insulation

11.6 Jacketing/Sheathing

References

12 Coaxial Cables

12.1 History

12.2 Design: Components and Principles

12.3 Characteristic Impedance (Zo)

12.4 Velocity of Propagation

12.5 Capacitance

12.6 Attenuation

12.7 Impedance Mismatch – Reflection Coefficients and Return Loss

12.8 Applications

12.9 Video, TV, and Broadband Applications

12.10 Automotive Coaxial Cable Applications

12.11 Conclusions

References

Notes

13 Optical Fiber Cables

13.1 Optical Communication System

13.2 Fiber Main Features and Transmission Theory

13.3 Cable Design and Manufacturing Technology

13.4 Classification of Optical Cables and Typical Application

13.5 Scale and Market of Fiber and Cable Industry

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Classes of polyethylene.

Table 2.2 Some characteristic properties of polypropylene [223, 224].

Table 2.3 Some characteristic properties of fluoropolymers [225].

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Abstract rubber compound recipe [13].

Table 3.2 Rubber coding according ASTM D 1418 (selection) [14].

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Some values of bulk densities.

Table 4.2 Order of magnitude of specific outputs for different extruder sizes...

Table 4.3 Mass temperature as a function of the device used.

Table 4.4 Comparison of distributors with single or double distribution chann...

Table 4.5 Indications of values of DDR for some materials.

Table 4.6 Temperature increase for 100 bars counterpressure for different mat...

Table 4.7 Common defects and possible remedies.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Equations for calculation of some electrical cable parameters.

Table 5.2 A selection of polymers with permittivity and attenuation values.

Table 5.3 Typical CBAs and some of their properties.

Table 5.4 Gases for physical foaming with some relevant properties.

Table 5.5 Examples of PE-foam mixtures and required dosing stations.

Table 5.6 Examples of gas purity dot notation.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Fire statistics by CFS.

Table 6.2 Different fire types.

Table 6.3 Ignition in structural fires.

Table 6.4 Standards to measure flame propagation of cables.

Table 6.5 Toxicity of combustion gases.

Table 6.6 Categories and test conditions for BS 6387.

Table 6.7 Categories for DIN 4102 part 12.

Table 6.8 Flame retardants used for flame-retardant cables.

Table 6.9 PVC formulations for cable jacket; quantities for PVC, fillers, etc...

Table 6.10 PVC formulation for a cable insulation according to UL-requirement...

Table 6.11 PVC formulation for a plenum cable jacket; quantities for PVC, fil...

Table 6.12 PVC formulation for a cable jacket with reduced smoke emission; qu...

Table 6.13 Global share of different compounds for cable insulations and jack...

Table 6.14 Share of different compounds for cable insulations and jackets in ...

Table 6.15 Global geographical locations of cable fabrication.

Table 6.16 Aluminum hydroxide-based HFFR cable jacket formulation.

Table 6.17 Aluminum hydroxide-based HFFR cable insulation and jacket formulat...

Table 6.18 Euroclasses of cables.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Euroclasses versus fire contribution level (based on Room corner te...

Table 7.2 Work packages of the FIPEC program.

Table 7.3 Overview of horizontal and vertical real-scale test setups.

Table 7.4 Cable selection for power plant applications.

Table 7.5 Horizontal and vertical setup real-scale fire test [15].

Table 7.6 FIPEC proposal classes of reaction to fire performance for cables.

Table 7.7 Milestones overview.

Table 7.8 EN 13501-6 overview.

Table 7.9 Smoke classes for cables.

Table 7.10 Reaction to fire classes for electric cables.

Table 7.11 Time for flame application.

Table 7.12 EN 50399 comparison versus former CEI 60332-1-3.

Table 7.13 Mounting of the test sample.

Table 7.14 Number of cables per test piece.

Table 7.15 Fire scenario comparison.

Table 7.A.1

E

for typical synthetic polymers.

Table 7.A.2 Example of commissioning factor calculation.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Calculated ideal wall thickness at three different energies (voltag...

Table 8.2 List of some of the polymers and elastomers, which can be crosslink...

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Typical structure composition of cable for nuclear power plant.

Table 9.2 Standards of nuclear cables (examples).

Table 9.3 Qualification test items for class 1E cables.

Table 9.4 Qualification test item of class 1E cable for mainstream nuclear po...

Table 9.5 Basic performance table of commercial PEEK.

Table 9.6 Basic performance tables of two commercialized TPI.

Table 9.7 Basic performance table of PEI resin for cable.

Table 9.8 Basic performance table of PAI for cable.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 List of peroxide by-products.

Table 11.2 Selected properties of selected metallic screens.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Dielectric Information.

Table 12.2 Dielectric and jacket materials [13].

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Classification of communication fiber and map from IEC nomenclatur...

Table 13.2 The map from IEC nomenclature to ISO/IEC 60811 denominate for mult...

Table 13.3 Main features for single-mode and multimode fiber.

Table 13.4 Comparison table of elastic tensile modulus of reinforcement mater...

Table 13.5 Classification of optical fiber cable.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Investment in construction in 2013–2022 worldwide.

Figure 1.2 Global evolution of automotive production in 2013–2022.

Figure 1.3 Global usage of polymeric materials by region. Source: AMI Consul...

Figure 1.4 Polymeric material consumption in the Global Cable Industry, 2013...

Figure 1.5 Polymeric material consumption in the Global Cable Industry, 2019...

Figure 1.6 Polymeric material consumption in the Global Cable Industry, 2023...

Figure 1.7 Construction investment in Asia and Australasia 2013–2022.

Figure 1.8 Evolution of automotive production in Asia and Australasia in 201...

Figure 1.9 Construction investment in Europe in 2013–2023.

Figure 1.10 Evolution of automotive production in Europe in 2014–2022.

Figure 1.11 Investment in construction in the Middle East and Africa in 2013...

Figure 1.12 Evolution of automotive production in the Middle East and Africa...

Figure 1.13 Investment in construction in North America in 2013–2023.

Figure 1.14 Evolution of automotive production in North America in 2014–2022...

Figure 1.15 Construction investment in South America in 2013–2023.

Figure 1.16 Evolution of automotive production in South America in 2014–2022...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Repetitive units in polyethylene.

Figure 2.2 The structure of three polyethylene types; (a) LDPE. (b) LLDPE, a...

Figure 2.3 The effect of increasing density on the properties of polyethylen...

Figure 2.4 Effect of increasing the melt index on polymer properties.

Figure 2.5 The effect of increasing molecular weight distribution (MWD) on p...

Figure 2.6 Example of the elongational viscosity curve of a typical HDPE res...

Figure 2.7 Comparison of typical MWD curves for uni- and bimodal polyethylen...

Figure 2.8 Viscosity curves at 190 °C of a typical unimodal and bimodal jack...

Figure 2.9 Monomer units in polypropylene.

Figure 2.10 Polymerization from vinylchloride to PVC.

Figure 2.11 The repetitive unit in FEP.

Figure 2.12 Repetitive unit in PTFE.

Figure 2.13 Building blocks of ETFE.

Figure 2.14 Building blocks of PFA.

Figure 2.15 Repetitive units in ECTFE.

Figure 2.16 Vinylidene monomer building block for PVDF.

Figure 2.17 Polyamide 12 building blocks.

Figure 2.18 Building blocks of PBT.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 From monomers to polymers.

Figure 3.2 (a) Palaquium gutta. (b) Gutta-percha press. Source: (a) Köhler [...

Figure 3.3 The way of processing natural rubber [4]. (a)

Hevea brasiliensis

...

Figure 3.4 Commercialization of synthetic rubbers. Source: Röthemeyer [1].

Figure 3.5 From rubber to elastomer.

Figure 3.6 Rubber elasticity (a) entangled, (b) extended.

Figure 3.7 Structural models of thermoplastic elastomers. (a) Block copolyme...

Figure 3.8 General design of polymeric compounds. (a) Thermoplastic compound...

Figure 3.9 (a) Properties of rubber [15]. (b) Heat and oil resistance of rub...

Figure 3.10 Mooney viscosity. Source: Ref. [13].

Figure 3.11 Reinforcement effects of fillers in rubber compounds. Source: Kl...

Figure 3.12 Classification of fillers according their particle size [15].

Figure 3.13 Cross-linking of unsaturated rubber chains with sulfur systems. ...

Figure 3.14 Cross-linking of rubber chains with peroxide radicals.

Figure 3.15 Cross-linking behavior measured with moving die rheometer (MDR)....

Figure 3.16 Cross-linking of rubber chains with radicals.

Figure 3.17 Cross-linking of rubber chains with silanes.

Figure 3.18 (a) Internal mixer. (b) Rotor systems. Source: Refs. [1, 15, 18]...

Figure 3.19 (a) Compounding diagram. (b) Optimal compound manufacturing. Sou...

Figure 3.20 Compounding line arrangements.

Figure 3.21 Extruder [1].

Figure 3.22 Catenary continuous vulcanization line [1].

Figure 3.23 Saturated hot water steam: correlation steam pressure and temper...

Figure 3.24 (a) Electron accelerator. (b) Irradiation principle. Source: Ref...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 One of the first extrusion lines from the middle of the nineteent...

Figure 4.2 Figure presenting the different parts of a cable extrusion line. ...

Figure 4.3 Sketch of the different zones of a compression screw

D

 = 38 mm.

Figure 4.4 Heating bands and cooling thins. Source: Maillefer extrusion.

Figure 4.5 Friction coefficient.

Figure 4.6 Evolution of the friction coefficient as a function of pressure f...

Figure 4.7 Simplified representation of the extruder feeding zone (a) screw ...

Figure 4.8 Influence of the flight angle on

q

.

Figure 4.9 Output as a function of channel depth for different barrel fricti...

Figure 4.10 Output as a function of pressure at different coefficients of fr...

Figure 4.11 A helical grooved feeding zone. (a) barrel with helical grooves ...

Figure 4.12 Examples of outputs obtained for an 80-24D with helical feeding ...

Figure 4.13 Representation of the melting mechanism in the melting zone and ...

Figure 4.14 Melting zone mechanism.

Note

:

θ

 = solid conveying angle.

Figure 4.15 Evolution of the pressure along the back flight as a function of...

Figure 4.16 Influence of the solid bed width along the screw, as a function ...

Figure 4.17 Influence of rotation speed and material on melting length.

Figure 4.18 Functioning of the barrier zone.

Figure 4.19 Presentation of the metering zone (a) metering zone screw geomet...

Figure 4.20 Characteristic curves of a 100 mm extruder at 10 rpm with PE for...

Figure 4.21 Output (left vertical axis) and inside pressure evolution (right...

Figure 4.22 Defect due to lack of shear rate. Source: Maillefer extrusion.

Figure 4.23 Example of default due to lack of distribution. Source: Mailefer...

Figure 4.24 Different dispersive type mixing devices. (a) Mixing device with...

Figure 4.25 Different kinds of distributive mixing devices. (a) Device with ...

Figure 4.26 Egan mixing device. Source: Maillefer extrusion.

Figure 4.27 The Saxton type mixing device. Source: Maillefer extrusion.

Figure 4.28 Evolution of the average evaluation of quality as a function of ...

Figure 4.29 (a) Breaker plate; (b) Meshes.

Figure 4.30 Principle and drawing of a melt gear pump (a) drawing of a gear ...

Figure 4.31 (a)Single layer sheathing extrusion crosshead. (b)Twin layer ins...

Figure 4.32 Presentation of an extrusion head with single or double distribu...

Figure 4.33 Coat hanger type distributor, and complete extrusion head (two l...

Figure 4.34 Flow in flat distributors with a (a) single distributor, (b) dou...

Figure 4.35 Helical distributor: (a) (a)distributor geometry; (b) flow aroun...

Figure 4.36 (a) Pressure tooling and (b) tube tooling. Source: Buluscheck [1...

Figure 4.37 Tube tooling design parameters (case of cables).

Figure 4.38 Cooling trough: left fixed; right with mobile trunk (a) fixed fi...

Figure 4.39 Active heat transfer in a cooling cable.

Figure 4.40 Evolution of average temperature for a

Bi

number of 0.6, then 0....

Figure 4.41 Use of the shadow of a cable to measure its diameter.

Figure 4.42 (a) Different types of defects (a) signal (tension) measured alo...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Cable construction of RF coaxial cable types.

Figure 5.2 Relationship between void ratio and permittivity/propagation spee...

Figure 5.3 Combined plot of capacitance, diameter, output rate, permittivity...

Figure 5.4 Processing window (not to scale) for amorphous and semicrystallin...

Figure 5.5 Signal attenuation due to different tan

δ

.

Figure 5.6 Simplified steps of physical foaming (numbers refer to sections i...

Figure 5.7 Microscopic view of a cross section of a foamed SFS data cable.

Figure 5.8 Layout of the first part of an extrusion line for physical foam (...

Figure 5.9 Extruder injection point and valve type injection device.

Figure 5.10 (a) Schematic drawing of gear melt pump principle. (b) Herringbo...

Figure 5.11 A “foam cone” for a 7/8″ cable (23 mm insulation diameter).

Figure 5.12 Thermal simulation of two cables with similar geometry, (a) soli...

Figure 5.13 Extruder temperature profile examples for solid, chemical, and p...

Figure 5.14 Influence of insulation wall thickness and MFR on maximum void....

Figure 5.15 Foam structure of a 2-1/4″ (49 mm) SF and 0.75 mm SFS cable insu...

Figure 5.16 Inline FFT evaluation, line speed 600 m/min, sampling rate 400 H...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Flame propagation of cables during a cable fire test.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 EN 13823 test [9].

Figure 7.2 EN ISO 9239-2 flooring radiant panel test [10].

Figure 7.3 Modified former IEC 60332-1-3 large-scale test. Source: Based on ...

Figure 7.4 Comparison with traditional IEC 60332-1-3 series. Source: Based o...

Figure 7.5 Influence of twisted and non-twisted bundles. Source: Based on Va...

Figure 7.6 Influence of layers. Source: Based on Van Hees et al. [14].

Figure 7.7 ISO 1716 apparatus. Source: Courtesy of CREPIM.

Figure 7.8 EN 60332-1-2 principle.

Figure 7.9 Burner calibration according to EN 60695-11-2.

Figure 7.10 EN 50399 principle.

Figure 7.11 EN 50399 apparatus. (a) During and (b) after test. Source: Court...

Figure 7.12 Test pieces fitted on the ladder.

Figure 7.13 Crossed wire method for fixing cable.

Figure 7.14 EN ISO 61034-1 apparatus. (a) Apparatus overview, (b) Test speci...

Figure 7.15 EN 60 754-2 Method 3: ambient suck air system by means of suctio...

Figure 7.A.1 Heat release measurement by oxygen consumption.

Figure 7.A.2 Heat release rate peak occurrence of two systems.

Figure 7.A.3 FIGRA and SMOGRA calculation.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 A simplified visualization of “crosslinks” (=joints). It is all a...

Figure 8.2 Crosslinked polymer chains.

Figure 8.3 MFI modification by e-beam treating. Source: Courtesy of Ron Goet...

Figure 8.4 Formation of a silane grafted polymer.

Figure 8.5 Formation of a bond between two polymers.

Figure 8.6 Overview of the steps, which are involved to produce a finished a...

Figure 8.7 Examples of premature crosslinked polymers during the extrusion p...

Figure 8.8 Peroxide crosslinking reaction.

Figure 8.9 The heating tubes in CV lines may have lengths up to and over 100...

Figure 8.10 TV monitors, e-beams that were used all over the globe.

Figure 8.11 Principle of an e-beam in an (old) TV monitor (left) and an e-be...

Figure 8.12 Schematic drawing of an e-beam facility, including the high volt...

Figure 8.13 The scan horn: under the e-beam (left) and positioned above a ca...

Figure 8.14 Example of an UBHS. Courtesy of vom Hagen und Funke GmbH, German...

Figure 8.16 Four-drum UBHS. Source: Courtesy of vom Hagen & Funke GmbH, Germ...

Figure 8.17 Heat, produced by deceleration of a car.

Figure 8.18 X-rays, produced by deceleration of high speed electrons.

Figure 8.19 A concrete bunker functions as protective shield. Source: Courte...

Figure 8.20 A 0.8 MeV "self-shielded" e-beam for e-beams with voltages >1.0 ...

Figure 8.21 Chordal length is the chordal length. This is different from the...

Figure 8.22 Selecting the right power of an e-beam is important for the rang...

Figure 8.23 Umbrella receiving a low dose (a) and a high dose (b) during a r...

Figure 8.24 The dose distribution curve, resulting from irradiation of two s...

Figure 8.25 Example of a calculation of the capacity of an industrial e-beam...

Figure 8.26 The large range of polymers and elastomers, available for e-beam...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Nuclear power development in India. Source: Data from www.nuclear...

Figure 9.2 Nuclear power development in Russia. Source: Data from www.nuclea...

Figure 9.3 Nuclear power development in France. Source: Data from www.nuclea...

Figure 9.4 Nuclear power development in USA. Source: Data from www.nuclear.n...

Figure 9.5 Fuel system rods for nuclear power plants.

Figure 9.6 Containment for AP1000 nuclear power plant.

Figure 9.7 (a) Class 1E category K3 low voltage power cable, (b) Class 1E ca...

Figure 9.8 Aging life evaluation cable materials.

Figure 9.9 Quality qualification test process for category K3 cable.

Figure 9.10 Quality qualification test process for category K2 cable.

Figure 9.11 Quality qualification test process for category K1 cable.

Figure 9.12 Structure of the primary energy consumption in China.

Figure 9.13 Distribution of nuclear power plant operated and under construct...

Figure 9.14 The proportion of inland nuclear power units in major nuclear po...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Three-core HVAC XLPE insulated submarine cable. Source: Courtesy...

Figure 10.2 Submarine cable manufacturing plant with docking facility. Sourc...

Figure 10.3 Laying up of submarine cable. Source: Hellenic Cables.

Figure 10.4 Tensile bending type test of submarine cable. Source: Hellenic C...

Figure 10.5 Voltage test of submarine cable. Source: Hellenic Cables.

Figure 10.6 Site acceptance testing of HVAC submarine cable. Source: Helleni...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Impulse strength depending on cross-linking of the conductor scr...

Figure 11.2 Loss of weight during the cross-linking process in a CV tube.

Figure 11.3 Surface finish of conventional (a) and Supersmooth

®

(b) scr...

Figure 11.4 Impulse performance depending on the screen with medium voltage ...

Figure 11.5 Loss factor depending on the type of CTA used [4].

Figure 11.6 Loss factor depending on the temperature and amount of chain tra...

Figure 11.7 Resistivity depending on the type of CTA [9].

Figure 11.8 Tree inception voltage depending on antioxidant type.

Figure 11.9 Influence of cleanliness on the results of a two-year test accor...

Figure 11.10 Influence of cleanliness in material handling on the relative r...

Figure 11.11 Partial discharge measurements on cables with bonded and stripp...

Figure 11.12 Typical design of an extruded lead sheath with copper wire.

Figure 11.13 Typical design of a corrugated aluminum sheath.

Figure 11.14 Relative weight of the same cable core with different screens....

Figure 11.15 Relative ampacity of the same cable core with different screens...

Figure 11.16 Laying costs of cables [36].

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Oliver Heaviside. Source: Smithsonian Libraries, https://commons...

Figure 12.2 Coaxial cable components.

Figure 12.3 Typical hardline coax cable used in CATV installation.

Figure 12.4 Hybrid coaxial cable.

Figure 12.5 Drop coaxial cable, QuadShield. Source: Courtesy of Amphenol Bro...

Figure 12.6 Coaxial cable impedance reference.

Figure 12.7 CHAIN home transmitter illustration.

Figure 12.8 RG-62A/U, MIL-DTL-17/30D, 30 April 2010.

Figure 12.9 Coax-fiber hybrid design.

Figure 12.10 Coax-UTP hybrid design.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Schematic diagram of WDM communication system.

Figure 13.2 Development of fiber.

Figure 13.3 Schematic diagram of total reflection of light.

Figure 13.4 Schematic diagram of optical fiber.

Figure 13.5 Photonic crystal fiber (typical).

Figure 13.6 Operating principle fiber coloring.

Figure 13.7 Structure of the fiber ribbon. (a) Typical edge-bonded ribbon. (...

Figure 13.8 Structure of the loose tube fiber.

Figure 13.9 Process schematic diagram of secondary coating production line o...

Figure 13.10 Structureof the tight buffer fiber.

Figure 13.11 Cable forming process schematic with SZ stranding.

Figure 13.12 Schematic diagram of sheathing production line of optical cable...

Figure 13.13 Typical OTDR characteristic curve.

Figure 13.14 Diagram of cable tension curve.

Figure 13.15 Typical steel tape armored directly buried optical cable.

Figure 13.16 Typical slotted core type optical cable.

Figure 13.17 Typical structure of the underwater optical cable.

Figure 13.18 Single-layer ADSS optical cables along electrical power lines....

Figure 13.19 Invisible optical cable.

Figure 13.20 Optical and electrical hybrid cable in base station.

Figure 13.21 Optical and electrical hybrid cables in DC remote supply system...

Guide

Cover

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The Global Cable Industry

Materials, Markets, Products

Edited by

Günter Beyer

Editor

Dr. Günter Beyer

Fire and Polymer

CEO

Auenweg 14

4700 Eupen

Belgium

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Cover Image: © Aeriform / Alamy Stock Photo

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About the Editor

Dr. rer. nat. Günter Beyer received his PhD in organic chemistry and photochemistry in 1984 by RWTH Aachen University (Germany) and started to work at Kabelwerk Eupen (Belgium) in the same year. He was responsible for the R&D activities of material developments and headed the chemical–physical laboratories. With more than 30 years of experience in polymer science and applications, Dr. Beyer is regularly acting as chairman and speaker at many international conferences, especially in the field of the cables, flame retardancy, nanocomposites, and polymer science. In 2003 and also in 2004 he received the Jack Spergel Memorial Award by IWCS for his fundamental work on nanocomposites by organoclays and carbon nanotubes as new classes of flame retardants for polymers.

1Overview of the Global Cable Industry – Markets and Materials

Astrid Aupetit

Applied, Market Information, AMI Consulting, 1 Brunswick Square, Bristol BS2 8PE, UK

The cable extrusion industry makes up only a small part of the global plastics industry, accounting for just under 3% of plastic consumption. However, it is a high-value market, where producers commit to the industry for the long term; it is not a sector for opportunistic business.

Geographically, the market is dominated by Asia, and more specifically, China. In terms of market size by polymeric materials, Asia and Australasia accounted for 55% of the tonnage used in cable extrusion in 2018. There are around 8000 cable manufacturers in the world, with the number in China estimated between 4000 and 6000. China has not yet fully consolidated its market, but it has reduced its number of manufacturers from 7000 to around 5000. Most are small or medium-size companies.

The cable industry is a complex market segment, due to the number of applications under the main sub-segments: power and communications. Consequently, there are a large number of cable constructions, which can easily reach more than 2000 per manufacturing site. The cable business is strongly technology driven and therefore requires a good technical understanding by all the parties involved.

Electric cable constructions consist of a copper or aluminum conductor, often with steel armoring, and polymeric materials for insulation and jacketing.

Owing to the range of end-use applications, a variety of polymeric materials are used. As a result, any producers decide to specialize in only a few types of cables to reduce investment in machinery.

Further complexity arises from different national standards, which make it harder for foreign producers to enter markets if their cables do not already meet local requirements. Indeed, in Europe, standards are in place for specific cables, notably in construction (Construction Product Regulation [CPR]) and transportation, which producers have to take into account when manufacturing cables. India and China are also in the process of putting in place legislation for the construction and building sector.

Cable manufacturing involves various stages of production, including metal drawdown, compounding, insulation and sheathing material extrusion, armouring, and eventually cross-linking processes.

The three main sectors that influence the demand for cable are infrastructure, transportation, and construction. Investments in these sectors have a direct impact on a country’s demand for cable. Regarding the construction sector, the current trend of urbanization is leading to larger cities, placing with greater demands on power transportation and distribution networks.

The trend toward more eco-friendly solutions for transportation such as e-mobility is also creating additional opportunities for the cable industry.

Renewable energy is also a sector with increasing demand for cable, not least as the electricity generated must feed into the power grid. Indeed, investment in renewable energies is driving particularly strong growth in the medium voltage (MV) and high voltage (HV) segments, related to energy transmission and distribution. In 2017, global cumulative installed renewable power capacity was 2179 gigawatts (GW), with wind energy representing over 23.5%.1 The Paris Agreement (2016) gathered nations to meet a level of use of renewable energies and has heightened the demand for power cables across the board.

In the Americas and Europe, demand is being driven by the need for power connection between countries and transmission efficiency. In emerging markets such as Southeast Asia and the Indian Subcontinent, rapid economic development and urbanization are key growth drivers.

According to the United Nations Organization,2 around 60% of the world population will be living in urban areas by 2030 and 68% by 2050, leading not only to new network needs but also to the renovation of existing infrastructure.

In China, the recent slowdown is not expected to last too long as long as government investment picks up.

Investment in construction is forecast to grow globally at an average rate of 3% per year until 2022 (Figure 1.1). This growth is spread quite evenly between civil engineering, and nonresidential and residential construction, with the latter seeing the highest investment level. Unsurprisingly, however, cable demand growth is not homogeneous across regions.

Rapid economic development and urbanization, especially in Southeast Asia, is driving strong construction investment growth. In more mature markets such as Europe and North America, growth is typically in the low single digits. Currently, the level of urbanization in Asia is 50%, while it is 82% in North America and only 43% in Africa.

Another important and bellwether sector is automotive. Global automotive investment growth is forecast to be marginally slow in 2019–2022 compared to the previous years (Figure 1.2). However, structural trends such as the development of electric vehicles and the trend toward e-mobility are having a positive effect on the cable sector.

Figure 1.1 Investment in construction in 2013–2022 worldwide.

Figure 1.2 Global evolution of automotive production in 2013–2022.

Major concerns for the industry include a range of geopolitical uncertainties. Chief among them are US–China trade frictions and Brexit. Such events are, at best, causing investment to be merely delayed.

1.1 Demand for Polymeric Material

In 2018, Asia and Australasia accounted for almost 60% of global demand, with China alone representing just over 40%. Europe (17%), North America (12%), and Middle East and Africa (10%) all had double-digit shares. South America represented just 2% of the global market (Figure 1.3).

1.1.1 Main Companies Profile

The cable industry is spread worldwide, although it is dominated by a few companies that are present on most continents.

Figure 1.3 Global usage of polymeric materials by region. Source: AMI Consulting 2019.

1.1.1.1 Prysmian

Prysmian is the largest cable manufacturer in the world by revenue. Since the acquisition of General Cable in 2018, their combined sales amounted to €10.158 billion in the year. The company was created in 2005 in Milan, Italy, by Goldman Sachs from the cables and systems division of Pirelli & C. S.p.A. and the group was created in 2011 after Prysmian acquired Draka. Prysmian Group is a public company and offer products and solutions in power grids (including submarine and HV and extra high voltage [EHV] cable systems), oil and gas, telecoms (optical and copper cables), construction and infrastructure, transportation and mobility, and industrial applications. It serves the energy, military, mining, nuclear, and renewable energy industries. The group now has 112 plants in 50 countries. Overall, Prysmian has 29 000 employees not just in the manufacture of cables, but also in cable assembly and wiring and cable systems. Sales are spread as follows: 58% Europe, Middle East, and Africa; 24% North America; 8% Latin America; and 10% Asia Pacific.3 They also operate a network of 25 R&D centers globally.

1.1.1.2 Nexans

Nexans is the second largest cable producer worldwide. Its headquarters are located in Paris, France, and the company has 51 plants in 34 countries, most of them in Europe. It employs 27 000 people.

Nexans manufactures power (low voltage [LV] MV, HV, EHV), telecom, industrial, and transportation cables as well as cable solutions (i.e. harnesses). It supplies the energy, transportation, telecom, industrial, construction, infrastructure, and aerospace industries. Nexans owns three plants in China and has managed to penetrate the Chinese market by winning projects working for the State grid. In 2018, Nexans achieved €6.490 billion in sales (current metal price). The geographic split of revenue is as follows: 37% Europe, 14% North America, 12% Asia-Pacific, 6% Middle East, Russia, and Africa, 5% Central and Latin America (11% harness, 15% HV). The largest application segment is building and infrastructure, accounting for 43% of revenues.

1.1.1.3 Southwire

Southwire is based in Carrollton, Georgia, in the United States. Out of its 19 plants, only one is outside of North America. The company has 8000 employees and in 2017, their sales were US$ 5.5 billion. It is privately owned and is the largest North American manufacturer after Prysmian, which, thanks to the acquisition of General Cable, has increased its presence on the continent.

Southwire offers power cables (LV, MV, HV, and EHV), telecommunications cables, and industrial cables made of copper rod, aluminum, and magnetic materials.

The company also provides engineering, fabrication, and inventory management services. Southwire supplies to the building sector, utility companies, and original equipment manufacturers for the automotive, electrical, and industrial equipment industries.

1.1.1.4 Sumitomo Electric Industries

Sumitomo Electric Industries is part of the Sumitomo Corporation, a huge Sogo Shosha general trading company that comprises five business units: automotive, information and communications, electronics, environment and energy, and industrial materials. The company is present in 15 countries, with consolidated sales at US$ 9.8 billion in 20174 and employs over 255 000 people.

Its headquarters are in Chūō-ku, Osaka, Japan. The company was founded in 1897 to produce copper wire for electrical uses.

The automotive business unit accounts for 50% of Sumitomo Electrics’ annual sales, the main part being wire harnesses. Info-communication provides products for optical communications, such as optical fibers, cables, and connectors. Sumitomo has invested heavily in R&D and was one of the first companies to manufacture optical fiber. The environment and energy business unit provides electric wire and cable products that are used for energy supply, including LV, MV, and HV power cables, as well as magnet wire.

1.1.1.5 Furukawa Electric Co., Ltd.

Furukawa Electric Co., Ltd. is a Japanese electric and electronic equipment manufacturer. Headquartered in Chiyodo, Tokyo, the company has 89 plants in seven countries and employs 51 925 people (9 consolidated).

Company sales amounted to US$ 8.8 billion in 2018. Its main activity is telecommunication cable production, with fiber-optic accounting for US$ 1.909 billion of sales.

Furukawa also produces underground submarine industrial and power cables and accessories (total sales: US$ 927.2 million). In addition to cables, it also manufactures batteries, wire harness, and components.

1.1.1.6 LS Cable & System

LS Cable & System is by far the biggest cable manufacturer in South Korea (including all its subsidiaries). It also has a very strong presence in South Asia. Headquartered in Anyang, the company has 16 manufacturing plants, with eight in South Korea and the rest across Asia. Its 4203 employees generated revenues of US$ 3.56 billion in 2018.

Following a move into the frontier market of Myanmar in 2017, where no other cable extruder is present, it also plans to enter the African and South American markets. The company offers power cables including EHV with cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulation, submarine and super-conductivity cables, industrial, telecommunication with an emphasis on optical cables (fiber to the antenna [FTTA]), automotive cables and harnesses, and military cables. In addition, LS Cable & System provides engineering services, installation and commissioning of HV and EHV landlines as well as turnkey submarine cabling project execution. LS Cable & System also owns the magnet wire and data cable manufacturer Superior Essex.

1.1.1.7 Leoni AG

Leoni AG, based in Nuremberg, Germany, is a cable and harness manufacturing company. In 2018, sales amounted to €5.1 billion. Leoni AG has 44 manufacturing plants in 31 countries, not just for cable manufacturing but also for automotive cable and wire solutions. It employs 92 549 people (2018). The company supplies all types of cables: power (energy, infrastructure, solar, and software), telecom (fiber optic cables), industrial (instrument cables, hybrid cables, thermocouple cables, LV/MV cables, bus cables, and flexible control electronic cables), automotive cables, rolling stock, maritime, bus, coaxial cables, and special cables (hybrid, sensor cables). As with most big players, Leoni AG also offers wire products and solutions, wiring systems, and related services.

1.1.1.8 Hengtong Group

Hengtong Group is a power and fiber-optic cable manufacturer and the first Chinese company entering the top 10 global cable manufacturers by revenue. It manufactures industrial wire and cable. Hengtong Group Co., Ltd. was founded in 1991 and is based in Jiangsu, China. The group possesses 50 wholly owned companies and holding companies. In 2017, sales amounted to US$ 3.86 billion.5

Hengtong offers LV, MV, HV, and EHV cables, railway contact line, and optical ground wire products.

Hengtong Optic-Electric Co., Ltd. specializes in optical fiber and has announced a joint venture with Leoni to make single-mode fibers for telecommunications and data networks in Jena, Germany.

The polymeric material supply chain of the cable industry is versatile and includes both direct sales, distribution, and sales through compounders. Borealis leads polyolefin sales together with Dow DuPont, Ineos, ExxonMobil, LyondellBasell, and Repsol, while LG, Hanwha, Anwil, and Sabic are among the top suppliers of polyvinylchloride (PVC).

1.1.2 Global Demand

As mentioned earlier, cables are complex constructions that involve a conductor, typically copper or aluminum, and several layers of polymeric material for insulation and jacketing. They are produced by means of extrusion. More specifically, the conductor is covered by the insulation layer and then the individual coated wires are twisted together into a cable core. This is typically done using a twisting machine or by in-line SZ twisting. The resulting cable core and other construction elements are then jacketed together.

The process is similar for optical cables, but the core material is replaced by fiber. Two materials are used for optical fiber: plastic (mainly PMMA) and glass. They are utilized in different applications – plastic fibers are used for indoor, short-range consumer applications, while glass, which is more expensive, is used for longer range as well as medium range (multi-mode) telecommunications.

In 2017, the number one supplier of fiber-optic cable was Corning (USA); it led the industry and was followed by Yangtze Optical FC (China), and Furukawa (Japan). These three companies represented over 40% of market share.6

The main compounds used in cable insulation and jacketing are based on the resins below:

Polyvinylchloride

: PVC is a thermoplastic material that is made from two starting materials. Fifty-seven percent of its molecular weight is derived from salt and the rest derived from hydrocarbon feedstocks (ethylene from oil or natural gas). PVC can be combined with different kinds of additives such as plasticizers and fillers, making it a highly versatile polymer.

Polyethylene

(

PE

):

Low-density polyethylene

(

LDPE

) (

below 0.930 kg/m

3

): Conventional LDPE manufactured by a high pressure, high-temperature process. The material has a highly branched structure, the short branches disrupting the crystalline structure and giving a low-density material.

Linear low-density polyethylene

(

LLDPE

)

(

between 0.890 and 0.960 kg/m

3

): This is produced by a low-pressure process. The addition of various comonomers produces a material with short side branches.

Medium-density polyethylene

(

MDPE

) (

between 0.930 and 0.940 kg/m

3

): Comprises polyethylene manufactured by either high- or low-pressure processes, which has a density between 0.930 and 0.940 kg/m

3

.

HDPE

(

above 0.940 kg/m

3

): High-density polyethylene is manufactured by a low-pressure process and has few short branches and no long chain branches. Conventional LDPE has seen its market share decrease, largely because it has been replaced by linear low density (LLDPE) grades in LV power insulation and jacketing, as they can offer improved mechanical properties, increased melting temperature, far better stress crack resistance, and faster cross-linking, and are generally cheaper to produce.

Cross-linked polyethylene

: XLPE is produced by forming links between single PE molecules in both the crystalline and the amorphous phases of the polymer matrix. A three-dimensional network is formed as a result, improving a range of physical properties.

Ethylene vinyl acetate

(

EVA

): EVA, the copolymer of ethylene and vinyl acetate. The weight percent of vinyl acetate usually varies from 10% to 40% with the remainder being ethylene. EVA is a polymer that approaches elastomeric materials in softness and flexibility, yet can be processed like other thermoplastics.

Polypropylene

(

PP

): PP includes all homopolymers and PP-based copolymers.

Thermoplastic elastomer

(

TPE

): TPEs are mainly products with elastomeric properties, but capable of being processed like thermoplastic materials. TPEs included in this category include cable grade TPEs based on blends of different polymers such as EDPM/PP.

Rubber

: Includes all cable grade synthetic and natural vulcanized rubbers. In the cable industry, the two main rubbers (elastomers) used are cross-linked EPDM for insulation and cross-linked CPE for jacketing.

Other polymers such as

polyamide

(

PA

) and

polybutylene terephthalate

(

PBT

) and

thermoplastics polyurethane

s (

TPU

s) and fluoropolymers, such as FEP, PTFE, PFA, PVDF, MFA, and ETFE, are used in high-performance cables, mainly in automotive, aerospace, and military applications.

HFFR/LS0H: The products included in the low smoke zero halogen (LS0H) and halogen-free flame-retardant (HFFR) material sector are polymers based on polyolefins, often combined with EVAs, which have been compounded to give low levels of smoke in the event of a fire.

The total global tonnage of polymeric materials used in cable extrusion is expected to see an annual growth rate of 4.5% until 2023.

Low smoke zero halogen/halogen-free flame-retardant compound is expected to grow the fastest in the next four years. LS0H/HFFR consumption is being driven by increasing concerns over the effects that halogen released from cable materials may have in case of fire. Current technology of thermoplastic LS0H/HFFR compounds is mostly based on PE copolymers or a blend of LLDPE/EVA and filled with flame-retardant fillers such as alumina thrihydrate (ATH), magnesium hydroxide (MDH), and also synergists such as zinc borate, silica, and also organoclays. With the organoclays, nanocomposites are formed with a strong reduction in heat release and enhanced char formation.

Prime areas of application for cables with halogen-free compounds are public buildings and transportation infrastructure where a high degree of protection against fire and fire damage must be provided with the demand of low smoke generation. The trend started in Europe in the early 2000s but it has gained global momentum and is spreading across the rest of the world although at different rates. North America, for example, is lagging behind with HFFR accounting for less than 5% of its total demand while in Europe it represents over 15%. In addition, the demand for more material to be recycled is inciting producers to use more halogen-free additives that can be recycled. The Fraunhofer Institute for structural durability and system reliability LBF in Germany conducted a project between 2015 and 2018 to boost mechanical recycling of plastic containing halogen-free retardants in partnership with Forschungsgesellschaft Kunststoffe e.V. and PINFA (Figure 1.4, 1.5, 1.6).7

Figure 1.4 Polymeric material consumption in the Global Cable Industry, 2013.

Figure 1.5 Polymeric material consumption in the Global Cable Industry, 2019.

Polyvinylchloride compounds used in the cable industry are by far the slowest growing polymeric materials globally. Its 2019–2023 CAGR is just 1.1%. Despite being gradually replaced by other materials, PVC compounds remain the most used polymeric material in the global cable industry and in 2018 it accounted for 53% of overall tonnage. Legislation such as European CPR, fully implemented in July 2017, is encouraging other materials such as XLPE, PE, and HFFR compounds to replace PVC compounds.

Figure 1.6 Polymeric material consumption in the Global Cable Industry, 2023.

In 2018, PP compounds accounted for less than 1% of global polymeric material tonnage consumed for cable extrusion. While it has a solid, if not spectacular, 2019–2023 CAGR of 5.4%, this figure is somewhat more uncertain than for other materials. Cable industry stakeholders note that PP compounds, over the long run, could increasingly replace XLPE compounds for insulation, with the former being cheaper, easier to work with, and recyclable. The issue is that leading extruders have invested heavily in machines and an overall production process that makes use of XLPE compounds, and would have to invest heavily once more to shift to PP. Unless Prysmian (which drives the market of PP for insulation) introduces a new formulation to the market, XLPE will remain the most used insulation material for MV and HV cables in particular, at least over the medium term.

1.2 Asia and Australasia

1.2.1 Demand for Cable

The construction market in Asia and Australasia is predicted to grow at around 2.5% in 2019 (Figure 1.7).

The pace of growth is slowing down in China while the reverse is true for India. Several big transportation projects are in the pipeline, for example, the PAN Asia railway network linking China, Singapore, and all mainland Southeast Asian countries.

Global Construction 2030 (a global study of the construction and engineering industry published by Global Construction Perspectives and Oxford Economics) predicts that Southeast Asia’s construction market will exceed US$ 1.0 trillion by 2030.

Despite a slowdown in China, the 13th Five-Year Plan and Made in China 2025 are expected to boost cable demand growth going forward.

Figure 1.7 Construction investment in Asia and Australasia 2013–2022.

Figure 1.8 Evolution of automotive production in Asia and Australasia in 2014–2022.

According to voices in the industry, India’s construction sector will achieve a CAGR of 7–8% from 2019 to 2023, with 10–12% growth in infrastructure. In terms of power grid development, government targets state that India’s inter-regional transmission and distribution network capacity should increase from 86 GW in fiscal 2018 to 130 GW in fiscal 2023.

As for the automotive sector, declining car production in Japan will be offset by growth in automotive production in India. For the region, the annual growth rate for automotive production is expected to slow down to 2.6% between 2018 and 2022 (Figure 1.8). New car sales in Southeast Asian countries rose by 5% in 2017 but were predicted to experience a slowdown due to a looming tax hike in the Philippines (Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Act) and currency fluctuation.

1.2.2 Demand for Polymeric Material

Asia and Australasia accounted for almost 60% of global polymeric material demand related to cables production in 2018. Demand for polymeric material in the region is being driven by strong economic growth leading to robust construction and infrastructure investment. Southeast Asian nations have pledged US$ 323 billion on infrastructure developments over the next few years, and will be a particularly strong sub-region for growth. The ASEAN Smart City Network will support urbanization and will serve as a platform to share best practice and link cities with private investment and secure funding.

Asia and Australasia are the biggest consumers of polymeric materials for cable extrusion, and despite a slowdown in the last few years, they clearly outperform other regions in terms of growth.

China dominates global and regional demand for polymeric materials, representing 70% of the regional demand. While China’s Hengtong is one of the world’s 10 largest cable extruders by revenue, the country is nevertheless a highly fragmented market, with more than 6000 cable manufacturing sites. The top five companies are estimated to represent less than 15% of the total market.

Asia and Australasia’s top 10 cable producers by material demand are dominated by local players. The top five are Chinese-based companies, while South Korea and Japan only have one producer each in the ranking. Prysmian is the only European company in the top 10, ranking 9th.

Power cable production in Asia and Australasia will be primarily driven by major new urban and infrastructure developments across the region, necessitating power grid expansion.

Japan’s demand for polymeric material slowed down in 2018 due to decreased demand for power, telecommunication, and automotive cables. Cable demand is expected to barely increase over the forecast period.

However, in India, demand for polymeric material is expected to grow faster than any other country in Asia and Australasia until 2023.

Halogen-free flame-retardant compound is the fastest growing polymeric material in the region and is expected to carry on being so for the foreseeable future. XLPE is replacing PVC in the insulation of power cables and its use has been extended where there is a need for more heat resistance. It represents 14% of the tonnage, far behind PVC’s leading share of 54%.

1.3 Europe

1.3.1 Demand for Cables

In Europe, overall construction investment is predicted to grow in the low single digits over the next four years (Figure 1.7).

Superior investment forecasts related to civil engineering projects (road, rail, airport, and maritime) coupled with favorable structural trends are driving higher growth rates for transportation-related cables. While annual residential construction investment growth of just over 1% is behind overall growth expectations for power cables, the 2019–2023 CAGR for MV and HV cables of above 5% is being driven by renewables and power grid investment (Figure 1.9).

Figure 1.9 Construction investment in Europe in 2013–2023.

Figure 1.10 Evolution of automotive production in Europe in 2014–2022.

Automotive production growth is set to slow down in Europe over the next three years (Figure 1.8). Germany has been particularly hit by the threat of US tariffs on its cars as well as new EU rules on car emissions, particularly diesel. Production growth in the CIS region is predicted to be in the mid-single digits by 2022, a far stronger performance compared to 2014–2017, a period when Russia was experiencing significant economic difficulties (Figure 1.10).

1.3.2 Demand for Polymeric Materials

European cable production accounted for 16.3% of global polymeric material demand related to cables production in 2019.

Low smoke zero halogen/halogen-free flame-retardant compound is forecast to grow the fastest in Europe. Its consumption is planned to reach over 20% of the total polymeric material used in cable production in Europe by 2023.

Conversely, the share of PVC compounds is decreasing. It represents 39.5% of the market in 2019 down from over 48% in 2013 and it is expected to decrease to under 35% by 2023.

Ongoing concern over the effect that halogens released from cable materials have in the event of fire and approval of the CPR are driving the dynamics of LS0H/HFFR and PVC compounds in particular.

Countries such as Spain and Italy were early adopters of HFFR compounds in the early 2000s, followed by Scandinavia. Germany, France, and the United Kingdom were behind but are increasing their consumption.

Four countries (Russia, Italy, France, and Germany) have regional material demand market shares of above 10%. Italy is Prysmian territory, France is Nexans’, and Germany is the home of Leoni and NKT, which have a significant amount of their manufacturing sites there.

Power cable applications account for around two-thirds of European material demand. Telecom is around one-fifth, while transportation and appliances and industry are both just under 10%.

Prysmian, with its major acquisitions of Draka and more recently General Cable, is by far the largest source of material demand in Europe, accounting for almost 25% of the market.

France-based Nexans is almost three times smaller. Some of the big players in the region have their plants located in one country (Tele-Fonika, Romcab, etc.). Ongoing consolidation is helping to mitigate overcapacity and profitability issues; market concentration is increasing.

1.4 The Middle East and Africa

1.4.1 Demand for Cables

Civil engineering accounted for almost half of Middle East and Africa’s construction investment in 2018. Nonresidential and residential investments were of approximately equal size, accounting for around a quarter of investment each. Construction investment growth will be highly contingent on the price of oil for the next four years (Figure 1.11). Therefore it is difficult to predict growth.

As for the automotive sector, Africa manufactures around 1 million vehicles/yr. South Africa accounts for over half of this, with Morocco representing most of the remainder.

Except for Turkey and Iran, both of which manufacture over 1 million vehicles/yr, the Middle East has very little automotive production. Iran’s growth prospects have been severely curtailed by the reintroduction of American sanctions.

Growth prospects for 2018–2022 in both the Middle East and Africa are considerably weaker compared to 2014–2017 growth (Figure 1.12).

1.4.2 Demand for Polymeric Materials

Middle East and Africa’s cable production accounted for 9.8% of global polymeric material demand related to cables production in 2019.

Figure 1.11 Investment in construction in the Middle East and Africa in 2013–2023.

Figure 1.12 Evolution of automotive production in the Middle East and Africa in 2014–2022.

By polymeric material, for 2019–2023, the annual growth rates forecast for LS0H/HFFR and XLPE are highest. Market dynamics in North Africa are significantly influenced by Europe. It is becoming an ever more popular “near-sourcing” location for Europe, as is the case with Turkey, where demand growth for HFFR compound is forecast to be particularly strong.

Indeed, of the largest cable manufacturing countries in the Middle East, Turkey (8.3%) has by far the strongest growth rate forecast for polymeric material tonnage overall, followed by the UAE, while Saudi Arabia’s growth is notably lower (2.5%).

North African countries dominate Africa’s cable production, with South Africa and Nigeria being the main markets elsewhere. While cable plants themselves are ramping up production in North Africa to supply Europe directly, they are also feeding nearby manufacturers. For example, the region is home to a substantial automotive industry, which also exports heavily to Europe.

Middle East and Africa’s top 10 cable producers by material demand are dominated by local players. Two of the top three are Egypt-based companies, El Sewedy Cables and Energya Cables, while Saudi Arabia is the home of Riyadh Cables and Saudi Cables. The United Arab Emirates is the home of just one of the top 10, while Turkey has three manufacturers in the top 10.

Power cable production in the Middle East is primarily being driven by major new urban and commercial developments across the region. Numerous Gulf states are launching various long-term “Visions” to develop their economies, with the focus on diversifying away from hydrocarbons. The success of these plans remains highly contingent on the price of oil going forward.

1.5 North America

1.5.1 Demand for Cables

Residential investment accounted for almost 45% of North American construction investment in 2018. Nonresidential and civil engineering (road, rail, airport, and maritime) investments accounted for 30% and 25%, respectively. The ratio of investments between these three sub-segments does not change much over time (Figure 1.13).

As for the automotive industry, the United States is the largest vehicle manufacturer in the region, manufacturing over 11 million units in 2018. Mexico’s production is almost three times smaller with over 4 million vehicles in 2018. Canada accounts for just 12% of the regional market share, with the production of 2.1 million units in 2018, bringing regional production overall to 18 million units in 2018.

North America is forecast a compound annual growth rate of 0.22% between 2018 and 2022 (Figure 1.14